Wollni, Meike e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Sus ainabili y S anda ds in Ag i‐Food Value Chains:
Impac s and T ade‐O s o Smallholde Fa me s
Ag icul u al Economics
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Wollni, Meike e al. (2025) : Sus ainabili y S anda ds in Ag i‐Food Value Chains:
Impac s and T ade‐O s o Smallholde Fa me s, Ag icul u al Economics, ISSN 1574-0862, Wiley,
Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 56, Iss. 3, pp. 373-389,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/agec.70005
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Ag icul u al Economics
SPECIAL ISSUE ICAE 2024 Special Issue A icle
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Sus ainabili y S anda ds in Ag i-Food Value Chains: Impac s
and T ade-O s o Smallholde Fa me s
Meike Wollni1,3Sophia Bohn1Ca olina Ocampo-A iza2B uno Paz1Simone San alucia1
Ma ghe i a Squa cina1F ançoise Uma isha u1Ma lene Yu Lilin Wä zold1
1Depa men o Ag icul u al Economics and Ru al De elopmen , Uni e si y o Gö ingen, Gö ingen, Ge many 2Func ional Ag obiodi e si y and Ag oecology,
Uni e si y o Gö ingen, Gö ingen, Ge many 3Campus Cen e o Biodi e si y and Sus ainable Land Use, Uni e si y o Gö ingen, Gö ingen, Ge many
Co espondence: Meike Wollni (mwollni1@uni-goe ingen.de)
Recei ed: 1 Augus 2024 Re ised: 21 Janua y 2025 Accep ed: 31 Janua y 2025
Funding: This esea ch was suppo ed h ough unding om he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (DFG) unde he RTG 2654: Sus ainable Food Sys ems.
Keywo ds: biodi e si y conse a ion | cocoa | co ee | ce i ica ion | die a y quali y | ood secu i y | gende equali y | impac e alua ion | sus ainable ood sys ems
ABSTRACT
The global ag i- ood sys em aces majo challenges in mee ing he g owing demand o ood in an equi able way while mi iga ing
en i onmen al impac s such as de o es a ion, soil deg ada ion, and clima e change. O e he pas ew decades, olun a y
sus ainabili y s anda ds (VSS) ha e p oli e a ed as a po en ial ins umen o p omo e mo e sus ainable global alue chains and
sou cing p ac ices. Al hough he body o impac e alua ions on VSS has g own, mos s udies ocus on single ou come dimensions,
lea ing in e ac ions be ween dimensions unde explo ed. In his s udy, we use a concep ual amewo k o assess he ela ionships
be ween VSS in e en ions and key sus ainable ood sys em ou comes ac oss mul iple dimensions. Ou s udy ocuses on economic
p ospe i y, heal hy ecosys ems, gende equali y, and ood secu i y, wi h a pa icula emphasis on iden i ying po en ial ade-o s
and syne gies be ween hese dimensions. To illus a e he in e ac ions iden i ied in ou amewo k, we p esen empi ical da a
om h ee case s udies in Ghana, Rwanda, and Pe u. Ou indings unde sco e he impo ance o balancing ade-o s and os e ing
syne gies o ad ance sus ainabili y ac oss mul iple dimensions. This s udy con ibu es o ongoing discussions on he e ec i eness
o VSS in p omo ing sus ainabili y by highligh ing hei po en ial impac s, as well as he ade-o s ha mus be managed, o
achie e mo e sus ainable ood sys ems.
JEL Classi ica ion: Q01, Q13, Q57, J22
1 In oduc ion
The global demand o opical cash c ops, such as co ee,
cocoa, palm oil, and soybeans, con inues o ise, d i en by
consume p e e ences and in e na ional ade (Kas ne e al.
2021). Howe e , he apid expansion o ag icul u al p oduc ion
has signi ican en i onmen al and social cos s, including de o -
es a ion and biodi e si y loss (Cu is e al. 2018). While cash c op
a me s o en a e be e economically han subsis ence a me s
(Ach e bosch e al. 2014), hey s ill ace subs an ial challenges,
including ma ke exclusion, poo li elihoods, inadequa e wo k-
ing condi ions, and ulne abili y o highly ola ile p ices (Ga e
e al. 2021; Meemken e al. 2021; S a obin 2021). These issues
a e u he exace ba ed by clima e change, which h ea ens o
make many cu en g owing a eas unsui able o p oduc ion
(A iza-Salamanca e al. 2023;G ü e e al.2022). This places
immense p essu e on he en i onmen and u al li elihoods,
disp opo iona ely a ec ing women (And ije ic e al. 2020).
This pape was p esen ed a a Plena y Session o he 32nd In e na ional Con e ence o Ag icul u al Economis s (ICAE) 2024, held om 2–7 Augus , 2024 in New Delhi, India.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly
ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Ag icul u al Economics published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC on behal o In e na ional Associa ion o Ag icul u al Economis s.
Ag icul u al Economics, 2025; 56:373–389
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/agec.70005
373
In ligh o hese challenges, a ansi ion owa ds mo e sus ainable
ood sys ems anks high on he policy agenda and is cen al
o achie ing he UN Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs)
(Ambikapa hi e al. 2022). Sus ainable ood sys ems aim o
ensu e ood secu i y and nu i ion o all wi hou comp omising
he economic, en i onmen al, and social capaci y o do so in
he u u e (FAO 2018b). Howe e , achie ing sus ainable ood
sys ems equi es balancing o en compe ing goals in mul iple
dimensions o sus ainabili y. T ade-o s be ween economic and
en i onmen al ou comes a e well-documen ed, pa icula ly in
he con ex o ag icul u al in ensi ica ion (Phalan e al. 2011), and
ha e been explici ly analyzed in opical cash c op ag icul u e
(Daum e al. 2023; Wenzel e al. 2024). Al hough less s ud-
ied, in e ac ions be ween o he dimensions, such as social and
equi y ou comes, a e also ele an o sus ainable ood sys ems
(Rubio-Jo el 2023).
In his con ex , olun a y sus ainabili y s anda ds (VSS) ha e
eme ged as a p omising ool o p omo e mo e sus ainable ood
sys ems and econcile compe ing sus ainabili y ou comes (T aldi
2021). A g owing body o li e a u e e alua es he impac o VSS on
economic, en i onmen al, and social ou comes. Ye , mos s udies
ocus on a single dimension a a ime, which isks o e looking
he po en ial ade-o s and syne gies ha exis be ween sus ain-
abili y ou comes (Ba bie and Bu gess 2019; Ga e e al. 2021;
Rubio-Jo el 2023; Rubio-Jo el e al. 2024). This s udy seeks o
add ess his gap by examining whe he VSS can e ec i ely sup-
po sus ainable ood sys em ou comes o smallholde a me s in
in e na ional cash c op sec o s, conside ing mul iple dimensions
o sus ainabili y and explo ing he in e ac ions be ween hem.
We concep ually illus a e he mechanisms h ough which VSS
in luence mul iple dimensions o sus ainabili y, highligh ing key
ade-o s and syne gies be ween hem. Using p ima y da a
om h ee case s udies—Ghana, Rwanda, and Pe u—we p o ide
empi ical e idence on how VSS can balance hese mul iple and
o en compe ing goals.
Mos VSS ele an o opical cash c ops, such as Fai ade,
Rain o es Alliance, o O ganic, we e ini ially de eloped wi h a
speci ic goal in mind ocusing, o example, on en i onmen al
o social aspec s only. In ecen decades, VSS ha e been u he
de eloped and ha e g adually con e ged in hei objec i es
o encompass comp ehensi e sus ainabili y goals in mul iple
dimensions (Lambin and Tho lakson 2018; Meemken e al. 2021).
T aldi (2021) p o ides an o e iew o 13 majo in e na ional
ag icul u al VSS, including, o example, Fai ade, O ganic,
and Rain o es Alliance, and hei key cha ac e is ics, p inci-
ples, and c i e ia co e ing en i onmen al, social, and economic
dimensions. Ga e e al. (2021) e iew eigh VSS ha pu sue
conse a ion and li elihood objec i es simul aneously, including
Rain o es Alliance, Bi d F iendly, and Round able on Sus ain-
able Palm Oil (RSPO), among o he s. All o hese VSS encou age
he adop ion o sus ainable a ming p ac ices o imp o e soil
heal h, inc ease biodi e si y, and educe en i onmen al impac .
They also acili a e access o inpu s o p ice p emiums o inc ease
ag icul u al p oduc i i y and economic p ospe i y o a ming
households. Fu he mo e, VSS ypically commi o social and
equi y goals, o example, suppo ing gende equi y by enac ing
human and labo igh s and o e ing gende -sensi i e aining
(Ga e e al. 2021; Meemken and Qaim 2018; T aldi 2021). While
VSS ha e become mo e comp ehensi e in he sus ainabili y
dimensions hey add ess, mos e alua ion s udies s ill ocus
on only one ou come dimension, he eby o e looking hese
complexi ies.
Nume ous s udies assess he impac o VSS on economic ou -
comes, including yields, p ices, ne c op income, and o al house-
hold income (Beuchel and Zelle 2011; Boonae and Mae ens
2023; Idd isu e al. 2020; Meemken 2020). Recen e iews by
Meemkene al.(2021) and Oya e al. (2018) conclude ha he
o e all economic impac s o VSS on a m households appea o be
mode a ely posi i e. Howe e , he unde lying mechanisms ha
lead o he imp o emen s in economic ou comes, in e ms o he
se ices p o ided and p ac ices p omo ed, o en a y be ween
VSS (Boonae and Mae ens 2023;Meemkene al.2021), and,
acco dingly, may a ec en i onmen al ou comes in di e en
ways. Ye , ew s udies examine economic and en i onmen al
ou comes simul aneously (Ga e e al. 2021).
One o he ew s udies o collec bo h economic and en i on-
men al da a om he same a m households is Vande haegen
e al. (2018), who analyze ce i ica ion among co ee a me s
in Uganda. This s udy inds ade-o s be ween economic and
en i onmen al dimensions ha a y by VSS. Fai ade/O ganic
double ce i ica ion has posi i e e ec s on shade ee c own
co e , shade ee di e si y, and in e eb a e di e si y, bu neg-
a i e e ec s on co ee yields, labo p oduc i i y, and income.
In con as , UTZ/Rain o es Alliance/4C iple ce i ica ion has
posi i e e ec s on he economic ou comes, bu nega i e e ec s
on mos en i onmen al ou comes, excep o shade ee di e si y.
Ano he example is Hagga e al. (2017), who ind posi i e e ec s
o VSS on many, bu no all, en i onmen al ou comes and on some
economic ou comes o co ee a me s in Nica agua. They ind
gene al ade-o s be ween ee di e si y and economic ou comes,
bu hese ade-o s a e somewha mi iga ed o ce i ied a me s
who ecei e highe p ices. Las ly, a s udy by Thompson e al.
(2022) assesses he e ec s o VSS o cocoa a me s in Ghana on
economic and en i onmen al ou comes. They ind mixed e ec s
on yields, depending on he ype o VSS and egional con ex , bu
no e ec s on shade ee co e o di e si y. In gene al, VSS seem
o pe o m well in ei he economic o en i onmen al dimensions,
bu a ely in bo h, which may pa ly be due o he o iginal ocus
o he VSS unde s udy o he local con ex . O e all, he e is s ill
oo li le e idence o d aw i m conclusions.
E idence on he impac o VSS is e en mo e limi ed o social
sus ainabili y dimensions such as gende equali y, wo ke heal h,
child labo and educa ion, and ood secu i y (Akoyi e al. 2020;
Schlei e and Sun 2020; Sella e e al. 2020). F om a sus ainable
ood sys ems pe spec i e, ensu ing ood secu i y is a key objec i e,
bu a ecen e iew by Schlei e and Sun (2020) concludes ha
e idence on he impac o VSS on ood secu i y is ela i ely
sca ce and mixed. While some s udies show a posi i e ela-
ionship be ween VSS, income, and ood secu i y (Becche i
and Cos an ino 2008;Meemkene al.2017; Schlei e and Sun
2020), se e al o he s show no o e en nega i e e ec s on ood
secu i y and die a y quali y, despi e posi i e e ec s on yields and
income (Domp eh e al. 2021; Idd isu e al. 2020; Knößlsdo e
e al. 2021; Meemken e al. 2017). A key insigh om hese
s udies is ha highe incomes associa ed wi h ce i ica ion do
no au oma ically ansla e in o be e ood secu i y ou comes.
A be e unde s anding o he unde lying mechanisms and
374 Ag icul u al Economics,2025
in e ac ions be ween economic, en i onmen al, and social ou -
comes is he e o e needed.
This equi es ha VSS e alua ion s udies conside mul iple
sus ainabili y ou comes, including hose ha ha e ecei ed less
a en ion o da e. In a ecen a icle, Rubio-Jo el (2023)sys-
ema ically e iews he e idence on he con ibu ion o VSS o
he achie emen o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goal (SDGs)
and iden i ies esea ch gaps in key sus ainabili y dimensions,
in pa icula , gende equali y (SDG 5) and educed inequali ies
(SDG 10). Simila ly, T aldi (2021), in he sys ema ic e iew o VSS
impac s on di e en sus ainabili y dimensions, concludes ha
e idence on gende ou comes is sca ce. While gende equali y
is a goal in i s own igh , i is also ins umen al in achie ing
ood secu i y and heal hy die s o all. Fo example, Chipu wa
and Qaim (2016) show ha ce i ica ion is associa ed wi h highe
in a-household ba gaining powe o women, which is posi i ely
ela ed o imp o ed nu i ional in ake. Al hough o he impo an
social dimensions emain unde - esea ched, we ocus on gende
equali y in ou s udy o illus a e he impo ance o consid-
e ing ade-o s and syne gies be ween di e en sus ainabili y
dimensions.
The con ibu ion o his s udy is wo old. Fi s , i highligh s he
impo ance o conside ing mul iple dimensions o sus ainabili y
when e alua ing VSS. While he ele an ou comes and indica o s
may a y om case o case, we a gue ha assessing sus ainable
ood sys em ou comes equi es an in e disciplina y app oach
ha looks beyond a na owly de ined ou come dimension. Sec-
ond, ou s udy p o ides illus a i e e idence o ade-o s and
syne gies be ween ele an ood sys em dimensions, including
economic, en i onmen al, and social dimensions.
In he nex sec ion, we in oduce ou concep ual ame-
wo k, which b ings oge he ele an dimensions o sus ainable
ood sys ems—heal hy ecosys ems, economic p ospe i y, gende
equi y, and ood secu i y—and iden i ies key ade-o s and
syne gies be ween hem. We hen p esen da a om Ghana,
Rwanda, and Pe u o p o ide empi ical e idence on how VSS
balance hese mul iple and o en compe ing objec i es inhe en
in sus ainabili y e o s. The inal sec ion discusses implica ions
o u u e ce i ica ion e o s and o u u e esea ch e alua ing
such e o s.
2Concep ual F amewo k
In his s udy, we aim o assess whe he VSS can con ibu e o
mo e sus ainable ood sys ems. A cen al objec i e o sus ainable
ood sys ems is ensu ing ood secu i y and nu i ion o all,
which is ep esen ed as he ul ima e ou come in ou concep ual
amewo k (Figu e 1). In addi ion o ood secu i y, we examine
o he key sus ainabili y dimensions: heal hy ecosys ems, eco-
nomic p ospe i y, and gende equali y. These dimensions a e no
only goals in hei own igh bu also play an ins umen al ole
in achie ing ood secu i y. Fo example, heal hy ecosys ems a e
essen ial o esilience o ex eme wea he e en s and a e c i ical
o sus aining long- e m ag icul u al p oduc i i y (Tscha n ke
e al. 2024). Simila ly, economic p ospe i y ensu es ha ood
emains a o dable and accessible o all. Gende equali y is c ucial
o p o iding equal oppo uni ies in accessing ood, as well as
in he con ol o e esou ces and decision-making ela ed o
ood p oduc ion and consump ion. While ou s udy ocuses on
hese selec ed dimensions, we acknowledge ha sus ainable ood
sys ems encompass a b oade ange o ou comes and he e o e do
no claim ou amewo k o be exhaus i e.
VSS can in luence sus ainable ood sys em ou comes h ough
a ious ypes o in e en ions (Boonae and Mae ens 2023),
which a e depic ed on he le side o ou concep ual ame-
wo k. These in e en ions encompass he ules, egula ions,
equi emen s, and suppo measu es implemen ed by VSS. We
ca ego ize hese in e en ions in o h ee b oad sus ainabili y
dimensions: en i onmen al, economic, and social, and p o ide
se e al examples. En i onmen al in e en ions include ze o-
de o es a ion egula ions, aining on sus ainable p ac ices, and
he p o ision o na i e ee seedlings, all o which gene ally aim
o imp o e ecosys em heal h (Ga e e al. 2021;K umbiegel
and Tillie 2024). Economic in e en ions ange om aining and
ag ochemical inpu p o ision o p ice p emiums and a e designed
o imp o e economic ou comes (Boonae and Mae ens 2023).
Social in e en ions co e a wide ange o di e en measu es
aimed a imp o ing social aspec s o sus ainabili y, such as equi y,
wo king condi ions, and heal h (K umbiegel e al. 2018; Schus e
and Mae ens 2017). As ou lined abo e, in his s udy we ocus
on gende equali y as one aspec o social sus ainabili y. Rele-
an in e en ions include p o iding gende awa eness aining,
suppo ing women’s a me g oups, and s eng hening women’s
ep esen a ion in coope a i es,1which aim o con ibu e o be e
gende equali y ou comes (Meemken and Qaim 2018;Mo gan
and Za emba 2023). I is impo an o no e ha in e en ions a e
o en deli e ed as bundled packages (e.g., aining on mul iple
p ac ices) o se e mul iple pu poses (e.g., c edi ha suppo s
bo h p oduc ion and li elihood imp o emen ). As a esul , a
single in e en ion may ul ima ely a ec mul iple sus ainabili y
ou comes simul aneously.
The middle pa o ou concep ual amewo k illus a es he
impac pa hways h ough which VSS, wi h hei speci ic se s o
in e en ions, in luence ood sys em ou comes. I is impo an
o emphasize ha hese a e examples chosen o illus a i e pu -
poses and do no co e all po en ial impac pa hways. In addi ion,
con ex ual ac o s such as he landscape and policy con ex , ma -
ke en i onmen , and clima e condi ions (as ep esen ed by he
backg ound illus a ions in Figu e 1) shape he linkages be ween
VSS in e en ions and sus ainable ood sys em ou comes.
Wi hin each sus ainabili y dimension, he impac pa hways a e
ela i ely s aigh o wa d. In he en i onmen al dimension, o
example, aining in sus ainable p ac ices and p o ision o na i e
ee seedlings a e expec ed o lead o he adop ion o sus ain-
able p ac ices, mo e shade ees, and mo e di e si ica ion on
a ms (Ga he and Wollni 2022; Hagga e al. 2017; Ibanez and
Blackman 2016), leading o heal hie soils and mo e biodi e si y,
con ibu ing o heal hie ecosys ems ha a e mo e esilien o
wea he ex emes, hus helping o ensu e ood secu i y (Poppy
e al. 2014). In he economic dimension, access o inpu s and
c edi as well as p ice p emiums is expec ed o lead o highe inpu
use (Sella e e al. 2020), ou pu p ices, and p o i abili y (Boonae
and Mae ens 2023). As a esul o inc eased p o i abili y, a me s
may choose o specialize in he ce i ied c op (Vellema e al.
2015), allowing hem o ake ad an age o economies o scale
375
FIGURE 1 Concep ual amewo k. G aphical design by Visuals in Science LAB (www. isualsinscience.com).
and hus achie e highe yields and incomes, con ibu ing o
household ood secu i y and die a y quali y (Sibha u e al.
2015). In he social dimension, in e en ions such as capaci y
building, p omo ion o equal pay and leade ship oppo uni ies
o women, and manda o y o ma ion o gende commi ees in
coope a i es a e expec ed o in luence pe cep ions o gende oles
in he household and communi y. This can imp o e women’s
pa icipa ion in decision-making and inc ease hei ime agency
and con ol o e income, which a e associa ed wi h women’s
empowe men and mo e equal access o esou ces wi hin he
household, including equal access o ood secu i y and die a y
quali y.
Howe e , changes in one dimension a e likely o in e ac wi h
ou comes in o he dimensions, as shown by he c oss-dimension
a ows in Figu e 1. These in e ac ions can be posi i e, implying
syne gies be ween sus ainabili y goals, whe e achie ing one goal
makes i easie o mo e likely o achie e ano he . Bu in e ac ions
can also be nega i e, implying ade-o s be ween sus ainabili y
goals, whe e an imp o emen in one goal is associa ed wi h a
dec ease in ano he (Rubio-Jo el e al. 2024). In he ollowing, we
discuss po en ial ade-o s and syne gies be ween sus ainabili y
ou comes ha may a ise in he con ex o VSS in e en ions, wi h
a ocus on he examples ou lined in Figu e 1.
P e ious s udies examining bo h economic and en i onmen al
impac s o en ind ha VSS imp o e only one o he wo dimen-
sions (Hagga e al. 2017; Vande haegen e al. 2018). This ou come
may s em om inhe en en i onmen al-economic ade-o s. Fo
ins ance, mos VSS p omo e sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices,
such as ag o o es y, in cash c op plan a ions o enhance ecosys-
em heal h (Thompson e al. 2022). Howe e , hese p ac ices can
some imes educe yields, as shade ees and cash c op ees may
compe e o nu ien s (Asi oako e al. 2022;Blase e al.2018).
Con e sely, VSS ha encou age he use o ag ochemical inpu s
o boos ag icul u al yields (Sella e e al. 2020) may inad e -
en ly ha m biodi e si y. Despi e hese ade-o s, syne gies a e
also possible. Fo example, p omo ing sus ainable p ac ices like
compos ing can simul aneously imp o e soil heal h and enhance
long- e m p oduc i i y.
Mos e alua ion s udies o VSS a e conduc ed a he household
le el, lea ing he in a-household dis ibu ion o ce i ica ion-
ela ed cos s and bene i s la gely unexplo ed (T aldi 2021).
Ye , om an equi y pe spec i e, unde s anding dis ibu ional
ou comes is c i ical. Fo example, when VSS p omo e labo -
in ensi e sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices, ade-o s can a ise
be ween en i onmen al and gende objec i es. Labo -in ensi e
p ac ices can disp opo iona ely inc ease women’s wo kloads
and limi hei ime agency, pa icula ly in con ex s whe e
social no ms p esc ibe a gende ed di ision o labo (A o a and
Rada 2020;Bolwig2012;Lyone al.2017). E idence, hough
limi ed and mos ly quali a i e, sugges s ha women o en bea
a highe ime bu den due o hei esponsibili y o many labo -
in ensi e asks associa ed wi h ce i ica ion (Bolwig 2012;Lyon
e al. 2017, 2010). Howe e , syne gies a e also possible. G ea e
in ol emen in ce i ied c op p oduc ion can empowe women
by enabling mo e ac i e pa icipa ion in decision-making and
g ea e con ol o e c op income (Meemken and Qaim 2018).
This is pa icula ly signi ican in con ex s whe e cash c op
income is ypically con olled by men (Chipu wa and Qaim
2016).
376 Ag icul u al Economics,2025
Po en ial ade-o s and syne gies be ween economic and gen-
de objec i es a e pa icula ly ele an when conside ing ood
secu i y. Fo ins ance, inc eased p o i abili y o he ce i ied c op
can encou age specializa ion and he ealloca ion o esou ces
owa d hese c ops (Vellema e al. 2015). Howe e , his shi may
exace ba e in a-household inequali ies, as esou ce dis ibu ion
wi hin households o en e lec s exis ing gende dynamics (Doss
2013; Malapi and Quisumbing 2015). Resea ch shows ha posi-
i e income e ec s o VSS do no always ansla e in o imp o ed
ood secu i y. Knößlsdo e e al. (2021) highligh he c i ical ole
o gende in his con ex , no ing ha income con olled by women
has been ound o con ibu e mo e signi ican ly o ood secu i y
and nu i ion han income con olled by men (Doss 2013; Malapi
and Quisumbing 2015). Consequen ly, i is impo an o conside
equi y- ela ed ou comes and assess whe he income gains bene i
all household membe s equi ably. While he li e a u e on he
links be ween ce i ica ion, emale empowe men , and nu i ion
emains limi ed, no able excep ions exis . Fo example, Chipu wa
and Qaim (2016) demons a e ha women’s empowe men se es
as an impo an pa hway h ough which VSS can enhance
household die a y quali y. This unde sco es he need o u he
esea ch on he in e play be ween ce i ica ion, gende dynamics,
and ood secu i y.
The di e en examples discussed he e unde sco e he need
o u he esea ch on he in e play be ween ce i ica ion and
a ious ood sys em ou comes, including economic p ospe i y,
ecosys em heal h, gende dynamics, and ood secu i y. In line
wi h Ba bie and Bu gess (2019), ou concep ual amewo k
emphasizes he impo ance o explici ly conside ing ade-o s
and syne gies be ween di e en sus ainabili y goals.
3Empi ical E idence F om Th ee Case S udies
In he ollowing sec ions, we p esen da a om h ee case s udies,
namely Ghana, Rwanda, and Pe u, o explo e he in e ac ions
be ween sus ainabili y dimensions iden i ied in ou concep ual
amewo k. All h ee case s udies we e designed o assess he
ela ionships be ween VSS and sus ainable ood sys em ou comes
bu wi h a ying key aspec s in mind. We he e o e e ain om a
join analysis o he da a, bu a he p esen pa icula insigh s
ha can be gained om he espec i e s udies. Fo example,
he s udies in Ghana and Rwanda bo h collec ed economic and
ecological da a om he same subse o households, whe eas he
s udy om Pe u p o ides in-dep h insigh s in o gende equali y
ou comes. Mo e de ailed analyses and case s udy desc ip ions a e
p o ided elsewhe e (Bohn e al. 2024; Paz e al. 2024; San alucia
and Wollni 2024; Wä zold e al. 2025). The ocus he e is on
desc ibing and compa ing a selec ion o indica o s, guided by ou
concep ual amewo k.
3.1 Desc ip ion o Da a and Case S udy Con ex s
In Ghana, ou da a co e s 814 cocoa-cul i a ing households in
i e main cocoa-p oducing egions. The su ey design ollowed a
mul i-s age andom sampling p ocedu e, i s selec ing 46 illages
wi hin he i e egions based on exis ing popula ion census da a.
The numbe o illages in each egion was chosen based on
hei 2019 p oduc ion olumes (Ghana Cocoa Boa d 2025). We
hen andomly selec ed 17 o 18 cocoa households pe illage
based on exis ing lis s p o ided by ex ension o ice s. Ou su ey
was conduc ed om No embe 2022 o Janua y 2023. Since he
su ey was no s a i ied by ce i ica ion s a us, he sha e o
ce i ied (n=338) and non-ce i ied (n=476) households in
he sample is ep esen a i e o he esea ch a ea. In addi ion o
socio-economic household da a, we collec ed ecological plo -le el
da a on ege a ion s uc u e and animal di e si y o a subse o
119 households in ou sample (54 ce i ied and 65 non-ce i ied).
In Ghana, ce i ica ion is implemen ed and ope a ionalized by
go e nmen -licensed buying companies (LBCs) ha a e ypically
linked o an in e na ional ade o chocola e company and a e
esponsible o sou cing cocoa in Ghana. To each ou o a me s,
LBCs hi e pu chasing cle ks who collec cocoa om a me s
and manage he ce i ica ion p ocess a he a m le el. To ge
ce i ied, a me s need o ill ou a egis a ion o m p o ided
by he pu chasing cle k, and subsequen ly hei a ms a e geo-
mapped and inspec ed by LBC s a . Gene ally, he e a e se e al
pu chasing cle ks in each illage wo king o di e en LBCs.
Pu chasing cle ks wo king o a ce i ied LBC also collec cocoa
om non-ce i ied a me s. Thus, a me s can choose which
pu chasing cle k(s) o deli e hei cocoa o and whe he o
unde go he p ocess o ce i ica ion. The ele an sus ainabili y
s anda ds in ou esea ch a ea include Rain o es Alliance, Cocoa
Li e, Cocoa Ho izon, Ca gill Cocoa P omise, and Fai ade.
In Rwanda, ou da a co e ce i ied and non-ce i ied co ee
a m households in i e majo co ee-p oducing dis ic s. The
su ey was conduc ed be ween No embe 2022 and Janua y 2023.
The Wes e n dis ic s, in pa icula , a e cha ac e ized by high
le els o po e y and malnu i ion. Fo example, Nyamasheke,
Ka ongi, and Ru si o ha e po e y a es o 69.3%, 52.7%, and
49.5%, espec i ely (NISR 2018). Da a was collec ed based on
a mul i-s age s a i ied andom sample. In he i s s ep, we
andomly selec ed 24 ce i ied and 15 non-ce i ied co ee washing
s a ions (CWSs). In he second s ep, we selec ed a andom sample
o abou 20 households om each CWS, esul ing in a o al
sample o 515 ce i ied and 327 non-ce i ied a m households o
he socio-economic su ey. Simila o he Ghana case s udy, we
addi ionally collec ed ecological plo -le el da a o a subse o
100 households in ou sample (62 ce i ied and 38 non-ce i ied).
In Rwanda, ce i ica ion is implemen ed a he CWS le el,
meaning ha he ce i ied CWS mus ope a ionalize ce i ica ion
c i e ia wi h hei a me s. This si ua ion is unique because he
go e nmen o Rwanda implemen ed a zoning policy in 2016
o educe compe i ion be ween CWS and imp o e se ices o
a me s (Ge a d e al. 2022). The zoning policy assigns co ee
a me s o a pa icula CWS based on geog aphic loca ion and
equi es a me s o sell hei co ee che ies only o he designa ed
CWS. The zoning policy was li ed in mid-2023 ( an Kollenbu g
and an Wee 2024), implying ha a me s will again be able
o choose which CWS o deli e hei co ee o in he u u e.
The ele an sus ainabili y s anda ds in ou esea ch a ea include
Rain o es Alliance, Ca é P ac ices, Fai ade, and, o a lesse
ex en , O ganic and 4C.
In Pe u, cocoa p oduc ion has expanded apidly o e he las wo
decades due o coca e adica ion p og ams join ly implemen ed
by he Pe u ian go e nmen and he Uni ed S a es Agency o
In e na ional De elopmen (Nash e al. 2016). This ini ia i e,
h ough public-p i a e pa ne ship, suppo ed he specializa ion
377
o smallholde a me s in cocoa p oduc ion by s eng hening
coope a i es, p o iding inpu s and aining, and acili a ing
access o ma ke channels. As a esul , sus ainabili y s anda ds
like Fai ade and O ganic ha e p oli e a ed, wi h a ound 56%
o he land unde cocoa cul i a ion now ce i ied o ganic o in
ansi ion o o ganic ce i ica ion (Wille e al. 2022). Ou su ey
was conduc ed in h ee cocoa-p oducing egions a ge ed by he
cocoa expansion p og am, which oge he ep esen abou 60%
o o al cocoa p oduc ion in Pe u. We i s selec ed en coope -
a i es in ou esea ch a ea and hen applied s a i ied andom
sampling o selec a ound 30 male membe s and 30 emale
membe s om each coope a i e. The su ey was implemen ed
a he household le el be ween Ap il and July 2023, esul ing
in a o al sample o 566 cocoa-p oducing households. To collec
gende -disagg ega ed da a and in o ma ion on pa icipa ion in
decision-making and access o esou ces, we in e iewed bo h
spouses sepa a ely whene e applicable. All coope a i es in
ou sample ha e ob ained Fai ade and O ganic ce i ica ion.
Since Fai ade ce i ica ion is implemen ed exclusi ely a he
coope a i e le el, all a me s a e au oma ically Fai ade ce i ied.
O ganic ce i ica ion, howe e , equi es egis a ion and adap a-
ion o p oduc ion p ac ices a he a m le el, and hence, o ganic
ce i ica ion s a us a ies in ou household sample. O e all, 74%
o he households in ou sample ha e a leas some o hei land
unde o ganic ce i ica ion.
3.2 Me hods
To es associa ions be ween ce i ica ion and ood sys em ou -
comes, we use in e se p obabili y weigh ed eg ession adjus -
men (IPWRA) ha allows us o ake a ange o con ounding
ac o s in o accoun (Manda e al. 2018). This is impo an
since ce i ied and non-ce i ied households a e likely o di e
sys ema ically wi h espec o ce ain cha ac e is ics ha may
a he same ime in luence hei pe o mance in economic,
en i onmen al, gende , and ood secu i y ou comes (Ga he
and Wollni 2022). I is impo an o no e ha he IPWRA me hod
elies on obse able co a ia es o educe selec ion bias, and hus
es ima es may s ill be ulne able o sys ema ic bias in unobse ed
cha ac e is ics (Hö ne and Wollni 2021). The ela ionships p e-
sen ed in he ollowing sec ions should he e o e be in e p e ed
as associa ions a he han causal e ec s. The same applies o he
esul s on animal di e si y ha a e ob ained using gene alized
linea mixed models (GLMMs). GLMMs a e conside ed mo e
app op ia e o es ima ing animal di e si y ou comes, which a e
likely co ela ed ac oss nea by plo s, because hey can accoun
o he hie a chical s uc u e o he da a (K umbiegel e al. 2018;
Rana and Sills 2024). Mo e de ailed desc ip ions o he GLMM
es ima o and he IPWRA me hod a e p o ided in Appendix A.
4Compa a i e Resul s
4.1 Ce i ica ion and Fa m Managemen in
Ghana, Rwanda, and Pe u
VSS in e en ions such as aining, inpu p o ision, o en i on-
men al egula ions (see Figu e 1) a e expec ed o lead o changes
in ag icul u al p ac ices among ce i ied a me s (Thompson
e al. 2022). We use desc ip i e s a is ics o compa e ce i ied and
non-ce i ied households in he h ee case s udies in e ms o
ag icul u al p ac ices (Table 1). In Ghana, ce i ied a me s end
o use inpu s mo e in ensi ely. On a e age, a highe p opo ion o
ce i ied a me s use con en ional e ilize , o ganic e ilize , and
mulching han non-ce i ied a me s. Also, a signi ican ly highe
p opo ion o ce i ied a me s adop sus ainable ag icul u al
p ac ices like p uning and in eg a ed pes managemen , com-
pa ed o non-ce i ied a me s. Rega dless o ce i ica ion s a us,
almos all cocoa a me s in Ghana ha e shade ees on hei
cocoa a ms. In Rwanda, a signi ican ly smalle p opo ion o
ce i ied a me s apply con en ional e ilize , bu a signi ican ly
highe p opo ion o ce i ied a me s adop sus ainable p ac ices
like o ganic e ilize , mulching, shade ees, and in eg a ed pes
managemen on hei co ee plo s, compa ed o non-ce i ied
a me s. In Pe u, a smalle p opo ion o ce i ied o ganic a me s
use con en ional e ilize s and mulching han non-ce i ied
a me s. O e all, con en ional e ilize use is low in he Pe u ian
sample: e en in he non-ce i ied sample, only 14% o he a me s
use i . Fo o he p ac ices, such as shade ees and o ganic
e ilize , he e a e no signi ican di e ences be ween ce i ied
and non-ce i ied a me s in Pe u.
4.2 Ce i ica ion and Economic Ou comes
We use IPWRA o analyze how ce i ica ion ela es o economic
ou comes (Table 2). Despi e di e ences in he ag icul u al p ac-
ices used in he h ee case s udies (Table 1), ce i ica ion is
associa ed wi h signi ican ly highe yields in all h ee case s udies.
Howe e , only in he case o Ghana and Rwanda is ce i ica ion
also associa ed wi h highe ne cash c op income pe hec a e.
These esul s a e gene ally in line wi h he li e a u e, which inds
la gely posi i e, albei mode a e, economic e ec s o ce i ica ion
a he a m le el (Meemken 2020).
Ou da a do no p o ide s ong e idence ha ce i ica ion is
associa ed wi h subs an ial income gains a he household le el
( o al household income) no wi h p onounced ag icul u al
specializa ion (sha e o cash c op income in o al income, sha e o
cash c op land in o al land) ac oss he case s udies. The obse ed
inc eases in ne cash c op income associa ed wi h ce i ica ion in
Ghana and Rwanda ansla e in o highe o al household income
o ce i ied households only in he case o Rwanda. In he case
o Ghana, he sha e o cocoa income in o al income is posi i ely
and signi ican ly associa ed wi h ce i ica ion, bu he magni ude
o he e ec is small. This sugges s li le e idence o ag icul u al
specializa ion in he ce i ied c op among ce i ied a me s, which
is also suppo ed by he inding ha he e is no signi ican
di e ence in he sha e o land de o ed o cocoa be ween ce i ied
and non-ce i ied a me s in Ghana and Pe u (da a no a ailable
o Rwanda). Ra he han ag icul u al specializa ion, ce i ica ion
in Ghana and Rwanda is associa ed wi h a signi ican inc ease in
ag icul u al di e si ica ion (measu ed as he numbe o di e en
ag icul u al ac i i ies a he a m le el).
4.3 Ce i ica ion and En i onmen al Ou comes
As illus a ed in he concep ual amewo k, a c i ical ques ion
is whe he he economic gains a e achie ed a he expense o
heal hy ecosys ems. Tables 3and 4p esen associa ions be ween
378 Ag icul u al Economics,2025
TABLE 1 Desc ip i e s a is ics o ag icul u al p ac ices.
Ce i ied
a me s
Non-ce i ied
a me s
Mean
di e ence
Mean SD Mean SD
Ghana N =338 N=476
Con en ional e ilize (0/1) 0.65 0.51 0.15***
O ganic e ilize (0/1) 0.07 0.02 0.05***
Mulching (0/1) 0.36 0.26 0.10***
Shade ees (0/1) 0.99 0.98 0.01
P uning (0/1) 0.81 0.77 0.04
Manual weeding (0/1) 1.00 0.99 0.01
In eg a ed pes managemen (IPM) (numbe o
IPM p ac ices, 0–4)
2.15 0.88 2.04 0.86 0.11*
Rwanda N =515 N=327
Con en ional e ilize (0/1) 0.86 0.93 −0.07***
O ganic e ilize (0/1) 0.75 0.64 0.11 ***
Mulching (0/1) 0.96 0.91 0.04**
Shade ees (0/1) 0.98 0.74 0.24***
P uning (0/1) 0.94 0.91 0.04
Manual weeding (0/1) 0.94 0.95 0.03
In eg a ed pes managemen (IPM) (numbe o
IPM p ac ices, 0–4)
3.39 0.69 3.11 0.88 0.28***
Pe u N =421 N=145
Con en ional e ilize (0/1) 0.03 0.14 −0.12**
O ganic e ilize (0/1) 0.47 0.42 0.05
Mulching (0/1) 0.84 0.91 −0.07*
Shade ees (0/1) 0.77 0.77 0.00
P uning (0/1) 0.94 0.94 0.00
Manual weeding (0/1) 0.99 0.98 0.01
No e: SD =s anda d de ia ions (no epo ed o bina y a iables). *p<0.1, **p<0.05, ***p<0.01. IPM e e s o he ollowing ou p ac ices: moni o insec s
be o e ea men , main ain habi a o insec s/p eda o s, cu and bu n in es ed ma e ial, sani a y ha es and p uning.
ce i ica ion and ecological plo -le el da a on ege a ion s uc u e
and animal di e si y o Ghana and Rwanda. As indica o s
o ege a ion s uc u e, we chose he numbe o shade ees
pe hec a e and he numbe o di e en shade ee species
coun ed in each plo . As indica o s o animal di e si y, we
chose he bioacous ics index and biological con ol a es. The
bioacous ics index is based on animal sounds eco ded in he
plo (D öge e al. 2021), and biological con ol a es a e based
on p eda ion a es o ake ca e pilla s ha we e deployed in
each plo (Howe e al. 2009). In Ghana, he di e ences in
ege a ion s uc u e be ween ce i ied and non-ce i ied plo s
a e small and no signi ican (Table 3). Con e sely, in Rwanda,
ce i ied a me s ha e signi ican ly mo e shade ees pe hec a e
and a g ea e numbe o shade ee species. Howe e , hese
posi i e esul s o ege a ion s uc u e in Rwanda a e no
e lec ed in highe animal di e si y on ce i ied plo s (Table 4).
In he case o Ghana, ce i ied plo s ha e, on a e age, a lowe
bioacous ics index and lowe biological con ol a es compa ed
o non-ce i ied plo s, bu hese di e ences a e no s a is ically
signi ican .
The inding ha he posi i e associa ions be ween ce i ica ion
and ege a ion s uc u e in Rwanda do no ansla e in o highe
animal di e si y on ce i ied plo s may be explained by he
impo an ole o landscape ac o s in shaping en i onmen al
ou comes a he plo le el (Ocampo-A iza e al. 2024;Tscha n ke
e al. 2015). Ou da a e eal posi i e co ela ions be ween he
bioacous ics index and he su ounding landscape. In Ghana,
he bioacous ics index inc eases wi h he p oximi y o plo s o
p ima y o es s. In Rwanda, we obse e a posi i e co ela ion
be ween he bioacous ics index and he Enhanced Vege a ion
Index, a sa elli e-based measu e o ege a ion heal h and densi y
measu ed wi hin a 500-me e adius o he plo . These ind-
ings highligh he impo ance o e alua ing VSS pe o mance
wi hin he b oade con ex o na ional and egional policies ha
in luence he landscape condi ions in which VSS ope a e.
To wha ex en can VSS in Ghana and Rwanda simul aneously
achie e economic and en i onmen al imp o emen s a he a m
le el? Ou da a con i m posi i e associa ions be ween ce i i-
ca ion and p oduc ion- ela ed economic ou comes o he wo
379
TABLE 2 Associa ion be ween ce i ica ion and economic ou comes.
Non-ce i ied PO ADPOCp alue N
Ghana
Yield (kg/ha) 355.79 64.83 0.02 814
Ne cocoa income (GHC/ha) 2298.86 663.86 0.02 814
To al household income (GHC)
(IHS- ans o med)
9.01 0.05 0.88 814
Sha e cocoa income in o al income 0.63 0.04 0.03 814
Sha e cocoa land in o al land 0.85 −0.00 0.84 814
Ag icul u al di e si ica ion ( ange: 1–19) 6.14 0.31 0.07 814
Rwanda
Yield (kg/ha, esh che ies) 6693.57 790.62 0.05 842
Ne co ee income (RWF/ha) 2,788,649.69 847,177.91 0.00 842
To al household income (RWF)
(IHS- ans o med)
14.40 0.13 0.00 842
Sha e co ee income in o al income 0.32 0.02 0.18 842
Ag icul u al di e si ica ion ( ange: 0–16) 7.04 0.76 0.00 842
Pe u
Yield (kg/ha) 683.94 153.03 0.02 566
Ne cocoa income (PEN/ha) 2723.87 263.50 0.24 566
To al household income (PEN)
(IHS- ans o med)
10.48 −0.06 0.35 566
Sha e cocoa income in o al income 0.52 0.02 0.46 566
Sha e cocoa land in o al land 0.82 −0.03 0.33 566
Ag icul u al di e si ica ion ( ange: 0–23) 5.51 0.12 0.76 566
No e: IPWRA es ima es; PO s ands o “p edic ed ou come”; ADPOCs ands o “a e age di e ence in p edic ed ou comes” o ce i ied a me s unde ce i ica ion
and hypo he ical non-ce i ica ion. 1 GHC ≈0.071 EUR, 1 RWF ≈0.00093 EUR, 1 PEN ≈0.244 a he ime o he da a collec ion (as o No 1. 2022 o Rwanda
and Ghana, May 1 2023 o Pe u). IHS e e s o in e se hype bolic sine ans o ma ion; app ox. pe cen age changes o IHS- ans o med alues a e calcula ed as
desc ibed in Bellema e and Wichman (2020). Ag icul u al di e si ica ion is measu ed as he numbe o di e en ag icul u al ac i i ies a he a m-le el. This
includes all c op species (including in e c ops) and animal species (whe e each animal species is coun ed as one).
TABLE 3 Associa ion be ween ce i ica ion and plo -le el da a on ege a ion s uc u e.
Non-ce i ied PO ADPOCp alue N
Ghana
Shade ees pe hec a e 68.0 −2.71 0.65 119
No. o shade ee species 14.5 0.23 0.84 119
Rwanda
Shade ees pe hec a e 163.9 21.6 0.09 96
No. o shade ee species 3.27 0.78 0.00 100
No e: IPWRA es ima es; PO s ands o “p edic ed ou come”; ADPOCs ands o “a e age di e ence in p edic ed ou comes” o ce i ied a me s unde ce i ica ion
and hypo he ical non-ce i ica ion.
case s udies (Table 2). In Ghana, whe e ce i ied households a e
cha ac e ized by highe le els o in ensi ica ion (Table 1), he e is
a endency o en i onmen al ou comes o be lowe o ce i ied
han o non-ce i ied households, al hough he di e ences a e
no signi ican . O e all, he ade-o s a e no e y s ong, and
in he case o Rwanda, he e seems o be a balance be ween
achie ing highe yields and be e en i onmen al ou comes, a
leas in e ms o plo -le el ege a ion s uc u e.
4.4 Ce i ica ion and Gende Equali y Ou comes
Many o he ag icul u al p ac ices p omo ed by VSS, such as
o ganic e iliza ion, mulching, and in eg a ed pes managemen ,
aim o imp o e soil heal h and inc ease he sus ainabili y o ag i-
cul u al p oduc ion, bu hey a e also e y labo in ensi e (Nkam-
leu and Kielland 2006). As highligh ed in he concep ual ame-
wo k (Figu e 1), when ce i ica ion is associa ed wi h he adop ion
380 Ag icul u al Economics,2025
2We do no conside gende he e, as ou da a do no allow us o de ine
a easonable cu -o o “minimum le el” o gende equali y. The ood
secu i y indica o s used assess access o ood a he household le el (“did
youo any household membe ...”),and husconside , a leas o some
ex en , equal access.
3We ocus he e on Rwanda, since he di e ences be ween ce i ied and
non-ce i ied households in Ghana and Pe u a e mos ly no signi ican
(Table 8).
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