Telework, job autonomy and work-life equation: A model for understanding job embeddedness

Fuchs, Rosa María; Lopez-Jurado, Renato Article Telework, job autonomy and work-life equation: A model for understanding job embeddedness Contemporary Economics Provided in Cooperation with: VIZJA University, Warsaw Suggested Citation: Fuchs, Rosa María; Lopez-Jurado, Renato (2025) : Telework, job autonomy and work-life equation: A model for understanding job embeddedness, Contemporary Economics, ISSN 2300-8814, VIZJA University, Warsaw, Vol. 19, Iss. 3, pp. 290-311, https://doi.org/10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/330344 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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Telework has gained significant relevance in recent years; however, its effects on work-life balance remain unclear, particularly in the context of the evolving and complex nature of work environments in which telework conditions, such as job autonomy, vary. Employee retention poses a significant challenge to human resource management, and the factors that contribute to job embeddedness and its dimensions (links, fit, and sacrifice) are not yet fully understood. For these reasons, this study aims to examine how the extent of telework and job autonomy influence work-life balance and how, in turn, work-life balance affects links, fit, and sacrifice. A non-experimental quantitative design was utilized, with convenience sampling of 175 full-time workers (60.60% engaged in telework) from Lima, Peru, all of whom had at least 6 months of experience in their current positions. Data were collected between November 2022 and the first quarter of 2023 using a virtual survey administered via Google Forms. The results of the PLS-SEM analysis revealed that telework and job autonomy positively influenced work-life balance. Furthermore, work-life balance was found to be positively related to links, fit, and sacrifice. This research enhances the understanding of these relationships from the perspective of conservation of resources (COR) theory. Given these findings, we recommend promoting job autonomy regardless of work modality to enhance work-life balance. Moreover, organizations should invest in practices that support work-life balance to encourage employee retention. 1. Introduction1. Introduction Work–life balance has gained research attention owing to the blurring of boundaries between personal life and work caused by information technology (Rashmi & Kataria, 2022). This issue has become particularly relevant in the context of telework, a modality characterized by the use of information technology and has gained prominence due to the pandemic (OECD, 2021). This growing interest is further evidenced by the notable attention this topic received in academic journals between 2020 and 2022 (Aleem et al., 2023). Workers perceive that telework helps them save money and time and manage other aspects of their lives (Deloitte, 2022). However, this experience is inconsistent (Vleeshouwers et al., 2022). During the pandemic, telework was found to positively influence work-life balance (Tan et al., 2024), but it also had this impact to a lesser extent than before the pandemic (Tufă & Neguț, 2023) or showed no significant relationship (Al Riyami et al., 2023; Campo et al., 2021). Telework, Job Autonomy and Work-life Equation: A Model for Understanding Job Embeddedness ABSTRACT J220, J280, J630, M540. KEY WORDS: JEL Classification: telework, job autonomy, work-life balance, job embeddedness. Universidad del Pacífico, Lima, Perú Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Rosa María Fuchs, Universidad del Pacífico, Jr. Gral. Luis M. Sánchez Cerro N°2141, Urb. Fundo Oyague, Jesús María - Lima, Perú E-mail: F[email protected] Rosa María Fuchs and Renato Lopez-Jurado Primary submission: 02.02.2024 | Final acceptance: 08.03.2025 291 Rosa María Fuchs, Renato Lopez-Jurado 10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567DOI: CONTEMPORARY ECONOMICS Vol. 19 Issue 3 290-3112025 Therefore, it would be worthwhile to continue to investigate these relationships in a context in which the emergency health conditions and confinement of certain social sectors under which these studies were conducted (Blahopoulou et al., 2022) are no longer present. The analysis of working conditions benefits from understanding specific contexts as these shape how practices such as telework are adopted and implemented. For example, telework gained popularity in the United States during the oil crisis as a strategy for reducing employee commutes and energy consumption (Allen et al., 2015). More recently, pandemic lockdowns have compelled the global workforce to adopt telework. In Peru, where this study was conducted, the shift to telework was abrupt. Prior to the pandemic, fewer than 2,000 individuals were reported as teleworkers (Ministerio de Trabajo y Promoción del Empleo [MTPE], 2022), likely due to limited Internet access and a shortage of home-based computer equipment (Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática [INEI], 2021). Despite the post-pandemic increase, only 5% of Peruvian employees on electronic payrolls currently work remotely (MTPE, 2024). In contrast, teleworkers accounted for 23.8% of the workforce in the United States in 2023 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2025), while in 2022, telework incidence exceeded 40% in 13 regions of the European Union (Eurofound and European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2024). Given this contrasting context—likely due to the digital and productivity gaps present prior to the pandemic, which facilitated the adoption of digital technologies by various companies (Calvino et al., 2024)—it is valuable to examine the role of telework in Peru. Despite recent increases in remotework arrangements, telework has not yet become a widely established practice within the country. Telework is a product of technological development; however, evidence regarding its relationship with job quality, particularly in Latin America, remains mixed, highlighting the need to explore subjective characteristics related to well-being (Oviedo-Gil & Cala, 2023), such as work-life balance. The literature has documented that Internet use is associated with the permeability of the work and personal spheres in various ways (Nam, 2014). In this vein, there are inconsistencies in the literature on telework and work-life balance, which may be due to the lack of consensus in the operationalization of these constructs or the omission of critical variables in analyses, such as job conditions (e.g., Elbaz et al., 2023; Metselaar et al., 2023; Palumbo et al., 2022). Work-life balance has been measured from both a balance and a conflict perspective under the same label, which causes confusion in the literature. This underscores the need to use a measurement that aligns with the conceptual definition of worklife balance, which is distinct from the concept of work-family conflict (Casper et al., 2018). In addition, teleworking one day per week is not equivalent to teleworking five days per week. Research has demonstrated that telework is associated with higher levels of satisfaction, particularly when the weekly frequency is moderate, at which point the benefits become less pronounced (Golden & Veiga, 2005). Therefore, it is important to consider this dimension when measuring telework. Job characteristics either strengthen or mitigate the effects of this work modality (Wang et al., 2021). One such characteristic is job autonomy, which has been associated with favorable outcomes for workers, including work-life balance (Badri & Panatik, 2020; Haar & Brougham, 2020). The same effect has been found among teleworkers (Becker et al., 2022; Stankevičiūtė & Kunskaja, 2022). However, in the reviewed literature, the contributions of telework and job autonomy as independent variables on work-life balance have not been studied simultaneously, leaving it unclear which of the two factors is more important. Therefore, it is relevant to study the differentiated role of the extent of telework and job autonomy on work-life balance in the postpandemic context. Work-life balance is recognized as a significant priority for workers (Deloitte, 2024). A review article has highlighted the benefits of work-life balance, including increased family satisfaction, enhanced job performance, greater work commitment, and higher job satisfaction (Sirgy & Lee, 2018). Consequently, companies must address employees’ worklife balance to improve their quality of life and fos- www.ce.vizja.pl 292 Telework, Job Autonomy and Work-life Equation: A Model for Understanding Job Embeddedness This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. ter their capacity to excel both professionally and personally (Rathnaweera & Jayathilaka, 2021). In doing so, not only is individual well-being supported, but the economic and social development of nations is also encouraged (Tsaurkubule, 2014). This ability to adapt to the new demands and needs of workers as well as the challenges posed by the environment is particularly crucial in contexts marked by constant uncertainty, where companies must be prepared to implement changes to effectively retain their workforce. Job embeddedness is a recent approach for studying employee retention. Job embeddedness refers to the web of influences that keep a worker within an organization, and consists of three dimensions: links, fit, and sacrifice (Lee et al., 2014). Previous research has found that work-life balance is positively related to job embeddedness (Fuchs et al., 2021). However, further studies are needed to deepen our understanding of this relationship, particularly by exploring the antecedents of job embeddedness dimensions. Given that employee retention is a priority for human resources departments (Society for Human Resource Management, 2024), this study will be completed by relating work-life balance to each dimension of job embeddedness. In summary, the present study examines how the extent of telework and job autonomy influence work-life balance and how this balance affects the links, fit, and sacrifice dimensions of job embeddedness. Given that the variables in question can be conceptualized as resources, the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, which is widely used in the organizational field, was employed to explain their associations (Halbesleben et al., 2014). This study contributes to the existing literature in several ways. First, it responds to the call to study these variables in developing countries (Badri & Panatik, 2020; Halbesleben et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2021). Additionally, the study considers the extent of telework and job autonomy, recognizing that teleworkers are a heterogeneous group, to identify which of these two resources is most important for work-life balance in a post-pandemic context. Furthermore, we examine the effects of work-life balance on the three dimensions of job embeddedness rather than on the global construct, which will allow for more targeted actions taken by human resources managers. Finally, this study contributes to overcoming the historical separation between the literature on the work-life interface and job embeddedness by expanding the focus beyond a traditional conflict-centered perspective (Dechawatanapaisal, 2017; Ng & Feldman, 2012) and using the COR theory to explain the relationships between these constructs. 2. Literature Review2. Literature Review 2.1. Telework Telework is a labor arrangement in which employees partially or entirely replace their work at the central offices of their organization with work at home, using information technologies as technical tools and a means of communication with colleagues and other involved parties (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Generally, telework involves replacing the physical office, which can limit interactions owing to the physical and psychological distance it creates (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Consequently, not all jobs are suitable for telework, particularly those requiring specialized tools that necessitate in-person presence, such as in the medical field. Additionally, the boundaries between work and personal life tend to blur (Allen et al., 2015), as all activities occur within the same physical space. While telework is often perceived as beneficial by employees, reporting advantages such as increased flexibility in time management, savings on commuting, improved work-life balance, and reduced transportation costs (Ipsos, 2024), not all telework arrangements share the same characteristics. For example, Nakrošienė et al. (2019) identified a combination of factors that influence the telework experience, including the ability to work during one’s most productive hours, reduced communication time with colleagues, the option to work from home when unwell, supervisor trust and support, the possibility of caring for a family member, and the suitability of the working environment at home. Moreover, working from home once a month is different from doing so once a week or throughout the week; hence, the extent of telework is studied here, as it provides more 293 Rosa María Fuchs, Renato Lopez-Jurado 10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567DOI: CONTEMPORARY ECONOMICS Vol. 19 Issue 3 290-3112025 information in this research area (Athanasiadou & Theriou, 2021). All forms of flexible work, including telework, reduce turnover intention through the partial mediation of perceived autonomy (Onken-Menke et al., 2018). Moreover, a meta-analysis found that high-intensity telework is beneficial for reducing work-family conflict but counterproductive for relationships with colleagues (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). The frequency of telework is associated with positive effects on employee health (e.g., reduced depression, sedentary behavior, and alcohol abuse); however, no significant relationship has been found with stress (Henke et al., 2016). Conversely, Allen et al. (2015) found in their review that telework was negatively related to stress, although the effect was small. 2.2. Job Autonomy Hackman and Oldham (1975) defined job autonomy as “the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the employee in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out” (p. 162). This concept differs from the definition of autonomy in self-determination theory. According to this conceptual framework, autonomy is a basic psychological need through which a person experiences a subjective sense of psychological freedom and choice regardless of the conditions of the activity (Van Den Broeck et al., 2010). While these perspectives are related, in the present study, job autonomy is not only the subjective evaluation and internal experience of the worker but also their perception of the work conditions that reflect that state. Given its subjective nature, job autonomy is influenced by various contextual factors. For example, research on Chinese employees revealed a higher likelihood of autonomy in task execution but less autonomy in goal setting within organizations, whereas the opposite pattern was observed in British society (Jiang et al., 2023). Workers with high levels of job autonomy tend to experience lower burnout and greater work engagement (Becker et al., 2022; Sardeshmukh et al., 2012). Additionally, it has been extensively documented that job autonomy positively contributes to work-life balance, job satisfaction, and turnover intention (Badri & Panatik, 2020; Becker et al., 2022; Stankevičiūtė & Kunskaja, 2022; Wang et al., 2020). Moreover, job autonomy moderates the relationship between family demands and work-life balance, as this negative relationship is strengthened when employees experience low job autonomy (Haar et al., 2019). 2.3. Work-life Balance Work-life balance is defined as an individual's perception of their ability to adequately manage the roles they consider most important (Haar, 2013). This involves adopting an approach in which every individual needs support to achieve balance regardless of whether they have children, a partner, or other family responsibilities (Kossek et al., 2010; Perrigino et al., 2018). In this sense, work-life balance is conceived as a general assessment of the combinations between work and non-work roles without considering the direction of the impact of one domain on the other, whether positive or negative (Wayne et al., 2017). This definition is important because it surpasses the concept of balance from a conflict-based perspective, where only the negative influence of one domain on the other is studied, ignoring the positive aspects. A meta-analysis by Casper et al. (2018) found a larger effect size of worklife balance on job, family, and life satisfaction compared to work-life enrichment and work-life conflict, which strengthens the understanding of this construct as independent of its predecessors. Even with this clarification, some authors have used conceptualizations and measurement scales related to work-family conflict when referring to work-life balance, which creates confusion in the literature (Chang et al., 2010; Thilagavathy & Geetha, 2022). Greater work-life balance has been positively associated with job performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, life satisfaction, family performance and satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior (Haar & Brougham, 2020; Jamal et al., 2021; Pradhan et al., 2016; Sirgy & Lee, 2018; Sturges, 2008; Susanto et al., 2022). On the other www.ce.vizja.pl 294 Telework, Job Autonomy and Work-life Equation: A Model for Understanding Job Embeddedness This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. hand, lower work-life balance has been linked to job burnout, absenteeism, higher turnover intention, psychological distress, emotional exhaustion, irritability, hostility, and relationship stress (Haar & Brougham, 2020; Sirgy & Lee, 2018; Sturges, 2008). An International Labour Organization (ILO, 2022) study on work-life balance around the world noted that a healthy work-life balance among employees is also beneficial for employers: companies benefit from the increased retention of current employees, improved recruitment, lower rates of absenteeism, and higher productivity. 2.4. Job Embeddedness Job embeddedness is a network of influences within an organization that retains workers in their current employment (Lee et al., 2014; Mitchell et al., 2001). Specifically, in the theory, these numerous influences are grouped under the following dimensions: links, fit, and sacrifice. Links describe the formal and informal connections that employees have with colleagues, supervisors, and workgroups (Mitchell et al., 2001). Fit is the perception of compatibility among the values, goals, skills, and personal preferences of the employee and the environment and culture of the organization (Mitchell et al., 2001). Conversely, sacrifice is an assessment of the loss of resources and benefits provided by a job (Mitchell et al., 2001). For example, leaving an organization may require an individual to sacrifice valuable connections, status, and influence within the workplace as well as important benefits such as health insurance coverage, career advancement opportunities, involvement in international projects, and paid travel experiences. Job embeddedness is negatively related to turnover intention (Setthakorn et al. 2024). This relationship is mediated by organizational affective commitment and work engagement (Ampofo & Karatepe, 2022). Job embeddedness has also been associated with innovative work behavior, job crafting, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and work engagement (Bhowmik et al., 2023; Chang et al., 2019; Susomrith & Amankwaa, 2020; Zhang et al., 2021). There have been attempts to study work-life interface constructs and job embeddedness; however, these efforts have primarily focused on the construct of work-family conflict. For example, a positive relationship between job embeddedness and work-family conflict has been found (Ng & Feldman, 2012). Similarly, mothers who experienced work-family conflict were more likely to suffer from emotional exhaustion, guilt, and hostility when they had high job embeddedness (Peltokorpi, 2022). However, these studies do not allow for conclusions regarding causality and do not mean that the relationship between the worklife interface and job embeddedness should be negative. Regarding the influence of work-life balance on job embeddedness as a global construct, a positive relationship between these two variables has been found (Dechawatanapaisal, 2017; Fuchs et al., 2021). 3. Theoretical Background3. Theoretical Background In accordance with the definitions presented by Sirgy and Lee (2018), work-life balance can be understood as an individual's assessment of the optimal allocation of resources in the roles they value most. Additionally, it can be considered an energy resource that enables the acquisition of new resources (Haar & Brougham, 2020). On the other hand, job embeddedness is a state that represents the resources provided by the organization, making it difficult for an individual to resign for fear of losing them (Kiazad et al., 2015). Consistent with this, various authors have used the COR theory to study the relationship between these constructs and other individual and organizational variables (e.g., Dechawatanapaisal, 2017; Rubenstein et al., 2020; Thakur & Bhatnagar, 2017). The COR theory posits that an individual’s motivation to undertake any action lies in the protection, retention, and acquisition of resources (Hobfoll et al. 2018). Hobfoll et al. (2018) described four principles of the COR theory. First, losing resources is disproportionately more significant than gaining them. Second, individuals invest resources to protect themselves from loss, recover, and gain resources. Third, in the context of losses, gaining resources becomes increasingly important. Fourth, people become aggressive and irrational when they 295 Rosa María Fuchs, Renato Lopez-Jurado 10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567DOI: CONTEMPORARY ECONOMICS Vol. 19 Issue 3 290-3112025 are faced with limited resources. Additionally, there are resources that are regularly found together with other resources (caravans), and there are contexts that facilitate their acquisition or preservation (Halbesleben et al., 2014). Finally, having a large number of resources protects against loss (Hobfoll et al., 2018), and losing resources generates stress that hinders the ability to cope adequately with demands, leading to a spiral of losses (Hobfoll, 1989). 3.1. Extent of Telework and Work-Life Balance From a COR perspective, telework can be conceptualized as a context that facilitates the acquisition of new resources (Metselaar et al., 2023). For example, teleworkers prefer this work modality because it enables them to save money, allocate more time to other aspects of their lives, and manage their mental health (Deloitte, 2022). In other words, it allows access to additional resources, such as time, and physical and emotional energy. In this context, if individuals have greater availability because they do not need to commute to their workplace, they will have more time to engage in the non-work roles that they value most. During the COVID-19 pandemic, telework was found to have a negative impact on employee well-being and work-life balance (Elbaz et al., 2023) and only exert a positive influence on work-life balance when teleworkers were satisfied with the modality (ErroGarcés et al., 2022; Ferreira & Gomes, 2023). However, the emergency context is no longer present as schools and entertainment venues have reopened, and there is greater acceptance of this modality among the population. This translates into greater support from colleagues, generating more resources for individuals to experience better work-life balance (Campo et al., 2021; Talukder, 2019). Pre-pandemic research found that the extent of telework is positively related to work-life balance (Maruyama et al., 2009; Metselaar et al., 2023). However, when work-life balance is conceptualized as work-family conflict, telework becomes an obstacle to workers' balance (Palumbo, 2020; Palumbo et al., 2022) or exerts no significant influence (Heiden et al., 2021). However, the conflict perspective overlooks the positive influence of one role on another. Additionally, there is now greater legal regulation of telework and increased acceptance of this modality among workers and employers in Latin America (Chávez, 2022). As a result, the effects of telework may have varied depending on the support culture for this modality within each company before the pandemic when telework was not as widespread. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H1. The extent of telework is positively related to work-life balance. 3.2. Job Autonomy and Work-Life Balance Job autonomy can be conceptualized as a conditional resource that enables individuals to prioritize their activities, decide when to execute them, and determine the best way to do so. This perception could make it easier to deal with work-related and non-work demands (Haar & Brougham, 2020). According to the COR theory, individuals invest resources to obtain more resources or protect themselves from loss, and those with a large number of resources can enter a spiral of gains (Hobfoll et al., 2018). In this sense, job autonomy can enhance an individual's perception of work-life balance and protect them from the loss of resources (i.e., experiencing significant worklife conflict). Job autonomy has been found to positively influence work-family enrichment (Badri & Panatik, 2020; Wang et al., 2020) and negatively affect work-family conflict (Badri & Patanik, 2020). Similarly, job autonomy has been found to exert a positive influence on workers' work-life balance (Haar & Brougham, 2020; Haar et al., 2019). During the pandemic, teleworkers experienced greater work-life balance as job autonomy increased (Stankevičiūtė & Kunskaja, 2022), particularly among those who preferred to integrate their roles rather than segment them (Becker et al., 2022). Job autonomy has also been recognized as a work resource, as individuals with low levels of autonomy felt more exhausted as the pandemic progressed (Meyer et al., 2021). Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H2. Job autonomy is positively related to work-life balance. 3.3. Work-Life Balance and Job Embeddedness Work-life balance is an energy resource, as individuals feel they can effectively deal with both work and non-work demands (Haar, 2013). This is evident in the greater time, physical energy, and emotional energy required to obtain additional www.ce.vizja.pl 296 Telework, Job Autonomy and Work-life Equation: A Model for Understanding Job Embeddedness This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. resources. Specifically, individuals who feel that they can adequately address all of the important areas of their lives have greater temporal resources and positive affectivity (Sirgy & Lee, 2018). These resources are managed in their organizations to achieve well-being and increase motivation (Haar et al., 2018). Therefore, employees with good worklife balance can invest more resources in building healthy relationships with their colleagues as well as in networking within the organization for instrumental purposes. It has been found that supervisory family support is positively related to the quality of leader-member exchange (Bagger & Li, 2014). On the other hand, employees who perceive their organization as a center that promotes their well-being share more ideas with others (Ng & Feldman, 2010). Hence, we propose the following hypothesis: H3. Work-life balance is positively related to the dimension of links. Furthermore, work-life balance reflects an individual's satisfaction with how they manage their work and non-work roles (Haar, 2013). A higher level of work-life balance correlates with improved performance in both the work and family domains (Susanto et al., 2022; Wayne et al., 2017). This balance enables employees to preserve and accumulate resources. When employees perform well, they perceive that their skills align with organizational needs, which explains why organizational practices that support work-life balance are positively associated with a better fit between employees and their jobs (Kakar et al., 2021). Moreover, job satisfaction increases (Susanto et al., 2022), fostering a sense that a company’s values align with one’s own. This perception of alignment can even influence individuals before they join a company, as the belief that organizational rewards fulfill their needs can increase their intention to pursue a career in that field (Bednarska, 2016). Additionally, when workers can allocate energy and time to engage in activities that require technical skills, they are more likely to continue learning and collaborating with the organization’s objectives, further strengthening their fit (Kiazad et al., 2015). Therefore, the following is conceivable: H4. Work-life balance positively influences the dimension of fit. Figure 1 Research Model 297 Rosa María Fuchs, Renato Lopez-Jurado 10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567DOI: CONTEMPORARY ECONOMICS Vol. 19 Issue 3 290-3112025 Finally, individuals tend to protect their resources from threats because the loss of resources is disproportionately more important (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Therefore, the more resources an employee has, the higher the perceived cost of leaving their current position. Individuals with work-life balance experience higher family satisfaction, job satisfaction, family performance, and parental satisfaction as well as lower cognitive problems and emotional distress (Sirgy & Lee, 2018). In other words, these positive consequences represent a reserve of resources that the worker values highly and does not want to lose (Kiazad et al., 2015). These resources allow them to continue generating new resources and create a spiral of gains (Hobfoll, 1989), which is a strong motivational factor. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: H5. The relationship between work-life balance and sacrifice is positive. Figure 1 illustrates the model under investigation, highlighting the hypotheses formulated for the analysis. In summary, it is anticipated that the extent of telework and job autonomy will act as resources, positively influencing work-life balance. Furthermore, work-life balance is expected to serve as a resource that enhances the three key dimensions of job embeddedness: links, fit, and sacrifice. Specifically, it is hypothesized that worklife balance is positively related to each of these dimensions, thereby fostering greater overall job embeddedness. 4. Methodology4. Methodology 4.1. Participants and Procedure The sample comprised 214 full-time workers (40 hours or more per week) from Lima, each with at least six months of experience in their current position. This duration was deemed sufficient for the workers to settle in with the company and adapt to their positions. Additionally, by focusing on fulltime employees, we aimed to homogenize the specific characteristics of this work modality compared to others. The participants completed a virtual survey via Google Forms between November 2022 and the first quarter of 2023. Recruitment efforts involved collaboration with MBA students for questionnaire distribution, reaching out to the Peruvian Human Resources Association, and utilization of an alumni and company database from a private Peruvian university. We employed convenience and snowball sampling methods, in line with prior research (e.g., Thakur & Bhatnagar, 2017). A pilot study was conducted to ensure the readability and comprehension of the items. Two control questions were included (e.g., "If you are reading this sentence, select the option 'Strongly disagree'"). Participants who answered at least one of these questions incorrectly were excluded (39 cases), ensuring that the remaining responses were from those who carefully read the questions. It is important to note that this exclusion did not result in significant differences in the variables of interest. To mitigate common method bias, the questionnaire design and presentation followed Podsakoff et al.’s (2012) guidelines. The scales were presented in a different order than the theoretical proposal, preventing participants from inferring the study hypotheses and adjusting their responses accordingly. The order of the items was randomized. To reduce social desirability bias, it was emphasized that the survey was voluntary and anonymous and that there were no right or wrong answers. The final sample consisted of 175 workers with a mean age of 43.23 years (SD = 12.32). Regarding telework, 60.6% of participants engaged in this modality. Of the total participants, 93.1% worked in the private sector and 6.9% in the public sector. A total of 81.7% had a 5-day workweek, while 17.1% worked for 6 days. Participants had been in their current positions for an average of 5.17 years (SD = 5.86) and within their organizations for 9.79 years (SD = 9.9). They had 24.59 months of teleworking experience (SD = 23.03). Table 1 provides the detailed sociodemographic characteristics of the sample. 4.2. Measurement Extent of telework. The extent of telework was calculated by dividing the number of days the worker worked from home per week by the number of days in their workweek, multiplied by 100%. Metselaar et al. (2023) employed a similar relative measure to calculate the percentage of hours worked from home www.ce.vizja.pl 304 Telework, Job Autonomy and Work-life Equation: A Model for Understanding Job Embeddedness This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. important resource for sacrifice and fit than for links. Finally, our study employed the COR theory to analyze the relationships between these constructs, a framework that, as shown by our results, has been empirically supported. 6.2. Practical Contributions On a practical level, given the necessity for business leaders to retain their workforce and respond to employees' demands, we recommend that human resource professionals promote telework within companies because of its positive association with work-life balance. When employees feel that they can effectively balance their multiple roles, they are likely to demonstrate higher performance and contribute to other positive outcomes for the organization (Sirgy & Lee, 2018). However, it is crucial that telework remains voluntary as it allows employees to select the modality that best suits their circumstances (Kaltiainen & Hakanen, 2024). If teleworking becomes mandatory, it may cease to be beneficial, particularly if an individual’s circumstances are not conducive to this arrangement. Instead of serving to generate additional resources, it can create a context that leads to resource depletion. Furthermore, it is essential to implement support programs to assist with adaptation to telework. Research indicates that those with prior telework experience who also enjoy flexibility derive the greatest benefits from this modality (Carlson et al., 2024). Additionally, it is advisable to promote job autonomy regardless of work modality. Pensar and Rousi (2023) suggested that job autonomy empowers employees to make decisions that best serve their interests, such as organizing their schedules to allocate time for household activities or promoting well-being (Metselaar et al., 2023). Finally, there is a strong case for investing in work-life balance practices to enhance job embeddedness, particularly in terms of perceived sacrifice. Thakur and Bhatnagar (2017) found that initiatives such as telework, flexible hours, parental leave, and childcare assistance positively affect job embeddedness. In addition, rather than focusing on extrinsic motivators, companies should aim to strengthen resources such as job design that enable workers to fully realize their potential, thereby increasing their desire to remain with the organization (Dechawatanapaisal, 2017). 7. Conclusions7. Conclusions This research contributes to the integration of two important research areas: work-life balance and job embeddedness. It considers the role of different work modalities, specifically in-person work and telework, given that telework was measured as the extent of teleworking, ranging from 0% to 100% of the workweek. This study also explores the influence of job autonomy in a Latin American sample from a developing country. The study highlights the positive relationship of telework, job autonomy, and work-life balance, suggesting that employees who have the flexibility to work remotely and more control over their jobs experience a better balance between their professional and personal lives. Additionally, it examines how work-life balance impacts various dimensions of job embeddedness. One surprising result is that job autonomy appears to be more important than the work modality itself in terms of work-life balance. In this sense, it is expected that these findings will deepen our understanding of these variables through the lens of the COR theory. The results may provide valuable insight for organizations aiming to improve employee retention and overall working experience by enhancing work-life balance, implementing flexible working arrangements, and designing job environments that promote job autonomy. 8. Limitations8. Limitations The present study had three limitations. First, the number of participants and non-random sampling method necessitate caution when generalizing the findings. For example, the sample predominantly consisted of highly educated individuals, which may not represent the broader Peruvian population. Nevertheless, beyond the relationship between telework and work-life balance, where the effects of telework may vary depending on its implementation and the type of job that could be related to educational attainment, there is no compelling reason to expect significant differences in the other relationships identified. These are grounded in theoretical considerations regarding the influence of specific resources, such as job autonomy and work-life balance, which are robust on their own. 305 Rosa María Fuchs, Renato Lopez-Jurado 10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567DOI: CONTEMPORARY ECONOMICS Vol. 19 Issue 3 290-3112025 Although the data were collected from various sectors, the sample exhibited a slight bias toward the educational sector and large enterprises, which should be considered when generalizing the results to other industries or types of organizations. For example, in small companies with less developed human resource departments, telework might exert a different effect on work-life balance. Similarly, in other sectors with highly interdependent tasks, the benefits of telework may not be as favorable as those of job autonomy. Second, the cross-sectional design of the study limited the ability to establish causal relationships. For example, individuals with a higher work-life balance may be more likely to choose telework or jobs with greater job autonomy. It is also plausible that individuals with strong job embeddedness might experience better work-life balance. Finally, despite adhering to the recommendations of Podsakoff et al. (2012) to mitigate common method variance, the data were not collected from multiple sources or at different time points. 9. Limitations9. Limitations While this study was conducted in a developing country, it is essential to replicate it in other countries with broader and more diverse samples, including countries operating under different telework regulations, to determine whether the relationships identified here hold across various contexts. Furthermore, it would be valuable to investigate whether the role of job autonomy remains consistent across other labor sectors and work modalities, such as part-time work. Future research should examine the role of in-person work, even when telework options are available. For example, Koh et al. (2013) found that workers who voluntarily chose to work in person reported higher levels of work-life balance compared to those who lacked the option to choose their work modality. Moreover, future research could explore why telework demonstrated limited predictive power compared to job autonomy in this study. One hypothesis is that telework may enable individuals to take on additional jobs rather than optimizing their time for better organization and balance. In addition, researchers could explore additional workplace resources that influence work-life balance to assess whether specific job conditions and personal variables (e.g., supervisor support, preference for telecommuting, multitasking capacity, and family dynamics) mitigate or enhance the advantages of telework. Investigating such dynamics could provide a deeper understanding of how work modalities interact with personal and organizational factors to shape work-life balance. Another promising direction would be to study contextual variables, such as the impact of commute time on the relationship between telework and work-life balance. Telework may offer significant benefits to those with long commutes or heavy traffic, whereas individuals living closer to their workplaces may not experience the same advantages. Finally, it would be insightful to examine other antecedents of job embeddedness dimensions as well as the contextual factors influencing these constructs. Additionally, longitudinal studies could be conducted to test the cyclical hypothesis of the relationship between work-life balance and job embeddedness. ReferencesReferences Al Riyami, S., Razzak, M. R., Al-Busaidi, A. S., & Palalic, R. (2023). 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