Telework, job autonomy and work-life equation: A model for understanding job embeddedness

Fuchs, Rosa Ma ía; Lopez-Ju ado, Rena o
A icle
Telewo k, job au onomy and wo k-li e equa ion: A model
o unde s anding job embeddedness
Con empo a y Economics
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
VIZJA Uni e si y, Wa saw
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Fuchs, Rosa Ma ía; Lopez-Ju ado, Rena o (2025) : Telewo k, job au onomy and
wo k-li e equa ion: A model o unde s anding job embeddedness, Con empo a y Economics, ISSN
2300-8814, VIZJA Uni e si y, Wa saw, Vol. 19, Iss. 3, pp. 290-311,
h ps://doi.o g/10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/330344
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Telewo k has gained signi ican ele ance in ecen yea s; howe e , i s e ec s on wo k-li e balance emain un-
clea , pa icula ly in he con ex o he e ol ing and complex na u e o wo k en i onmen s in which elewo k
condi ions, such as job au onomy, a y. Employee e en ion poses a signi ican challenge o human esou ce
managemen , and he ac o s ha con ibu e o job embeddedness and i s dimensions (links, i , and sac i ice)
a e no ye ully unde s ood. Fo hese easons, his s udy aims o examine how he ex en o elewo k and
job au onomy in luence wo k-li e balance and how, in u n, wo k-li e balance a ec s links, i , and sac i ice.
A non-expe imen al quan i a i e design was u ilized, wi h con enience sampling o 175 ull- ime wo ke s
(60.60% engaged in elewo k) om Lima, Pe u, all o whom had a leas 6 mon hs o expe ience in hei cu en
posi ions. Da a we e collec ed be ween No embe 2022 and he i s qua e o 2023 using a i ual su ey
adminis e ed ia Google Fo ms. The esul s o he PLS-SEM analysis e ealed ha elewo k and job au onomy
posi i ely in luenced wo k-li e balance. Fu he mo e, wo k-li e balance was ound o be posi i ely ela ed o
links, i , and sac i ice. This esea ch enhances he unde s anding o hese ela ionships om he pe spec i e
o conse a ion o esou ces (COR) heo y. Gi en hese indings, we ecommend p omo ing job au onomy
ega dless o wo k modali y o enhance wo k-li e balance. Mo eo e , o ganiza ions should in es in p ac ices
ha suppo wo k-li e balance o encou age employee e en ion.
1. In oduc ion1. In oduc ion
Wo k–li e balance has gained esea ch a en-
ion owing o he blu ing o bounda ies be ween
pe sonal li e and wo k caused by in o ma ion ech-
nology (Rashmi & Ka a ia, 2022). This issue has
become pa icula ly ele an in he con ex o ele-
wo k, a modali y cha ac e ized by he use o in o -
ma ion echnology and has gained p ominence due
o he pandemic (OECD, 2021). This g owing in e -
es is u he e idenced by he no able a en ion his
opic ecei ed in academic jou nals be ween 2020
and 2022 (Aleem e al., 2023). Wo ke s pe cei e
ha elewo k helps hem sa e money and ime and
manage o he aspec s o hei li es (Deloi e, 2022).
Howe e , his expe ience is inconsis en (Vleeshou-
we s e al., 2022). Du ing he pandemic, elewo k
was ound o posi i ely in luence wo k-li e bal-
ance (Tan e al., 2024), bu i also had his impac
o a lesse ex en han be o e he pandemic (Tu ă
& Neguț, 2023) o showed no signi ican ela ion-
ship (Al Riyami e al., 2023; Campo e al., 2021).
Telewo k, Job Au onomy and Wo k-li e Equa ion: A
Model o Unde s anding Job Embeddedness
ABSTRACT
J220, J280, J630, M540.
KEY WORDS:
JEL Classi ica ion:
elewo k, job au onomy, wo k-li e balance, job embeddedness.
Uni e sidad del Pací ico, Lima, Pe ú
Co espondence conce ning his a icle should be add essed o
Rosa Ma ía Fuchs, Uni e sidad del Pací ico, J . G al. Luis M. Sán-
chez Ce o N°2141, U b. Fundo Oyague, Jesús Ma ía - Lima, Pe ú
E-mail: F[email p o ec ed]
Rosa Ma ía Fuchs and Rena o Lopez-Ju ado
P ima y submission: 02.02.2024 | Final accep ance: 08.03.2025
291
Rosa Ma ía Fuchs, Rena o Lopez-Ju ado
10.5709/ce.1897-9254.567DOI: CONTEMPORARY ECONOMICS
Vol. 19 Issue 3 290-3112025
The e o e, i would be wo hwhile o con inue o
in es iga e hese ela ionships in a con ex in which
he eme gency heal h condi ions and con inemen
o ce ain social sec o s unde which hese s udies
we e conduc ed (Blahopoulou e al., 2022) a e no
longe p esen .
The analysis o wo king condi ions bene i s om
unde s anding speci ic con ex s as hese shape how
p ac ices such as elewo k a e adop ed and imple-
men ed. Fo example, elewo k gained popula i y
in he Uni ed S a es du ing he oil c isis as a s a -
egy o educing employee commu es and ene gy
consump ion (Allen e al., 2015). Mo e ecen ly,
pandemic lockdowns ha e compelled he global
wo k o ce o adop elewo k.
In Pe u, whe e his s udy was conduc ed, he
shi o elewo k was ab up . P io o he pandemic,
ewe han 2,000 indi iduals we e epo ed as ele-
wo ke s (Minis e io de T abajo y P omoción del
Empleo [MTPE], 2022), likely due o limi ed In-
e ne access and a sho age o home-based com-
pu e equipmen (Ins i u o Nacional de Es adís ica
e In o má ica [INEI], 2021). Despi e he pos -pan-
demic inc ease, only 5% o Pe u ian employees
on elec onic pay olls cu en ly wo k emo ely
(MTPE, 2024). In con as , elewo ke s accoun ed
o 23.8% o he wo k o ce in he Uni ed S a es in
2023 (U.S. Bu eau o Labo S a is ics, 2025), while
in 2022, elewo k incidence exceeded 40% in 13 e-
gions o he Eu opean Union (Eu o ound and Eu-
opean Commission Join Resea ch Cen e, 2024).
Gi en his con as ing con ex —likely due o he
digi al and p oduc i i y gaps p esen p io o he
pandemic, which acili a ed he adop ion o digi al
echnologies by a ious companies (Cal ino e al.,
2024)—i is aluable o examine he ole o ele-
wo k in Pe u. Despi e ecen inc eases in emo e-
wo k a angemen s, elewo k has no ye become a
widely es ablished p ac ice wi hin he coun y.
Telewo k is a p oduc o echnological de elop-
men ; howe e , e idence ega ding i s ela ionship
wi h job quali y, pa icula ly in La in Ame ica, e-
mains mixed, highligh ing he need o explo e sub-
jec i e cha ac e is ics ela ed o well-being (O ie-
do-Gil & Cala, 2023), such as wo k-li e balance.
The li e a u e has documen ed ha In e ne use is
associa ed wi h he pe meabili y o he wo k and
pe sonal sphe es in a ious ways (Nam, 2014). In
his ein, he e a e inconsis encies in he li e a u e
on elewo k and wo k-li e balance, which may be
due o he lack o consensus in he ope a ionaliza-
ion o hese cons uc s o he omission o c i ical
a iables in analyses, such as job condi ions (e.g.,
Elbaz e al., 2023; Me selaa e al., 2023; Palumbo
e al., 2022).
Wo k-li e balance has been measu ed om bo h
a balance and a con lic pe spec i e unde he same
label, which causes con usion in he li e a u e.
This unde sco es he need o use a measu emen
ha aligns wi h he concep ual de ini ion o wo k-
li e balance, which is dis inc om he concep o
wo k- amily con lic (Caspe e al., 2018). In addi-
ion, elewo king one day pe week is no equi a-
len o elewo king i e days pe week. Resea ch
has demons a ed ha elewo k is associa ed wi h
highe le els o sa is ac ion, pa icula ly when he
weekly equency is mode a e, a which poin he
bene i s become less p onounced (Golden & Veiga,
2005). The e o e, i is impo an o conside his di-
mension when measu ing elewo k.
Job cha ac e is ics ei he s eng hen o mi iga e
he e ec s o his wo k modali y (Wang e al., 2021).
One such cha ac e is ic is job au onomy, which has
been associa ed wi h a o able ou comes o wo k-
e s, including wo k-li e balance (Bad i & Pana ik,
2020; Haa & B ougham, 2020). The same e ec has
been ound among elewo ke s (Becke e al., 2022;
S anke ičiū ė & Kunskaja, 2022). Howe e , in he
e iewed li e a u e, he con ibu ions o elewo k
and job au onomy as independen a iables on
wo k-li e balance ha e no been s udied simul ane-
ously, lea ing i unclea which o he wo ac o s is
mo e impo an . The e o e, i is ele an o s udy
he di e en ia ed ole o he ex en o elewo k and
job au onomy on wo k-li e balance in he pos -
pandemic con ex .
Wo k-li e balance is ecognized as a signi ican
p io i y o wo ke s (Deloi e, 2024). A e iew a i-
cle has highligh ed he bene i s o wo k-li e balance,
including inc eased amily sa is ac ion, enhanced
job pe o mance, g ea e wo k commi men , and
highe job sa is ac ion (Si gy & Lee, 2018). Conse-
quen ly, companies mus add ess employees’ wo k-
li e balance o imp o e hei quali y o li e and os-
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e hei capaci y o excel bo h p o essionally and
pe sonally (Ra hnawee a & Jaya hilaka, 2021). In
doing so, no only is indi idual well-being suppo -
ed, bu he economic and social de elopmen o na-
ions is also encou aged (Tsau kubule, 2014). This
abili y o adap o he new demands and needs o
wo ke s as well as he challenges posed by he en i-
onmen is pa icula ly c ucial in con ex s ma ked
by cons an unce ain y, whe e companies mus be
p epa ed o implemen changes o e ec i ely e ain
hei wo k o ce.
Job embeddedness is a ecen app oach o s udy-
ing employee e en ion. Job embeddedness e e s
o he web o in luences ha keep a wo ke wi hin
an o ganiza ion, and consis s o h ee dimensions:
links, i , and sac i ice (Lee e al., 2014). P e ious e-
sea ch has ound ha wo k-li e balance is posi i ely
ela ed o job embeddedness (Fuchs e al., 2021).
Howe e , u he s udies a e needed o deepen ou
unde s anding o his ela ionship, pa icula ly by
explo ing he an eceden s o job embeddedness di-
mensions. Gi en ha employee e en ion is a p io -
i y o human esou ces depa men s (Socie y o
Human Resou ce Managemen , 2024), his s udy
will be comple ed by ela ing wo k-li e balance o
each dimension o job embeddedness.
In summa y, he p esen s udy examines how
he ex en o elewo k and job au onomy in luence
wo k-li e balance and how his balance a ec s he
links, i , and sac i ice dimensions o job embed-
dedness. Gi en ha he a iables in ques ion can
be concep ualized as esou ces, he Conse a ion
o Resou ces (COR) heo y, which is widely used
in he o ganiza ional ield, was employed o explain
hei associa ions (Halbesleben e al., 2014).
This s udy con ibu es o he exis ing li e a u e in
se e al ways. Fi s , i esponds o he call o s udy
hese a iables in de eloping coun ies (Bad i &
Pana ik, 2020; Halbesleben e al., 2014; Wang e al.,
2021). Addi ionally, he s udy conside s he ex en
o elewo k and job au onomy, ecognizing ha
elewo ke s a e a he e ogeneous g oup, o iden i y
which o hese wo esou ces is mos impo an
o wo k-li e balance in a pos -pandemic con ex .
Fu he mo e, we examine he e ec s o wo k-li e
balance on he h ee dimensions o job embedded-
ness a he han on he global cons uc , which will
allow o mo e a ge ed ac ions aken by human e-
sou ces manage s. Finally, his s udy con ibu es o
o e coming he his o ical sepa a ion be ween he
li e a u e on he wo k-li e in e ace and job embed-
dedness by expanding he ocus beyond a adi ion-
al con lic -cen e ed pe spec i e (Dechawa anapais-
al, 2017; Ng & Feldman, 2012) and using he COR
heo y o explain he ela ionships be ween hese
cons uc s.
2. Li e a u e Re iew2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Telewo k
Telewo k is a labo a angemen in which
employees pa ially o en i ely eplace hei wo k a
he cen al o ices o hei o ganiza ion wi h wo k a
home, using in o ma ion echnologies as echnical
ools and a means o communica ion wi h colleagues
and o he in ol ed pa ies (Gajend an & Ha ison,
2007). Gene ally, elewo k in ol es eplacing he
physical o ice, which can limi in e ac ions owing
o he physical and psychological dis ance i c ea es
(Gajend an & Ha ison, 2007). Consequen ly,
no all jobs a e sui able o elewo k, pa icula ly
hose equi ing specialized ools ha necessi a e
in-pe son p esence, such as in he medical ield.
Addi ionally, he bounda ies be ween wo k and
pe sonal li e end o blu (Allen e al., 2015), as all
ac i i ies occu wi hin he same physical space.
While elewo k is o en pe cei ed as bene icial
by employees, epo ing ad an ages such as
inc eased lexibili y in ime managemen , sa ings
on commu ing, imp o ed wo k-li e balance,
and educed anspo a ion cos s (Ipsos, 2024),
no all elewo k a angemen s sha e he same
cha ac e is ics. Fo example, Nak ošienė e al.
(2019) iden i ied a combina ion o ac o s ha
in luence he elewo k expe ience, including he
abili y o wo k du ing one’s mos p oduc i e hou s,
educed communica ion ime wi h colleagues, he
op ion o wo k om home when unwell, supe iso
us and suppo , he possibili y o ca ing o a
amily membe , and he sui abili y o he wo king
en i onmen a home. Mo eo e , wo king om
home once a mon h is di e en om doing so once
a week o h oughou he week; hence, he ex en
o elewo k is s udied he e, as i p o ides mo e
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Vol. 19 Issue 3 290-3112025
in o ma ion in his esea ch a ea (A hanasiadou &
The iou, 2021).
All o ms o lexible wo k, including elewo k,
educe u no e in en ion h ough he pa ial
media ion o pe cei ed au onomy (Onken-Menke
e al., 2018). Mo eo e , a me a-analysis ound ha
high-in ensi y elewo k is bene icial o educing
wo k- amily con lic bu coun e p oduc i e
o ela ionships wi h colleagues (Gajend an &
Ha ison, 2007). The equency o elewo k is
associa ed wi h posi i e e ec s on employee heal h
(e.g., educed dep ession, seden a y beha io , and
alcohol abuse); howe e , no signi ican ela ionship
has been ound wi h s ess (Henke e al., 2016).
Con e sely, Allen e al. (2015) ound in hei e iew
ha elewo k was nega i ely ela ed o s ess,
al hough he e ec was small.
2.2. Job Au onomy
Hackman and Oldham (1975) de ined job
au onomy as “ he deg ee o which he job p o ides
subs an ial eedom, independence, and disc e ion
o he employee in scheduling he wo k and in
de e mining he p ocedu es o be used in ca ying
i ou ” (p. 162). This concep di e s om he
de ini ion o au onomy in sel -de e mina ion
heo y. Acco ding o his concep ual amewo k,
au onomy is a basic psychological need h ough
which a pe son expe iences a subjec i e sense o
psychological eedom and choice ega dless o he
condi ions o he ac i i y (Van Den B oeck e al.,
2010).
While hese pe spec i es a e ela ed, in he
p esen s udy, job au onomy is no only he
subjec i e e alua ion and in e nal expe ience
o he wo ke bu also hei pe cep ion o he
wo k condi ions ha e lec ha s a e. Gi en i s
subjec i e na u e, job au onomy is in luenced by
a ious con ex ual ac o s. Fo example, esea ch
on Chinese employees e ealed a highe likelihood
o au onomy in ask execu ion bu less au onomy
in goal se ing wi hin o ganiza ions, whe eas he
opposi e pa e n was obse ed in B i ish socie y
(Jiang e al., 2023).
Wo ke s wi h high le els o job au onomy end
o expe ience lowe bu nou and g ea e wo k
engagemen (Becke e al., 2022; Sa deshmukh
e al., 2012). Addi ionally, i has been ex ensi ely
documen ed ha job au onomy posi i ely
con ibu es o wo k-li e balance, job sa is ac ion,
and u no e in en ion (Bad i & Pana ik, 2020;
Becke e al., 2022; S anke ičiū ė & Kunskaja,
2022; Wang e al., 2020). Mo eo e , job au onomy
mode a es he ela ionship be ween amily demands
and wo k-li e balance, as his nega i e ela ionship
is s eng hened when employees expe ience low job
au onomy (Haa e al., 2019).
2.3. Wo k-li e Balance
Wo k-li e balance is de ined as an indi idual's
pe cep ion o hei abili y o adequa ely manage
he oles hey conside mos impo an (Haa ,
2013). This in ol es adop ing an app oach in which
e e y indi idual needs suppo o achie e balance
ega dless o whe he hey ha e child en, a pa ne ,
o o he amily esponsibili ies (Kossek e al., 2010;
Pe igino e al., 2018). In his sense, wo k-li e
balance is concei ed as a gene al assessmen o he
combina ions be ween wo k and non-wo k oles
wi hou conside ing he di ec ion o he impac
o one domain on he o he , whe he posi i e o
nega i e (Wayne e al., 2017).
This de ini ion is impo an because i su passes
he concep o balance om a con lic -based
pe spec i e, whe e only he nega i e in luence
o one domain on he o he is s udied, igno ing
he posi i e aspec s. A me a-analysis by Caspe
e al. (2018) ound a la ge e ec size o wo k-
li e balance on job, amily, and li e sa is ac ion
compa ed o wo k-li e en ichmen and wo k-li e
con lic , which s eng hens he unde s anding o
his cons uc as independen o i s p edecesso s.
E en wi h his cla i ica ion, some au ho s ha e used
concep ualiza ions and measu emen scales ela ed
o wo k- amily con lic when e e ing o wo k-li e
balance, which c ea es con usion in he li e a u e
(Chang e al., 2010; Thilaga a hy & Gee ha, 2022).
G ea e wo k-li e balance has been posi i ely
associa ed wi h job pe o mance, job sa is ac ion,
o ganiza ional commi men , li e sa is ac ion, amily
pe o mance and sa is ac ion, and o ganiza ional
ci izenship beha io (Haa & B ougham, 2020; Jamal
e al., 2021; P adhan e al., 2016; Si gy & Lee, 2018;
S u ges, 2008; Susan o e al., 2022). On he o he

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hand, lowe wo k-li e balance has been linked o job
bu nou , absen eeism, highe u no e in en ion,
psychological dis ess, emo ional exhaus ion,
i i abili y, hos ili y, and ela ionship s ess (Haa &
B ougham, 2020; Si gy & Lee, 2018; S u ges, 2008).
An In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO, 2022)
s udy on wo k-li e balance a ound he wo ld no ed
ha a heal hy wo k-li e balance among employees
is also bene icial o employe s: companies bene i
om he inc eased e en ion o cu en employees,
imp o ed ec ui men , lowe a es o absen eeism,
and highe p oduc i i y.
2.4. Job Embeddedness
Job embeddedness is a ne wo k o in luences
wi hin an o ganiza ion ha e ains wo ke s
in hei cu en employmen (Lee e al., 2014;
Mi chell e al., 2001). Speci ically, in he heo y,
hese nume ous in luences a e g ouped unde he
ollowing dimensions: links, i , and sac i ice. Links
desc ibe he o mal and in o mal connec ions
ha employees ha e wi h colleagues, supe iso s,
and wo kg oups (Mi chell e al., 2001). Fi is he
pe cep ion o compa ibili y among he alues,
goals, skills, and pe sonal p e e ences o he
employee and he en i onmen and cul u e o he
o ganiza ion (Mi chell e al., 2001). Con e sely,
sac i ice is an assessmen o he loss o esou ces
and bene i s p o ided by a job (Mi chell e al., 2001).
Fo example, lea ing an o ganiza ion may equi e
an indi idual o sac i ice aluable connec ions,
s a us, and in luence wi hin he wo kplace as well
as impo an bene i s such as heal h insu ance
co e age, ca ee ad ancemen oppo uni ies,
in ol emen in in e na ional p ojec s, and paid
a el expe iences.
Job embeddedness is nega i ely ela ed o
u no e in en ion (Se hako n e al. 2024). This
ela ionship is media ed by o ganiza ional a ec i e
commi men and wo k engagemen (Ampo o
& Ka a epe, 2022). Job embeddedness has also
been associa ed wi h inno a i e wo k beha io ,
job c a ing, job sa is ac ion, o ganiza ional
commi men , and wo k engagemen (Bhowmik
e al., 2023; Chang e al., 2019; Susom i h &
Amankwaa, 2020; Zhang e al., 2021).
The e ha e been a emp s o s udy wo k-li e
in e ace cons uc s and job embeddedness;
howe e , hese e o s ha e p ima ily ocused on
he cons uc o wo k- amily con lic . Fo example,
a posi i e ela ionship be ween job embeddedness
and wo k- amily con lic has been ound (Ng
& Feldman, 2012). Simila ly, mo he s who
expe ienced wo k- amily con lic we e mo e likely
o su e om emo ional exhaus ion, guil , and
hos ili y when hey had high job embeddedness
(Pel oko pi, 2022). Howe e , hese s udies do no
allow o conclusions ega ding causali y and do
no mean ha he ela ionship be ween he wo k-
li e in e ace and job embeddedness should be
nega i e. Rega ding he in luence o wo k-li e
balance on job embeddedness as a global cons uc ,
a posi i e ela ionship be ween hese wo a iables
has been ound (Dechawa anapaisal, 2017; Fuchs e
al., 2021).
3. Theo e ical Backg ound3. Theo e ical Backg ound
In acco dance wi h he de ini ions p esen ed
by Si gy and Lee (2018), wo k-li e balance can be
unde s ood as an indi idual's assessmen o he
op imal alloca ion o esou ces in he oles hey
alue mos . Addi ionally, i can be conside ed an
ene gy esou ce ha enables he acquisi ion o new
esou ces (Haa & B ougham, 2020). On he o he
hand, job embeddedness is a s a e ha ep esen s
he esou ces p o ided by he o ganiza ion, mak-
ing i di icul o an indi idual o esign o ea o
losing hem (Kiazad e al., 2015). Consis en wi h
his, a ious au ho s ha e used he COR heo y o
s udy he ela ionship be ween hese cons uc s
and o he indi idual and o ganiza ional a iables
(e.g., Dechawa anapaisal, 2017; Rubens ein e al.,
2020; Thaku & Bha naga , 2017).
The COR heo y posi s ha an indi idual’s mo-
i a ion o unde ake any ac ion lies in he p o ec-
ion, e en ion, and acquisi ion o esou ces (Hob-
oll e al. 2018). Hob oll e al. (2018) desc ibed
ou p inciples o he COR heo y. Fi s , losing e-
sou ces is disp opo iona ely mo e signi ican han
gaining hem. Second, indi iduals in es esou ces
o p o ec hemsel es om loss, eco e , and gain
esou ces. Thi d, in he con ex o losses, gaining
esou ces becomes inc easingly impo an . Fou h,
people become agg essi e and i a ional when hey
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a e aced wi h limi ed esou ces. Addi ionally, he e
a e esou ces ha a e egula ly ound oge he wi h
o he esou ces (ca a ans), and he e a e con ex s
ha acili a e hei acquisi ion o p ese a ion
(Halbesleben e al., 2014). Finally, ha ing a la ge
numbe o esou ces p o ec s agains loss (Hob oll
e al., 2018), and losing esou ces gene a es s ess
ha hinde s he abili y o cope adequa ely wi h de-
mands, leading o a spi al o losses (Hob oll, 1989).
3.1. Ex en o Telewo k and Wo k-Li e Balance
F om a COR pe spec i e, elewo k can be concep-
ualized as a con ex ha acili a es he acquisi ion o
new esou ces (Me selaa e al., 2023). Fo example,
elewo ke s p e e his wo k modali y because i enables
hem o sa e money, alloca e mo e ime o o he aspec s
o hei li es, and manage hei men al heal h (Deloi e,
2022). In o he wo ds, i allows access o addi ional
esou ces, such as ime, and physical and emo ional
ene gy. In his con ex , i indi iduals ha e g ea e a ail-
abili y because hey do no need o commu e o hei
wo kplace, hey will ha e mo e ime o engage in he
non-wo k oles ha hey alue mos .
Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, elewo k was
ound o ha e a nega i e impac on employee well-be-
ing and wo k-li e balance (Elbaz e al., 2023) and only
exe a posi i e in luence on wo k-li e balance when
elewo ke s we e sa is ied wi h he modali y (E o-
Ga cés e al., 2022; Fe ei a & Gomes, 2023). Howe e ,
he eme gency con ex is no longe p esen as schools
and en e ainmen enues ha e eopened, and he e is
g ea e accep ance o his modali y among he popu-
la ion. This ansla es in o g ea e suppo om col-
leagues, gene a ing mo e esou ces o indi iduals o
expe ience be e wo k-li e balance (Campo e al., 2021;
Talukde , 2019).
P e-pandemic esea ch ound ha he ex en o
elewo k is posi i ely ela ed o wo k-li e balance
(Ma uyama e al., 2009; Me selaa e al., 2023). How-
e e , when wo k-li e balance is concep ualized as
wo k- amily con lic , elewo k becomes an obs acle
o wo ke s' balance (Palumbo, 2020; Palumbo e al.,
2022) o exe s no signi ican in luence (Heiden e al.,
2021). Howe e , he con lic pe spec i e o e looks he
posi i e in luence o one ole on ano he . Addi ionally,
he e is now g ea e legal egula ion o elewo k and
inc eased accep ance o his modali y among wo ke s
and employe s in La in Ame ica (Chá ez, 2022). As a
esul , he e ec s o elewo k may ha e a ied depend-
ing on he suppo cul u e o his modali y wi hin each
company be o e he pandemic when elewo k was no
as widesp ead. The e o e, we p opose he ollowing hy-
po hesis:
H1. The ex en o elewo k is posi i ely ela ed o
wo k-li e balance.
3.2. Job Au onomy and Wo k-Li e Balance
Job au onomy can be concep ualized as a condi ional
esou ce ha enables indi iduals o p io i ize hei ac-
i i ies, decide when o execu e hem, and de e mine he
bes way o do so. This pe cep ion could make i easie o
deal wi h wo k- ela ed and non-wo k demands (Haa &
B ougham, 2020). Acco ding o he COR heo y, indi id-
uals in es esou ces o ob ain mo e esou ces o p o ec
hemsel es om loss, and hose wi h a la ge numbe o
esou ces can en e a spi al o gains (Hob oll e al., 2018).
In his sense, job au onomy can enhance an indi idual's
pe cep ion o wo k-li e balance and p o ec hem om
he loss o esou ces (i.e., expe iencing signi ican wo k-
li e con lic ).
Job au onomy has been ound o posi i ely in luence
wo k- amily en ichmen (Bad i & Pana ik, 2020; Wang
e al., 2020) and nega i ely a ec wo k- amily con lic
(Bad i & Pa anik, 2020). Simila ly, job au onomy has
been ound o exe a posi i e in luence on wo ke s'
wo k-li e balance (Haa & B ougham, 2020; Haa e al.,
2019). Du ing he pandemic, elewo ke s expe ienced
g ea e wo k-li e balance as job au onomy inc eased
(S anke ičiū ė & Kunskaja, 2022), pa icula ly among
hose who p e e ed o in eg a e hei oles a he han
segmen hem (Becke e al., 2022). Job au onomy has
also been ecognized as a wo k esou ce, as indi iduals
wi h low le els o au onomy el mo e exhaus ed as he
pandemic p og essed (Meye e al., 2021). The e o e, we
p opose he ollowing hypo hesis:
H2. Job au onomy is posi i ely ela ed o wo k-li e
balance.
3.3. Wo k-Li e Balance and Job Embeddedness
Wo k-li e balance is an ene gy esou ce, as in-
di iduals eel hey can e ec i ely deal wi h bo h
wo k and non-wo k demands (Haa , 2013). This
is e iden in he g ea e ime, physical ene gy, and
emo ional ene gy equi ed o ob ain addi ional
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esou ces. Speci ically, indi iduals who eel ha
hey can adequa ely add ess all o he impo an
a eas o hei li es ha e g ea e empo al esou ces
and posi i e a ec i i y (Si gy & Lee, 2018). These
esou ces a e managed in hei o ganiza ions o
achie e well-being and inc ease mo i a ion (Haa
e al., 2018). The e o e, employees wi h good wo k-
li e balance can in es mo e esou ces in building
heal hy ela ionships wi h hei colleagues as well
as in ne wo king wi hin he o ganiza ion o in-
s umen al pu poses. I has been ound ha su-
pe iso y amily suppo is posi i ely ela ed o he
quali y o leade -membe exchange (Bagge & Li,
2014). On he o he hand, employees who pe cei e
hei o ganiza ion as a cen e ha p omo es hei
well-being sha e mo e ideas wi h o he s (Ng &
Feldman, 2010). Hence, we p opose he ollowing
hypo hesis:
H3. Wo k-li e balance is posi i ely ela ed o he
dimension o links.
Fu he mo e, wo k-li e balance e lec s an in-
di idual's sa is ac ion wi h how hey manage hei
wo k and non-wo k oles (Haa , 2013). A highe
le el o wo k-li e balance co ela es wi h imp o ed
pe o mance in bo h he wo k and amily domains
(Susan o e al., 2022; Wayne e al., 2017). This bal-
ance enables employees o p ese e and accumu-
la e esou ces. When employees pe o m well, hey
pe cei e ha hei skills align wi h o ganiza ional
needs, which explains why o ganiza ional p ac ices
ha suppo wo k-li e balance a e posi i ely asso-
cia ed wi h a be e i be ween employees and hei
jobs (Kaka e al., 2021). Mo eo e , job sa is ac ion
inc eases (Susan o e al., 2022), os e ing a sense
ha a company’s alues align wi h one’s own. This
pe cep ion o alignmen can e en in luence indi-
iduals be o e hey join a company, as he belie
ha o ganiza ional ewa ds ul ill hei needs can
inc ease hei in en ion o pu sue a ca ee in ha
ield (Bedna ska, 2016). Addi ionally, when wo k-
e s can alloca e ene gy and ime o engage in ac-
i i ies ha equi e echnical skills, hey a e mo e
likely o con inue lea ning and collabo a ing wi h
he o ganiza ion’s objec i es, u he s eng hening
hei i (Kiazad e al., 2015). The e o e, he ollow-
ing is concei able:
H4. Wo k-li e balance posi i ely in luences he
dimension o i .
Figu e 1
Resea ch Model
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Finally, indi iduals end o p o ec hei e-
sou ces om h ea s because he loss o esou ces
is disp opo iona ely mo e impo an (Hob oll e
al., 2018). The e o e, he mo e esou ces an em-
ployee has, he highe he pe cei ed cos o lea ing
hei cu en posi ion. Indi iduals wi h wo k-li e
balance expe ience highe amily sa is ac ion, job
sa is ac ion, amily pe o mance, and pa en al sa -
is ac ion as well as lowe cogni i e p oblems and
emo ional dis ess (Si gy & Lee, 2018). In o he
wo ds, hese posi i e consequences ep esen a
ese e o esou ces ha he wo ke alues highly
and does no wan o lose (Kiazad e al., 2015).
These esou ces allow hem o con inue gene a ing
new esou ces and c ea e a spi al o gains (Hob oll,
1989), which is a s ong mo i a ional ac o . Thus,
we p opose he ollowing hypo hesis:
H5. The ela ionship be ween wo k-li e balance
and sac i ice is posi i e.
Figu e 1 illus a es he model unde in es iga-
ion, highligh ing he hypo heses o mula ed o
he analysis. In summa y, i is an icipa ed ha
he ex en o elewo k and job au onomy will ac
as esou ces, posi i ely in luencing wo k-li e bal-
ance. Fu he mo e, wo k-li e balance is expec ed
o se e as a esou ce ha enhances he h ee key
dimensions o job embeddedness: links, i , and
sac i ice. Speci ically, i is hypo hesized ha wo k-
li e balance is posi i ely ela ed o each o hese
dimensions, he eby os e ing g ea e o e all job
embeddedness.
4. Me hodology4. Me hodology
4.1. Pa icipan s and P ocedu e
The sample comp ised 214 ull- ime wo ke s (40
hou s o mo e pe week) om Lima, each wi h a
leas six mon hs o expe ience in hei cu en po-
si ion. This du a ion was deemed su icien o he
wo ke s o se le in wi h he company and adap o
hei posi ions. Addi ionally, by ocusing on ull-
ime employees, we aimed o homogenize he spe-
ci ic cha ac e is ics o his wo k modali y compa ed
o o he s. The pa icipan s comple ed a i ual su -
ey ia Google Fo ms be ween No embe 2022 and
he i s qua e o 2023. Rec ui men e o s in-
ol ed collabo a ion wi h MBA s uden s o ques-
ionnai e dis ibu ion, eaching ou o he Pe u ian
Human Resou ces Associa ion, and u iliza ion o
an alumni and company da abase om a p i a e
Pe u ian uni e si y. We employed con enience
and snowball sampling me hods, in line wi h p io
esea ch (e.g., Thaku & Bha naga , 2017). A pilo
s udy was conduc ed o ensu e he eadabili y and
comp ehension o he i ems.
Two con ol ques ions we e included (e.g., "I you
a e eading his sen ence, selec he op ion 'S ongly
disag ee'"). Pa icipan s who answe ed a leas one
o hese ques ions inco ec ly we e excluded (39
cases), ensu ing ha he emaining esponses we e
om hose who ca e ully ead he ques ions. I is
impo an o no e ha his exclusion did no esul
in signi ican di e ences in he a iables o in e es .
To mi iga e common me hod bias, he ques ion-
nai e design and p esen a ion ollowed Podsako
e al.’s (2012) guidelines. The scales we e p esen ed
in a di e en o de han he heo e ical p oposal,
p e en ing pa icipan s om in e ing he s udy
hypo heses and adjus ing hei esponses acco d-
ingly. The o de o he i ems was andomized. To
educe social desi abili y bias, i was emphasized
ha he su ey was olun a y and anonymous and
ha he e we e no igh o w ong answe s.
The inal sample consis ed o 175 wo ke s wi h
a mean age o 43.23 yea s (SD = 12.32). Rega ding
elewo k, 60.6% o pa icipan s engaged in his mo-
dali y. O he o al pa icipan s, 93.1% wo ked in
he p i a e sec o and 6.9% in he public sec o . A
o al o 81.7% had a 5-day wo kweek, while 17.1%
wo ked o 6 days. Pa icipan s had been in hei
cu en posi ions o an a e age o 5.17 yea s (SD =
5.86) and wi hin hei o ganiza ions o 9.79 yea s
(SD = 9.9). They had 24.59 mon hs o elewo k-
ing expe ience (SD = 23.03). Table 1 p o ides he
de ailed sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o he
sample.
4.2. Measu emen
Ex en o elewo k. The ex en o elewo k was cal-
cula ed by di iding he numbe o days he wo ke
wo ked om home pe week by he numbe o days
in hei wo kweek, mul iplied by 100%. Me selaa
e al. (2023) employed a simila ela i e measu e o
calcula e he pe cen age o hou s wo ked om home
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impo an esou ce o sac i ice and i han o
links. Finally, ou s udy employed he COR heo y
o analyze he ela ionships be ween hese con-
s uc s, a amewo k ha , as shown by ou esul s,
has been empi ically suppo ed.
6.2. P ac ical Con ibu ions
On a p ac ical le el, gi en he necessi y o busi-
ness leade s o e ain hei wo k o ce and espond
o employees' demands, we ecommend ha hu-
man esou ce p o essionals p omo e elewo k
wi hin companies because o i s posi i e associa-
ion wi h wo k-li e balance. When employees eel
ha hey can e ec i ely balance hei mul iple oles,
hey a e likely o demons a e highe pe o mance
and con ibu e o o he posi i e ou comes o he
o ganiza ion (Si gy & Lee, 2018). Howe e , i is
c ucial ha elewo k emains olun a y as i al-
lows employees o selec he modali y ha bes sui s
hei ci cums ances (Kal iainen & Hakanen, 2024).
I elewo king becomes manda o y, i may cease
o be bene icial, pa icula ly i an indi idual’s ci -
cums ances a e no conduci e o his a angemen .
Ins ead o se ing o gene a e addi ional esou ces,
i can c ea e a con ex ha leads o esou ce deple-
ion. Fu he mo e, i is essen ial o implemen sup-
po p og ams o assis wi h adap a ion o elewo k.
Resea ch indica es ha hose wi h p io elewo k
expe ience who also enjoy lexibili y de i e he
g ea es bene i s om his modali y (Ca lson e al.,
2024).
Addi ionally, i is ad isable o p omo e job au-
onomy ega dless o wo k modali y. Pensa and
Rousi (2023) sugges ed ha job au onomy empow-
e s employees o make decisions ha bes se e
hei in e es s, such as o ganizing hei schedules o
alloca e ime o household ac i i ies o p omo ing
well-being (Me selaa e al., 2023). Finally, he e is a
s ong case o in es ing in wo k-li e balance p ac-
ices o enhance job embeddedness, pa icula ly in
e ms o pe cei ed sac i ice. Thaku and Bha naga
(2017) ound ha ini ia i es such as elewo k, lex-
ible hou s, pa en al lea e, and childca e assis ance
posi i ely a ec job embeddedness. In addi ion,
a he han ocusing on ex insic mo i a o s, com-
panies should aim o s eng hen esou ces such as
job design ha enable wo ke s o ully ealize hei
po en ial, he eby inc easing hei desi e o emain
wi h he o ganiza ion (Dechawa anapaisal, 2017).
7. Conclusions7. Conclusions
This esea ch con ibu es o he in eg a ion o wo
impo an esea ch a eas: wo k-li e balance and job
embeddedness. I conside s he ole o di e en wo k
modali ies, speci ically in-pe son wo k and elewo k,
gi en ha elewo k was measu ed as he ex en o ele-
wo king, anging om 0% o 100% o he wo kweek.
This s udy also explo es he in luence o job au onomy
in a La in Ame ican sample om a de eloping coun-
y. The s udy highligh s he posi i e ela ionship o
elewo k, job au onomy, and wo k-li e balance, sug-
ges ing ha employees who ha e he lexibili y o wo k
emo ely and mo e con ol o e hei jobs expe ience a
be e balance be ween hei p o essional and pe sonal
li es. Addi ionally, i examines how wo k-li e balance
impac s a ious dimensions o job embeddedness.
One su p ising esul is ha job au onomy appea s
o be mo e impo an han he wo k modali y i sel in
e ms o wo k-li e balance. In his sense, i is expec ed
ha hese indings will deepen ou unde s anding o
hese a iables h ough he lens o he COR heo y.
The esul s may p o ide aluable insigh o o gani-
za ions aiming o imp o e employee e en ion and
o e all wo king expe ience by enhancing wo k-li e
balance, implemen ing lexible wo king a angemen s,
and designing job en i onmen s ha p omo e job au-
onomy.
8. Limi a ions8. Limi a ions
The p esen s udy had h ee limi a ions. Fi s , he
numbe o pa icipan s and non- andom sampling
me hod necessi a e cau ion when gene alizing he
indings. Fo example, he sample p edominan ly con-
sis ed o highly educa ed indi iduals, which may no
ep esen he b oade Pe u ian popula ion. Ne e he-
less, beyond he ela ionship be ween elewo k and
wo k-li e balance, whe e he e ec s o elewo k may
a y depending on i s implemen a ion and he ype
o job ha could be ela ed o educa ional a ainmen ,
he e is no compelling eason o expec signi ican di -
e ences in he o he ela ionships iden i ied. These a e
g ounded in heo e ical conside a ions ega ding he
in luence o speci ic esou ces, such as job au onomy
and wo k-li e balance, which a e obus on hei own.

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Al hough he da a we e collec ed om a ious
sec o s, he sample exhibi ed a sligh bias owa d he
educa ional sec o and la ge en e p ises, which should
be conside ed when gene alizing he esul s o o he
indus ies o ypes o o ganiza ions. Fo example, in
small companies wi h less de eloped human esou ce
depa men s, elewo k migh exe a di e en e ec
on wo k-li e balance. Simila ly, in o he sec o s wi h
highly in e dependen asks, he bene i s o elewo k
may no be as a o able as hose o job au onomy.
Second, he c oss-sec ional design o he s udy lim-
i ed he abili y o es ablish causal ela ionships. Fo ex-
ample, indi iduals wi h a highe wo k-li e balance may
be mo e likely o choose elewo k o jobs wi h g ea e
job au onomy. I is also plausible ha indi iduals wi h
s ong job embeddedness migh expe ience be e
wo k-li e balance. Finally, despi e adhe ing o he ec-
ommenda ions o Podsako e al. (2012) o mi iga e
common me hod a iance, he da a we e no collec ed
om mul iple sou ces o a di e en ime poin s.
9. Limi a ions9. Limi a ions
While his s udy was conduc ed in a de eloping
coun y, i is essen ial o eplica e i in o he coun ies
wi h b oade and mo e di e se samples, including
coun ies ope a ing unde di e en elewo k egula-
ions, o de e mine whe he he ela ionships iden i-
ied he e hold ac oss a ious con ex s. Fu he mo e,
i would be aluable o in es iga e whe he he ole o
job au onomy emains consis en ac oss o he labo
sec o s and wo k modali ies, such as pa - ime wo k.
Fu u e esea ch should examine he ole o in-pe son
wo k, e en when elewo k op ions a e a ailable. Fo
example, Koh e al. (2013) ound ha wo ke s who ol-
un a ily chose o wo k in pe son epo ed highe le els
o wo k-li e balance compa ed o hose who lacked he
op ion o choose hei wo k modali y.
Mo eo e , u u e esea ch could explo e why ele-
wo k demons a ed limi ed p edic i e powe com-
pa ed o job au onomy in his s udy. One hypo hesis
is ha elewo k may enable indi iduals o ake on ad-
di ional jobs a he han op imizing hei ime o be -
e o ganiza ion and balance. In addi ion, esea che s
could explo e addi ional wo kplace esou ces ha
in luence wo k-li e balance o assess whe he speci ic
job condi ions and pe sonal a iables (e.g., supe iso
suppo , p e e ence o elecommu ing, mul i asking
capaci y, and amily dynamics) mi iga e o enhance
he ad an ages o elewo k. In es iga ing such dynam-
ics could p o ide a deepe unde s anding o how wo k
modali ies in e ac wi h pe sonal and o ganiza ional
ac o s o shape wo k-li e balance. Ano he p omising
di ec ion would be o s udy con ex ual a iables, such
as he impac o commu e ime on he ela ionship be-
ween elewo k and wo k-li e balance. Telewo k may
o e signi ican bene i s o hose wi h long commu es
o hea y a ic, whe eas indi iduals li ing close o
hei wo kplaces may no expe ience he same ad an-
ages.
Finally, i would be insigh ul o examine o he an-
eceden s o job embeddedness dimensions as well as
he con ex ual ac o s in luencing hese cons uc s.
Addi ionally, longi udinal s udies could be conduc ed
o es he cyclical hypo hesis o he ela ionship be-
ween wo k-li e balance and job embeddedness.
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