Does nationality moderate tourists' intention to co-create? Investigating tourist behavior in a developing country

Badari, Al Taqdir; Maulana, Amalia E.; Tjhin, Viany Utami; Pradipto, Yosef Dedy Article Does nationality moderate tourists' intention to co-create? Investigating tourist behavior in a developing country Administrative Sciences Provided in Cooperation with: MDPI – Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Basel Suggested Citation: Badari, Al Taqdir; Maulana, Amalia E.; Tjhin, Viany Utami; Pradipto, Yosef Dedy (2025) : Does nationality moderate tourists' intention to co-create? Investigating tourist behavior in a developing country, Administrative Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 1-18, https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15020032 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/321177 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Received: 30 November 2024 Revised: 8 January 2025 Accepted: 10 January 2025 Published: 21 January 2025 Citation: Badari, A. T., Maulana, A. E., Tjhin, V. U., & Pradipto, Y. D. (2025). Does Nationality Moderate Tourists’ Intention to Co-Create? Investigating Tourist Behavior in a Developing Country. Administrative Sciences,15(2), 32. https://doi.org/10.3390/ admsci15020032 Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/). Article Does Nationality Moderate Tourists’ Intention to Co-Create? Investigating Tourist Behavior in a Developing Country Al Taqdir Badari 1,* , Amalia E. Maulana 2, Viany Utami Tjhin 3and Yosef Dedy Pradipto 4 1Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta 11480, Indonesia 2 Creative Marketing Program, Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta 11480, Indonesia; [email protected] 3BINUS Graduate Program, Information System Management Department, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta 11480, Indonesia; [email protected] 4Psychology Department, Faculty of Humanities, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta 11480, Indonesia; dedy[email protected] *Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: The intention to co-create plays a pivotal role in sustainable tourism development. This study investigates whether tourist nationality moderates the intention to co-create within the tourism experience. The research sample consists of 400 international tourists visiting Indonesia for tourism purposes, with data collected between October 2023 and February 2024. The findings reveal that tourist nationality significantly moderates the relationships among tourists’ experiences, trust, and involvement in co-creation. Specifically, tourist nationality influences the relationship between tourist trust and the intention to co-create. However, it does not moderate the correlation between the tourist experience and the intention to co-create. Additionally, tourist nationality moderates the relationship between tourist involvement and the intention to co-create. This study contributes to the Value Co-Creation Theory and offers practical insights for developing more comprehensive platforms and programs aimed at enhancing traveler engagement. The implications of these findings highlight the significance of considering tourist nationality as a moderating factor that influences tourists’ intentions to collaborate within the tourism context. This research provides valuable insights for designing more effective and inclusive tourism development strategies. Keywords: intention to co-create; tourist experience; developing country; tourist behavior; sustainability tourism 1. Introduction The concept of intention to co-create has become a central aspect of sustainable tourism development. The intention to co-create refers to tourists’ willingness or desire to actively participate in the creation and enhancement of products, services, and overall tourism experiences (Lee et al.,2017;Nadeem & Al-Imamy,2020). Various factors influencing this intention have been identified, including social support, social media interactivity, government IT support, consumer ethical perceptions, and relationship quality (Shirazi et al.,2021). A comprehensive understanding of these factors is crucial for enhancing the competitiveness of tourism destinations (Saufi et al.,2015;Marasco et al.,2018;Villamediana-Pedrosa et al.,2020) and providing more satisfying experiences for visitors (Kozak,2002). Aligning with tourists’ co-creation interests enables destination managers to better meet the needs and preferences of tourists, reflecting their motivation to actively engage in the co-creation process with service providers (Prayag et al.,2015). Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15020032 Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 2 of 18 Factors such as experience, trust, and involvement significantly influence tourists’ interest in creating unique and fulfilling tourism experiences (Kozak,2002). With growing awareness of the importance of memorable tourism experiences, tourists are increasingly seen as active participants rather than passive consumers in the process of experience creation. This shift creates opportunities for the development of more innovative and sustainable tourism products while encouraging greater community involvement in supporting the tourism industry. Recent studies indicate that these co-creation efforts not only improve tourist satisfaction but also foster stronger loyalty to destinations (VillamedianaPedrosa et al.,2020). Cultural differences have also been shown to play a significant role in shaping these factors, highlighting the importance of nationality in moderating tourists’ intention to co-create (Li et al.,2011;Grott et al.,2018;Villamediana-Pedrosa et al.,2020). A thorough understanding of the intention to co-create is crucial for enhancing the competitiveness of tourism destinations and providing more satisfying experiences for visitors. By aligning with tourists’ co-creation interests, destination managers and tourism service providers can more effectively respond to the needs and preferences of tourists. This alignment reflects tourists’ desire and motivation to engage in the co-creation process with service providers (Prayag et al.,2015). However, the existing literature provides a limited exploration of whether nationality moderates the relationships between factors such as experience, trust, and involvement and tourists’ intention to co-create. Nationality is recognized as a significant moderating factor in tourist behavior, often reflecting cultural values and social norms that influence tourists’ preferences in co-creation activities (Villamediana-Pedrosa et al.,2020;Wondirad et al.,2021). For instance, tourists from collectivist cultures tend to prefer group activities, whereas those from individualistic cultures place greater value on personal experiences (Kozak,2002;Akman et al.,2019). Additionally, previous studies indicate that nationality affects the extent to which tourists are willing to engage in co-creation, particularly in diverse destination contexts (Villamediana-Pedrosa et al.,2020). In developing countries like Indonesia, tourism plays a critical role in economic development, often serving as a bridge between traditional cultural practices and global market demands. Indonesia offers destinations rich in natural beauty and cultural heritage, making it one of the leading tourist destinations in Southeast Asia. However, challenges such as inadequate infrastructure and limited resources necessitate innovative approaches to enhancing tourist experiences. In this context, co-creation emerges as a powerful tool, enabling destination managers to leverage cultural and community-based assets. By integrating tourists into co-creation processes, Indonesia can offer unique and authentic experiences that set it apart in the competitive global tourism market (Holzner,2011;Zhang et al.,2018). Understanding how nationality moderates these behaviors is particularly relevant in Indonesia, where diverse tourist profiles, both domestic and international, interact within culturally rich yet resource-constrained environments. This study seeks to address this gap by investigating whether nationality moderates the relationships among experience, trust, involvement, and tourists’ intention to co-create within the context of Indonesia. 2. Theoretical Framework 2.1. Service-Dominant Logic (S-D Logic) Over the past few decades, marketing paradigms have evolved significantly. Traditionally, marketing literature placed products at the center of the market. Service-dominant logic, abbreviated as S-D logic (Lusch & Vargo,2006), emphasizes physical resources and a product-oriented managerial approach. Within this framework, customers are seen as Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 3 of 18 objects of production and marketing, with the production process enhancing product value, while marketing focuses on value exchange through pricing (Randall et al.,2011). McCarthy’s 4P marketing model, developed in the 1960s, is often considered the foundational framework for this approach (Zsigmond et al.,2021). However, these traditional views began to be questioned in the 1980s, and new research in the 1990s started recognizing the crucial role of consumers in the marketing process. Discussions contributed to the development of an alternative approach known as service-dominant logic (Ribeiro et al.,2021). The basic principles of S-D logic, proposed by Lusch and Vargo, challenge traditional marketing assumptions by emphasizing the value generated through service use. They argue that all business interactions involve processes of value exchange, where serving means providing benefits to others through the integration of offered resources (Ballantyne et al.,2011;Vargo & Lusch,2008). The value-in-use perspective in S-D logic acknowledges that customers are co-creators and, as beneficiaries, determine what is valuable (Tregua et al.,2021;Vargo & Lusch, 2008). S-D logic represents an integrated mindset for understanding the objectives and nature of organizations, societies, and markets (Vargo & Lusch,2008). The fundamental principles of S-D logic include the following: (1) exchange indirectly involves the basic unit of exchange; (2) skills and knowledge form the basis of the unit; (3) knowledge is the primary source of competitive advantage; (4) goods are mechanisms for delivering services; (5) companies develop value propositions but do not create or add value independently; (6) all economies are service economies; (7) a service-centered view is inherently relational and customer-oriented; and (8) the customer is always a co-producer (Tregua et al.,2021; Uzoka,2020). Vargo and Lusch (2010) outline eight shifts in thinking within S-D logic, including (1) a shift towards emphasizing financial performance as a tool for learning and feedback rather than solely for profit maximization; (2) a shift towards focusing on the service process rather than product creation; (3) recognition of the strategic benefits of symmetric information over asymmetric information; (4) an understanding that companies can only create and act on value propositions, not create or add value directly; (5) a shift towards the creation and utilization of dynamic operating resources as opposed to the consumption and depletion of static resources; (6) a shift in focus towards relational rather than transactional exchanges; (7) a shift towards conversation and dialogue rather than propaganda; and (8) a shift towards intangible excellence rather than tangible offerings in company market strategies. S-D logic has had a significant impact on tourism management literature (Ballantyne et al.,2011;Ballantyne & Varey,2008) and has served as a theoretical foundation for various studies in the tourism sector. In the tourism industry, stakeholders interact within a service ecosystem involving multiple parties (such as tourists, hotels, and destinations), and its complexity arises from the differing roles played by each actor. Studies in this field (Giannopoulos et al.,2021) demonstrate the importance of S-D logic in understanding the concept of co-creation. Therefore, this research is well-grounded in applying the S-D logic framework to investigate co-creation and tourist experiences. 2.2. Value Co-Creation Theory (VCC) The Value Co-creation Theory (VCC) has gained increasing prominence in studies within the tourism industry in recent years. Value Co-creation Theory (VCC) is defined as a collaborative process wherein both material and symbolic value are generated through joint efforts (Galvagno & Dalli,2014). This theory characterizes co-creation value as the partnership between service providers and customers in creating mutual value. It underscores the significance of collaboration between tourism service providers and their customers in generating shared value. Rooted in service-dominant logic (S-D Logic), VCC empha- Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 4 of 18 sizes that services and interactions are essential for creating value for both companies and customers (Lusch & Vargo,2006). S-D logic highlights the importance of collaboration, interdependence, and reciprocal relationships throughout the value-creation process. The concept of value co-creation represents a shift from focusing solely on company resources to considering customer resources, necessitating that organizations realign their core activities to foster meaningful dialogue with customers (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004a). Several studies have underscored the pivotal role of customers in the value cocreation process within the tourism sector. Researchers view customers as active cocreators of value and emphasize their critical role alongside that of companies (Zhao et al.,2019). Furthermore, Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004b) highlight that changes in the market environment, particularly rapid advancements in the internet, have enabled customers to access extensive information swiftly, thereby amplifying their role in the value creation process. Additionally, Solakis et al. (2022) emphasize the importance of collaboration between service providers and customers in enhancing customer experiences within the tourism industry. These findings suggest that the value co-creation process not only affects customer experiences but also contributes positively to product innovation and the overall sustainability of the tourism sector (Dube et al.,2023). Trust is identified as a critical element in the relationship between consumers and service providers, influencing loyalty, engagement, and cooperation with organizations. In a competitive business environment, trust is recognized as a crucial factor; its absence can heighten customer uncertainty and risk (Wang et al.,2014). Zillifro and Morais (2004) argue that investing in information provision bolsters trust and commitment between natural tourism service providers and customers. Prior research indicates that consumer trust significantly impacts their interest in co-creation activities. Empirical studies employing various survey methods, including inperson, mail, and online surveys, demonstrate that consumer trust is a critical determinant of their intention to engage in co-creation (Wang et al.,2014). Another study by Arıca et al. (2023) underscores the critical role of trust in influencing tourists’ motivation to engage in co-creation and their perception of service outcomes within the tourism industry. In the context of collaborative innovation, trust among members is believed to foster community engagement and relationship building, as it enhances individuals’ willingness to cooperate toward achieving common goals. Additional research indicates that trust has a significantly positive effect on co-creation; users are more engaged and contribute more actively to platforms when they trust the information and interactions provided. Trust also helps mitigate users’ concerns about the authenticity of content on a platform (Lam et al.,2020). Hypothesis 1. Tourist trust has a positive effect on tourists’ intention to co-create. Previous research has revealed several intriguing findings regarding the relationship between the tourist experience and the intention to co-create. For example, Chen (2020) discovered that diversity in co-creation experiences positively impacts interest in co-creation. Although this was observed in a different context, it is argued that such diversity can enhance creative self-efficacy and confidence, thereby promoting active participation in cocreation activities within virtual communities. Additionally, Luo et al. (2021) explored the comprehensive understanding of tourist experiences and their impact on the willingness to revisit, which is vital for tourism destination management. This study emphasizes the importance of understanding the correlation between tourist experiences, satisfaction levels, and the intention to revisit, which is crucial for tourism destination marketing strategies. Rather and Hollebeek (2021) further highlight the significance of experiences in utilizing online tourism destination platforms. They found that the emotional experience Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 5 of 18 of a destination serves as a significant mediator between user platform experience and destination engagement intentions. Aesthetically pleasing and trustworthy online interaction environments influence emotional responses to destinations more than perceptions of usefulness and ease of use. Trust in the platform also plays a significant role in users’ emotional evaluations of the destination. Furthermore, Kim et al. (2015) established a significant positive relationship between tourist experiences and the intention to revisit destinations, asserting that travel experiences also impact the intention to return. Hypothesis 2. Tourist experience positively affects tourists’ intention to co-create. Several studies have confirmed that customer involvement in co-creation contexts positively impacts loyalty and trust, applicable to both brand and non-brand customers (Busser & Shulga,2019). Cheung and To (2011) demonstrated that freedom in co-creation fully mediates the effect of customer involvement on service performance evaluation. Moreover, a relational-motivation orientation acts as a moderator in the relationship between customer involvement and freedom in co-creation. Y. C. Liu et al. (2018) found that the direct, positive, and significant relationship between involvement and place attachment is mediated by co-creation. This underscores the effectiveness of co-creation in enhancing place attachment and provides practitioners with insights to assess partners’ capabilities in co-creation. Lorincz et al. (2020) highlighted that customer involvement in experiences varies according to age, emphasizing the need to understand the dimensions of customer involvement to enhance services and loyalty within the tourism industry. This research offers a comprehensive overview of the importance of customer involvement in relation to the intention to co-create. Hypothesis 3. Tourist involvement has a positive effect on tourists’ intention to co-create. The moderating role of tourists’ nationality in their intention to participate in cocreation activities is recognized as a significant factor. Variations in culture, values, and preferences among tourists from different countries can influence their level of interest in engaging in co-creation. Factors such as previous experiences, destination perceptions, and consumer preferences may also differ across nationalities, potentially moderating the relationship between the intention to co-create and other influencing factors. Therefore, destination management must understand these differences and adapt their marketing strategies to cater to each tourism market. Previous research confirms that variables such as tourists’ perceptions of destinations, satisfaction levels, demographic profiles, and tourist activities may vary according to their country of origin. These variations highlight the importance of destination management in understanding the needs of distinct tourist groups, segmenting the tourism market, and developing tailored marketing strategies for each market (Kozak,2002). Additionally, Pizam and Sussmann (1995) found significant differences in learned behavior characteristics between nationality pairs. Destination management can leverage this information to implement more effective marketing strategies based on the preferences and behaviors of tourists from different countries. Other studies indicate significant differences in the perceptions of tourists from four nationalities concerning behavioral characteristics. For instance, American tourists were found to be the most distinct, followed by Germans, British, and French tourists. These findings challenge the common assumption of similarities among Anglo-Saxon descendants and differences with the French. Factor analysis identifies five main factors that explain most of the variation in tourist behavior. Destination management can utilize this Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 6 of 18 information to develop more effective marketing strategies tailored to the preferences and characteristics of tourists from various countries (Pizam & Reichel,1996). Hypothesis 4. Tourist nationality moderates the relationship between the tourist experience and tourist’s intention to co-create. Hypothesis 5. Tourist nationality moderates the relationship between tourist trust and tourist’s intention to co-create. Hypothesis 6. Tourist nationality moderates the relationship between tourist involvement and tourist’s intention to co-create. The research model can be delineated from the foundational research depicted in Figure 1as follows. Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18 findings challenge the common assumption of similarities among Anglo-Saxon descendants and differences with the French. Factor analysis identifies five main factors that explain most of the variation in tourist behavior. Destination management can utilize this information to develop more effective marketing strategies tailored to the preferences and characteristics of tourists from various countries (Pizam & Reichel, 1996). Hypothesis 4. Tourist nationality moderates the relationship between the tourist experience and tourist’s intention to co-create. Hypothesis 5. Tourist nationality moderates the relationship between tourist trust and tourist’s intention to co-create. Hypothesis 6. Tourist nationality moderates the relationship between tourist involvement and tourist’s intention to co-create. The research model can be delineated from the foundational research depicted in Figure 1 as follows. Figure 1. Research model. 3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Data Collection and Sampling This study utilized an online survey to collect data from 400 international tourists visiting Indonesia. The respondents were active users of social media platforms, such as Facebook and Instagram. An initial screening process was conducted to ensure respondent eligibility, including questions about their country of origin and the purpose of their visit to Indonesia. Respondents were also asked to share their experiences in reviewing tourist destinations on social media and providing feedback on new or modified services offered by travel service providers through their official websites. The diversity in the sample composition enabled the study to capture a wide range of perspectives, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of tourists’ co-creation behavior across various cultural and socio-economic contexts. Out of 559 total responses received, 119 respondents were deemed ineligible, as their visit to Indonesia was not for tourism purposes, while 40 others were excluded, as they were not active social media users. After the screening process, data from 400 eligible respondents were used for further analysis. The survey responses were Figure 1. Research model. 3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Data Collection and Sampling This study utilized an online survey to collect data from 400 international tourists visiting Indonesia. The respondents were active users of social media platforms, such as Facebook and Instagram. An initial screening process was conducted to ensure respondent eligibility, including questions about their country of origin and the purpose of their visit to Indonesia. Respondents were also asked to share their experiences in reviewing tourist destinations on social media and providing feedback on new or modified services offered by travel service providers through their official websites. The diversity in the sample composition enabled the study to capture a wide range of perspectives, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of tourists’ co-creation behavior across various cultural and socioeconomic contexts. Out of 559 total responses received, 119 respondents were deemed ineligible, as their visit to Indonesia was not for tourism purposes, while 40 others were excluded, as they were not active social media users. After the screening process, data from 400 eligible respondents were used for further analysis. The survey responses were thoroughly reviewed to ensure data consistency, and anonymization was performed to maintain confidentiality and reliability during the analysis. Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 7 of 18 3.2. Instrument This study adopts a quantitative approach, employing structural equation modeling with partial least squares (SEM-PLS) to analyze the relationships among the variables of interest (Hair et al.,2019;Nguyen et al.,2023). A questionnaire with 35 items was developed to measure key constructs, employing a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (Arafah,2020). The questions in the questionnaire were adapted from validated instruments in previous studies to ensure reliability and validity. These instruments were selected due to their proven relevance in measuring key constructs related to tourist trust, experience, and involvement within the context of tourism studies. For instance, items measuring tourist trust were derived from J. Liu et al. (2019), which focus on the role of trust in consumer behavior and service relationships. Similarly, questions on tourist experience were based on Pine and Gilmore (1998), a foundational study on experiential design, as well as more recent works such as Köchling and Lohmann (2022), which explore the quality of experiences in tourism. Questions on tourist involvement were adapted from Morosan (2018) and Parihar et al. (2019), which emphasize the active participation of tourists in the decision-making process. Additionally, to ensure the suitability of respondents, a series of screening questions were asked. These questions included the respondents’ country of origin and their purpose for visiting Indonesia. The sample of 400 international tourists was selected using criterion-based sampling, ensuring that respondents were individuals who had visited Indonesia and actively used travel websites or social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, Instagram) to seek travel-related information or share their experiences. The instrument was carefully designed to capture insights into respondents’ behaviors, motivations, and perspectives on co-creation in the tourism context. 3.3. Data Analysis Data analysis was conducted using the structural equation modeling–partial least squares (SEM-PLS) method with SmartPLS 4.0 software. The analysis was performed in two main stages: measurement model analysis (outer model) and structural model analysis (inner model). In the measurement model analysis, the validity and reliability of constructs were evaluated through convergent validity, discriminant validity, and construct reliability. In the structural model analysis, the relationships between latent variables were evaluated. This stage involved calculating path coefficients, p-values, and adjusted R square to determine the significance and influence of independent latent variables on dependent latent variables. The structural model analysis provided deeper insights into the hypothesized relationships within the theoretical framework. 4. Results 4.1. Demographic Characteristics The respondents in this study were international tourists from 20 countries, including Germany, the United States, France, Austria, the United Kingdom, Canada, Italy, Finland, Japan, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, India, China, Malaysia, Turkey, Singapore, South Korea, and the United Arab Emirates. This diversity in respondents’ countries of origin provides valuable insights into the socio-economic contexts that shape tourists’ perceptions and experiences. Detailed information about the distribution of respondents by country can be found in Table 1. In terms of gender, the respondents were nearly evenly distributed, with 51% male and 49% female participants. This balanced gender representation allows for an in-depth analysis of co-creation interest among male and female tourists. Furthermore, 67.3% of respondents were married, while 32.7% were unmarried, providing additional demographic perspectives for the study. Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 8 of 18 Table 1. Respondent by country. Country Name Number of Respondents (n) Percentage (%) Austria 83 20.75 Canada 13 3.25 China 14 3.5 Finland 10 2.5 France 16 4 Germany 86 21.25 India 13 3.25 Italy 11 2.75 Japan 13 3.25 Malaysia 28 7.25 Netherlands 11 2.75 Singapore 14 3.5 South Korea 9 2.25 Spain 10 2.5 Sweden 9 2.25 Switzerland 21 5.25 Turkey 3 0.75 United Arab Emirates 10 2.5 United Kingdom 12 3 United States 14 3.5 Total 400 100 4.2. The Measurement Model 4.2.1. Convergent Validity Convergent validity was assessed by examining the outer loading values and average variance extracted (AVE). Indicators with outer loading > 0.7 were considered valid, although values between 0.5 and 0.6 were acceptable for the initial research stage, provided that the AVE value was > 0.5. The AVE values can be seen in Table 2. Table 2. Average variance extracted (AVE). Variable AVE Tourist Nationality (Y1) 0.831 Moderating Effect Y1 between X1 and Y2 0.822 Moderating Effect Y1 between X2 and Y2 0.817 Moderating Effect Y1 between X3 and Y2 0.824 Tourist Experience (X2) 0.644 Tourist Intention to Co-create (Y2) 0.758 Tourist Involvement (X3) 0.691 Tourist Trust (X1) 0.695 Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 15 of 18 et al. (2021) further supports this study’s findings by emphasizing the critical role of cultural authenticity and local traditions in fostering meaningful tourist experiences. This integrated perspective offers a more holistic understanding of tourist motivations and behaviors in the co-creation process. 5.3. Limitations and Future Studies Future research should explore alternative cultural categorizations, such as regional or community identities, to provide a broader understanding of cultural influences on tourism behavior. In-depth qualitative methods, including interviews and focus groups, could uncover the underlying motivations and perceptions that drive tourists’ trust and cocreation intentions. Longitudinal studies could also offer insights into how the moderating role of nationality evolves over time within the dynamic interplay of globalization and cultural identity. Additionally, investigating the role of digital platforms and social media in shaping trust and co-creation behaviors could provide valuable insights into enhancing digital engagement strategies in tourism. Further research on destination-specific factors, such as cultural authenticity and infrastructural quality, would enrich the understanding of how these characteristics interact with nationality to influence tourist behaviors. Another limitation of this study is the unequal representation of countries in the data. The percentages presented in Table 1were not adjusted to ensure equal weighting among countries, which may have introduced a potential bias in the results. Future research should consider applying weighting adjustments to ensure a balanced representation across countries and reduce potential biases in cross-country comparisons. This would provide a more robust analysis of how nationality and other cultural factors influence co-creation behaviors. Future research could also build on the dataset and methodology employed in this study to explore additional dimensions of co-creation behaviors. For instance, the dataset could be expanded to include more diverse cultural contexts, allowing for deeper crosscultural comparisons. Additionally, the current quantitative approach could be integrated with qualitative methods to triangulate findings and provide a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying factors driving tourist trust and co-creation intentions. 6. Conclusions This study highlights the critical role of nationality as a moderating factor in specific dimensions of tourist co-creation behaviors, particularly trust. While nationality remains a significant determinant in some contexts, its diminishing relevance in others calls for more nuanced and adaptive strategies in tourism management. By addressing the complexities of cultural diversity and leveraging co-creation as a tool, tourism stakeholders can enhance the quality of tourist experiences while supporting sustainable tourism practices. These findings contribute to the evolving discourse on the interplay among globalization, cultural identity, and co-creation in the tourism industry. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.T.B. and Y.D.P.; methodology, A.T.B. and V.U.T.; software and formal analysis, A.T.B.; validation, Y.D.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.T.B. and Y.D.P., writing—review and editing, A.T.B., V.U.T. and A.E.M.; supervision, A.E.M. and V.U.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Bina Nusantara University. Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 16 of 18 Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. 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