Bada i, Al Taqdi ; Maulana, Amalia E.; Tjhin, Viany U ami; P adip o, Yose Dedy
A icle
Does na ionali y mode a e ou is s' in en ion o co-c ea e?
In es iga ing ou is beha io in a de eloping coun y
Adminis a i e Sciences
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MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bada i, Al Taqdi ; Maulana, Amalia E.; Tjhin, Viany U ami; P adip o, Yose Dedy
(2025) : Does na ionali y mode a e ou is s' in en ion o co-c ea e? In es iga ing ou is beha io in
a de eloping coun y, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 1-18,
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Ci a ion: Bada i, A. T., Maulana, A. E.,
Tjhin, V. U., & P adip o, Y. D. (2025).
Does Na ionali y Mode a e Tou is s’
In en ion o Co-C ea e? In es iga ing
Tou is Beha io in a De eloping
Coun y. Adminis a i e Sciences,15(2),
32. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci15020032
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A icle
Does Na ionali y Mode a e Tou is s’ In en ion o Co-C ea e?
In es iga ing Tou is Beha io in a De eloping Coun y
Al Taqdi Bada i 1,* , Amalia E. Maulana 2, Viany U ami Tjhin 3and Yose Dedy P adip o 4
1Managemen Depa men , BINUS Business School, Bina Nusan a a Uni e si y, Jaka a 11480, Indonesia
2
C ea i e Ma ke ing P og am, Managemen Depa men , BINUS Business School, Bina Nusan a a Uni e si y,
Jaka a 11480, Indonesia; [email p o ec ed]
3BINUS G adua e P og am, In o ma ion Sys em Managemen Depa men , Bina Nusan a a Uni e si y,
Jaka a 11480, Indonesia; [email p o ec ed]
4Psychology Depa men , Facul y o Humani ies, Bina Nusan a a Uni e si y, Jaka a 11480, Indonesia;
dedy[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The in en ion o co-c ea e plays a pi o al ole in sus ainable ou ism de elopmen .
This s udy in es iga es whe he ou is na ionali y mode a es he in en ion o co-c ea e
wi hin he ou ism expe ience. The esea ch sample consis s o 400 in e na ional ou is s
isi ing Indonesia o ou ism pu poses, wi h da a collec ed be ween Oc obe 2023 and
Feb ua y 2024. The indings e eal ha ou is na ionali y signi ican ly mode a es he ela-
ionships among ou is s’ expe iences, us , and in ol emen in co-c ea ion. Speci ically,
ou is na ionali y in luences he ela ionship be ween ou is us and he in en ion o
co-c ea e. Howe e , i does no mode a e he co ela ion be ween he ou is expe ience
and he in en ion o co-c ea e. Addi ionally, ou is na ionali y mode a es he ela ionship
be ween ou is in ol emen and he in en ion o co-c ea e. This s udy con ibu es o he
Value Co-C ea ion Theo y and o e s p ac ical insigh s o de eloping mo e comp ehensi e
pla o ms and p og ams aimed a enhancing a ele engagemen . The implica ions o
hese indings highligh he signi icance o conside ing ou is na ionali y as a mode a ing
ac o ha in luences ou is s’ in en ions o collabo a e wi hin he ou ism con ex . This
esea ch p o ides aluable insigh s o designing mo e e ec i e and inclusi e ou ism
de elopmen s a egies.
Keywo ds: in en ion o co-c ea e; ou is expe ience; de eloping coun y; ou is beha io ;
sus ainabili y ou ism
1. In oduc ion
The concep o in en ion o co-c ea e has become a cen al aspec o sus ainable ou ism
de elopmen . The in en ion o co-c ea e e e s o ou is s’ willingness o desi e o ac i ely
pa icipa e in he c ea ion and enhancemen o p oduc s, se ices, and o e all ou ism
expe iences (Lee e al.,2017;Nadeem & Al-Imamy,2020). Va ious ac o s in luencing his
in en ion ha e been iden i ied, including social suppo , social media in e ac i i y, go e n-
men IT suppo , consume e hical pe cep ions, and ela ionship quali y (Shi azi e al.,2021).
A comp ehensi e unde s anding o hese ac o s is c ucial o enhancing he compe i i e-
ness o ou ism des ina ions (Sau i e al.,2015;Ma asco e al.,2018;Villamediana-Ped osa
e al.,2020) and p o iding mo e sa is ying expe iences o isi o s (Kozak,2002). Aligning
wi h ou is s’ co-c ea ion in e es s enables des ina ion manage s o be e mee he needs
and p e e ences o ou is s, e lec ing hei mo i a ion o ac i ely engage in he co-c ea ion
p ocess wi h se ice p o ide s (P ayag e al.,2015).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020032
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 2 o 18
Fac o s such as expe ience, us , and in ol emen signi ican ly in luence ou is s’
in e es in c ea ing unique and ul illing ou ism expe iences (Kozak,2002). Wi h g owing
awa eness o he impo ance o memo able ou ism expe iences, ou is s a e inc easingly
seen as ac i e pa icipan s a he han passi e consume s in he p ocess o expe ience
c ea ion. This shi c ea es oppo uni ies o he de elopmen o mo e inno a i e and
sus ainable ou ism p oduc s while encou aging g ea e communi y in ol emen in sup-
po ing he ou ism indus y. Recen s udies indica e ha hese co-c ea ion e o s no only
imp o e ou is sa is ac ion bu also os e s onge loyal y o des ina ions (Villamediana-
Ped osa e al.,2020).
Cul u al di e ences ha e also been shown o play a signi ican ole in shaping hese
ac o s, highligh ing he impo ance o na ionali y in mode a ing ou is s’ in en ion o
co-c ea e (Li e al.,2011;G o e al.,2018;Villamediana-Ped osa e al.,2020). A ho ough
unde s anding o he in en ion o co-c ea e is c ucial o enhancing he compe i i eness o
ou ism des ina ions and p o iding mo e sa is ying expe iences o isi o s. By aligning
wi h ou is s’ co-c ea ion in e es s, des ina ion manage s and ou ism se ice p o ide s can
mo e e ec i ely espond o he needs and p e e ences o ou is s. This alignmen e lec s
ou is s’ desi e and mo i a ion o engage in he co-c ea ion p ocess wi h se ice p o ide s
(P ayag e al.,2015).
Howe e , he exis ing li e a u e p o ides a limi ed explo a ion o whe he na ionali y
mode a es he ela ionships be ween ac o s such as expe ience, us , and in ol emen
and ou is s’ in en ion o co-c ea e. Na ionali y is ecognized as a signi ican mode a ing
ac o in ou is beha io , o en e lec ing cul u al alues and social no ms ha in luence
ou is s’ p e e ences in co-c ea ion ac i i ies (Villamediana-Ped osa e al.,2020;Wondi ad
e al.,2021). Fo ins ance, ou is s om collec i is cul u es end o p e e g oup ac i i ies,
whe eas hose om indi idualis ic cul u es place g ea e alue on pe sonal expe iences
(Kozak,2002;Akman e al.,2019). Addi ionally, p e ious s udies indica e ha na ionali y
a ec s he ex en o which ou is s a e willing o engage in co-c ea ion, pa icula ly in
di e se des ina ion con ex s (Villamediana-Ped osa e al.,2020).
In de eloping coun ies like Indonesia, ou ism plays a c i ical ole in economic
de elopmen , o en se ing as a b idge be ween adi ional cul u al p ac ices and global
ma ke demands. Indonesia o e s des ina ions ich in na u al beau y and cul u al he i age,
making i one o he leading ou is des ina ions in Sou heas Asia. Howe e , challenges
such as inadequa e in as uc u e and limi ed esou ces necessi a e inno a i e app oaches
o enhancing ou is expe iences. In his con ex , co-c ea ion eme ges as a powe ul ool,
enabling des ina ion manage s o le e age cul u al and communi y-based asse s. By
in eg a ing ou is s in o co-c ea ion p ocesses, Indonesia can o e unique and au hen ic
expe iences ha se i apa in he compe i i e global ou ism ma ke (Holzne ,2011;Zhang
e al.,2018).
Unde s anding how na ionali y mode a es hese beha io s is pa icula ly ele an in
Indonesia, whe e di e se ou is p o iles, bo h domes ic and in e na ional, in e ac wi hin
cul u ally ich ye esou ce-cons ained en i onmen s. This s udy seeks o add ess his gap
by in es iga ing whe he na ionali y mode a es he ela ionships among expe ience, us ,
in ol emen , and ou is s’ in en ion o co-c ea e wi hin he con ex o Indonesia.
2. Theo e ical F amewo k
2.1. Se ice-Dominan Logic (S-D Logic)
O e he pas ew decades, ma ke ing pa adigms ha e e ol ed signi ican ly. T adi-
ionally, ma ke ing li e a u e placed p oduc s a he cen e o he ma ke . Se ice-dominan
logic, abb e ia ed as S-D logic (Lusch & Va go,2006), emphasizes physical esou ces and
a p oduc -o ien ed manage ial app oach. Wi hin his amewo k, cus ome s a e seen as
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 3 o 18
objec s o p oduc ion and ma ke ing, wi h he p oduc ion p ocess enhancing p oduc alue,
while ma ke ing ocuses on alue exchange h ough p icing (Randall e al.,2011). Mc-
Ca hy’s 4P ma ke ing model, de eloped in he 1960s, is o en conside ed he ounda ional
amewo k o his app oach (Zsigmond e al.,2021).
Howe e , hese adi ional iews began o be ques ioned in he 1980s, and new
esea ch in he 1990s s a ed ecognizing he c ucial ole o consume s in he ma ke ing
p ocess. Discussions con ibu ed o he de elopmen o an al e na i e app oach known as
se ice-dominan logic (Ribei o e al.,2021). The basic p inciples o S-D logic, p oposed
by Lusch and Va go, challenge adi ional ma ke ing assump ions by emphasizing he
alue gene a ed h ough se ice use. They a gue ha all business in e ac ions in ol e
p ocesses o alue exchange, whe e se ing means p o iding bene i s o o he s h ough he
in eg a ion o o e ed esou ces (Ballan yne e al.,2011;Va go & Lusch,2008).
The alue-in-use pe spec i e in S-D logic acknowledges ha cus ome s a e co-c ea o s
and, as bene icia ies, de e mine wha is aluable (T egua e al.,2021;Va go & Lusch,
2008). S-D logic ep esen s an in eg a ed mindse o unde s anding he objec i es and
na u e o o ganiza ions, socie ies, and ma ke s (Va go & Lusch,2008). The undamen al
p inciples o S-D logic include he ollowing: (1) exchange indi ec ly in ol es he basic
uni o exchange; (2) skills and knowledge o m he basis o he uni ; (3) knowledge is he
p ima y sou ce o compe i i e ad an age; (4) goods a e mechanisms o deli e ing se ices;
(5) companies de elop alue p oposi ions bu do no c ea e o add alue independen ly;
(6) all economies a e se ice economies; (7) a se ice-cen e ed iew is inhe en ly ela ional
and cus ome -o ien ed; and (8) he cus ome is always a co-p oduce (T egua e al.,2021;
Uzoka,2020).
Va go and Lusch (2010) ou line eigh shi s in hinking wi hin S-D logic, including (1) a
shi owa ds emphasizing inancial pe o mance as a ool o lea ning and eedback a he
han solely o p o i maximiza ion; (2) a shi owa ds ocusing on he se ice p ocess a he
han p oduc c ea ion; (3) ecogni ion o he s a egic bene i s o symme ic in o ma ion
o e asymme ic in o ma ion; (4) an unde s anding ha companies can only c ea e and ac
on alue p oposi ions, no c ea e o add alue di ec ly; (5) a shi owa ds he c ea ion and
u iliza ion o dynamic ope a ing esou ces as opposed o he consump ion and deple ion o
s a ic esou ces; (6) a shi in ocus owa ds ela ional a he han ansac ional exchanges;
(7) a shi owa ds con e sa ion and dialogue a he han p opaganda; and (8) a shi
owa ds in angible excellence a he han angible o e ings in company ma ke s a egies.
S-D logic has had a signi ican impac on ou ism managemen li e a u e (Ballan yne
e al.,2011;Ballan yne & Va ey,2008) and has se ed as a heo e ical ounda ion o
a ious s udies in he ou ism sec o . In he ou ism indus y, s akeholde s in e ac wi hin
a se ice ecosys em in ol ing mul iple pa ies (such as ou is s, ho els, and des ina ions),
and i s complexi y a ises om he di e ing oles played by each ac o . S udies in his ield
(Giannopoulos e al.,2021) demons a e he impo ance o S-D logic in unde s anding he
concep o co-c ea ion. The e o e, his esea ch is well-g ounded in applying he S-D logic
amewo k o in es iga e co-c ea ion and ou is expe iences.
2.2. Value Co-C ea ion Theo y (VCC)
The Value Co-c ea ion Theo y (VCC) has gained inc easing p ominence in s udies
wi hin he ou ism indus y in ecen yea s. Value Co-c ea ion Theo y (VCC) is de ined as a
collabo a i e p ocess whe ein bo h ma e ial and symbolic alue a e gene a ed h ough join
e o s (Gal agno & Dalli,2014). This heo y cha ac e izes co-c ea ion alue as he pa -
ne ship be ween se ice p o ide s and cus ome s in c ea ing mu ual alue. I unde sco es
he signi icance o collabo a ion be ween ou ism se ice p o ide s and hei cus ome s
in gene a ing sha ed alue. Roo ed in se ice-dominan logic (S-D Logic), VCC empha-
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 4 o 18
sizes ha se ices and in e ac ions a e essen ial o c ea ing alue o bo h companies and
cus ome s (Lusch & Va go,2006). S-D logic highligh s he impo ance o collabo a ion,
in e dependence, and ecip ocal ela ionships h oughou he alue-c ea ion p ocess.
The concep o alue co-c ea ion ep esen s a shi om ocusing solely on company
esou ces o conside ing cus ome esou ces, necessi a ing ha o ganiza ions ealign hei
co e ac i i ies o os e meaning ul dialogue wi h cus ome s (P ahalad & Ramaswamy,
2004a). Se e al s udies ha e unde sco ed he pi o al ole o cus ome s in he alue co-
c ea ion p ocess wi hin he ou ism sec o . Resea che s iew cus ome s as ac i e co-
c ea o s o alue and emphasize hei c i ical ole alongside ha o companies (Zhao
e al.,2019). Fu he mo e, P ahalad and Ramaswamy (2004b) highligh ha changes in
he ma ke en i onmen , pa icula ly apid ad ancemen s in he in e ne , ha e enabled
cus ome s o access ex ensi e in o ma ion swi ly, he eby ampli ying hei ole in he alue
c ea ion p ocess.
Addi ionally, Solakis e al. (2022) emphasize he impo ance o collabo a ion be ween
se ice p o ide s and cus ome s in enhancing cus ome expe iences wi hin he ou ism
indus y. These indings sugges ha he alue co-c ea ion p ocess no only a ec s cus-
ome expe iences bu also con ibu es posi i ely o p oduc inno a ion and he o e all
sus ainabili y o he ou ism sec o (Dube e al.,2023). T us is iden i ied as a c i ical el-
emen in he ela ionship be ween consume s and se ice p o ide s, in luencing loyal y,
engagemen , and coope a ion wi h o ganiza ions. In a compe i i e business en i onmen ,
us is ecognized as a c ucial ac o ; i s absence can heigh en cus ome unce ain y and
isk (Wang e al.,2014). Zilli o and Mo ais (2004) a gue ha in es ing in in o ma ion
p o ision bols e s us and commi men be ween na u al ou ism se ice p o ide s and
cus ome s. P io esea ch indica es ha consume us signi ican ly impac s hei in e es
in co-c ea ion ac i i ies. Empi ical s udies employing a ious su ey me hods, including in-
pe son, mail, and online su eys, demons a e ha consume us is a c i ical de e minan
o hei in en ion o engage in co-c ea ion (Wang e al.,2014).
Ano he s udy by A ıca e al. (2023) unde sco es he c i ical ole o us in in luencing
ou is s’ mo i a ion o engage in co-c ea ion and hei pe cep ion o se ice ou comes wi hin
he ou ism indus y. In he con ex o collabo a i e inno a ion, us among membe s
is belie ed o os e communi y engagemen and ela ionship building, as i enhances
indi iduals’ willingness o coope a e owa d achie ing common goals. Addi ional esea ch
indica es ha us has a signi ican ly posi i e e ec on co-c ea ion; use s a e mo e engaged
and con ibu e mo e ac i ely o pla o ms when hey us he in o ma ion and in e ac ions
p o ided. T us also helps mi iga e use s’ conce ns abou he au hen ici y o con en on a
pla o m (Lam e al.,2020).
Hypo hesis 1. Tou is us has a posi i e e ec on ou is s’ in en ion o co-c ea e.
P e ious esea ch has e ealed se e al in iguing indings ega ding he ela ionship
be ween he ou is expe ience and he in en ion o co-c ea e. Fo example, Chen (2020) dis-
co e ed ha di e si y in co-c ea ion expe iences posi i ely impac s in e es in co-c ea ion.
Al hough his was obse ed in a di e en con ex , i is a gued ha such di e si y can
enhance c ea i e sel -e icacy and con idence, he eby p omo ing ac i e pa icipa ion in co-
c ea ion ac i i ies wi hin i ual communi ies. Addi ionally, Luo e al. (2021) explo ed he
comp ehensi e unde s anding o ou is expe iences and hei impac on he willingness
o e isi , which is i al o ou ism des ina ion managemen . This s udy emphasizes he
impo ance o unde s anding he co ela ion be ween ou is expe iences, sa is ac ion le els,
and he in en ion o e isi , which is c ucial o ou ism des ina ion ma ke ing s a egies.
Ra he and Hollebeek (2021) u he highligh he signi icance o expe iences in u i-
lizing online ou ism des ina ion pla o ms. They ound ha he emo ional expe ience
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 5 o 18
o a des ina ion se es as a signi ican media o be ween use pla o m expe ience and
des ina ion engagemen in en ions. Aes he ically pleasing and us wo hy online in e ac-
ion en i onmen s in luence emo ional esponses o des ina ions mo e han pe cep ions
o use ulness and ease o use. T us in he pla o m also plays a signi ican ole in use s’
emo ional e alua ions o he des ina ion. Fu he mo e, Kim e al. (2015) es ablished a
signi ican posi i e ela ionship be ween ou is expe iences and he in en ion o e isi
des ina ions, asse ing ha a el expe iences also impac he in en ion o e u n.
Hypo hesis 2. Tou is expe ience posi i ely a ec s ou is s’ in en ion o co-c ea e.
Se e al s udies ha e con i med ha cus ome in ol emen in co-c ea ion con ex s
posi i ely impac s loyal y and us , applicable o bo h b and and non-b and cus ome s
(Busse & Shulga,2019). Cheung and To (2011) demons a ed ha eedom in co-c ea ion
ully media es he e ec o cus ome in ol emen on se ice pe o mance e alua ion. Mo e-
o e , a ela ional-mo i a ion o ien a ion ac s as a mode a o in he ela ionship be ween
cus ome in ol emen and eedom in co-c ea ion.
Y. C. Liu e al. (2018) ound ha he di ec , posi i e, and signi ican ela ionship
be ween in ol emen and place a achmen is media ed by co-c ea ion. This unde sco es
he e ec i eness o co-c ea ion in enhancing place a achmen and p o ides p ac i ione s
wi h insigh s o assess pa ne s’ capabili ies in co-c ea ion. Lo incz e al. (2020) highligh ed
ha cus ome in ol emen in expe iences a ies acco ding o age, emphasizing he need o
unde s and he dimensions o cus ome in ol emen o enhance se ices and loyal y wi hin
he ou ism indus y. This esea ch o e s a comp ehensi e o e iew o he impo ance o
cus ome in ol emen in ela ion o he in en ion o co-c ea e.
Hypo hesis 3. Tou is in ol emen has a posi i e e ec on ou is s’ in en ion o co-c ea e.
The mode a ing ole o ou is s’ na ionali y in hei in en ion o pa icipa e in co-
c ea ion ac i i ies is ecognized as a signi ican ac o . Va ia ions in cul u e, alues, and
p e e ences among ou is s om di e en coun ies can in luence hei le el o in e es in
engaging in co-c ea ion. Fac o s such as p e ious expe iences, des ina ion pe cep ions,
and consume p e e ences may also di e ac oss na ionali ies, po en ially mode a ing he
ela ionship be ween he in en ion o co-c ea e and o he in luencing ac o s. The e o e,
des ina ion managemen mus unde s and hese di e ences and adap hei ma ke ing
s a egies o ca e o each ou ism ma ke .
P e ious esea ch con i ms ha a iables such as ou is s’ pe cep ions o des ina ions,
sa is ac ion le els, demog aphic p o iles, and ou is ac i i ies may a y acco ding o hei
coun y o o igin. These a ia ions highligh he impo ance o des ina ion managemen
in unde s anding he needs o dis inc ou is g oups, segmen ing he ou ism ma ke ,
and de eloping ailo ed ma ke ing s a egies o each ma ke (Kozak,2002). Addi ionally,
Pizam and Sussmann (1995) ound signi ican di e ences in lea ned beha io cha ac e is ics
be ween na ionali y pai s. Des ina ion managemen can le e age his in o ma ion o
implemen mo e e ec i e ma ke ing s a egies based on he p e e ences and beha io s o
ou is s om di e en coun ies.
O he s udies indica e signi ican di e ences in he pe cep ions o ou is s om ou
na ionali ies conce ning beha io al cha ac e is ics. Fo ins ance, Ame ican ou is s we e
ound o be he mos dis inc , ollowed by Ge mans, B i ish, and F ench ou is s. These
indings challenge he common assump ion o simila i ies among Anglo-Saxon descen-
dan s and di e ences wi h he F ench. Fac o analysis iden i ies i e main ac o s ha
explain mos o he a ia ion in ou is beha io . Des ina ion managemen can u ilize his
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 6 o 18
in o ma ion o de elop mo e e ec i e ma ke ing s a egies ailo ed o he p e e ences and
cha ac e is ics o ou is s om a ious coun ies (Pizam & Reichel,1996).
Hypo hesis 4. Tou is na ionali y mode a es he ela ionship be ween he ou is expe ience and
ou is ’s in en ion o co-c ea e.
Hypo hesis 5. Tou is na ionali y mode a es he ela ionship be ween ou is us and ou is ’s
in en ion o co-c ea e.
Hypo hesis 6. Tou is na ionali y mode a es he ela ionship be ween ou is in ol emen and
ou is ’s in en ion o co-c ea e.
The esea ch model can be delinea ed om he ounda ional esea ch depic ed in
Figu e 1as ollows.
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 18
indings challenge he common assump ion o simila i ies among Anglo-Saxon descend-
an s and diffe ences wi h he F ench. Fac o analysis iden i ies i e main ac o s ha ex-
plain mos o he a ia ion in ou is beha io . Des ina ion managemen can u ilize his
in o ma ion o de elop mo e effec i e ma ke ing s a egies ailo ed o he p e e ences and
cha ac e is ics o ou is s om a ious coun ies (Pizam & Reichel, 1996).
Hypo hesis 4. Tou is na ionali y mode a es he ela ionship be ween he ou is expe ience and
ou is ’s in en ion o co-c ea e.
Hypo hesis 5. Tou is na ionali y mode a es he ela ionship be ween ou is us and ou is ’s
in en ion o co-c ea e.
Hypo hesis 6. Tou is na ionali y mode a es he ela ionship be ween ou is in ol emen and
ou is ’s in en ion o co-c ea e.
The esea ch model can be delinea ed om he ounda ional esea ch depic ed in
Figu e 1 as ollows.
Figu e 1. Resea ch model.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Da a Collec ion and Sampling
This s udy u ilized an online su ey o collec da a om 400 in e na ional ou is s
isi ing Indonesia. The esponden s we e ac i e use s o social media pla o ms, such as
Facebook and Ins ag am. An ini ial sc eening p ocess was conduc ed o ensu e espond-
en eligibili y, including ques ions abou hei coun y o o igin and he pu pose o hei
isi o Indonesia. Responden s we e also asked o sha e hei expe iences in e iewing
ou is des ina ions on social media and p o iding eedback on new o modi ied se ices
offe ed by a el se ice p o ide s h ough hei official websi es. The di e si y in he
sample composi ion enabled he s udy o cap u e a wide ange o pe spec i es, acili a ing
a comp ehensi e analysis o ou is s’ co-c ea ion beha io ac oss a ious cul u al and so-
cio-economic con ex s. Ou o 559 o al esponses ecei ed, 119 esponden s we e deemed
ineligible, as hei isi o Indonesia was no o ou ism pu poses, while 40 o he s we e
excluded, as hey we e no ac i e social media use s. A e he sc eening p ocess, da a
om 400 eligible esponden s we e used o u he analysis. The su ey esponses we e
Figu e 1. Resea ch model.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Da a Collec ion and Sampling
This s udy u ilized an online su ey o collec da a om 400 in e na ional ou is s
isi ing Indonesia. The esponden s we e ac i e use s o social media pla o ms, such as
Facebook and Ins ag am. An ini ial sc eening p ocess was conduc ed o ensu e esponden
eligibili y, including ques ions abou hei coun y o o igin and he pu pose o hei isi
o Indonesia. Responden s we e also asked o sha e hei expe iences in e iewing ou is
des ina ions on social media and p o iding eedback on new o modi ied se ices o e ed
by a el se ice p o ide s h ough hei o icial websi es. The di e si y in he sample
composi ion enabled he s udy o cap u e a wide ange o pe spec i es, acili a ing a
comp ehensi e analysis o ou is s’ co-c ea ion beha io ac oss a ious cul u al and socio-
economic con ex s. Ou o 559 o al esponses ecei ed, 119 esponden s we e deemed
ineligible, as hei isi o Indonesia was no o ou ism pu poses, while 40 o he s we e
excluded, as hey we e no ac i e social media use s. A e he sc eening p ocess, da a
om 400 eligible esponden s we e used o u he analysis. The su ey esponses we e
ho oughly e iewed o ensu e da a consis ency, and anonymiza ion was pe o med o
main ain con iden iali y and eliabili y du ing he analysis.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 7 o 18
3.2. Ins umen
This s udy adop s a quan i a i e app oach, employing s uc u al equa ion modeling
wi h pa ial leas squa es (SEM-PLS) o analyze he ela ionships among he a iables o
in e es (Hai e al.,2019;Nguyen e al.,2023). A ques ionnai e wi h 35 i ems was de eloped
o measu e key cons uc s, employing a Like scale anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5
(s ongly ag ee) (A a ah,2020). The ques ions in he ques ionnai e we e adap ed om ali-
da ed ins umen s in p e ious s udies o ensu e eliabili y and alidi y. These ins umen s
we e selec ed due o hei p o en ele ance in measu ing key cons uc s ela ed o ou is
us , expe ience, and in ol emen wi hin he con ex o ou ism s udies. Fo ins ance, i ems
measu ing ou is us we e de i ed om J. Liu e al. (2019), which ocus on he ole o us
in consume beha io and se ice ela ionships. Simila ly, ques ions on ou is expe ience
we e based on Pine and Gilmo e (1998), a ounda ional s udy on expe ien ial design, as
well as mo e ecen wo ks such as Köchling and Lohmann (2022), which explo e he quali y
o expe iences in ou ism. Ques ions on ou is in ol emen we e adap ed om Mo osan
(2018) and Pa iha e al. (2019), which emphasize he ac i e pa icipa ion o ou is s in he
decision-making p ocess. Addi ionally, o ensu e he sui abili y o esponden s, a se ies
o sc eening ques ions we e asked. These ques ions included he esponden s’ coun y o
o igin and hei pu pose o isi ing Indonesia. The sample o 400 in e na ional ou is s
was selec ed using c i e ion-based sampling, ensu ing ha esponden s we e indi iduals
who had isi ed Indonesia and ac i ely used a el websi es o social media pla o ms
(e.g., Facebook, Ins ag am) o seek a el- ela ed in o ma ion o sha e hei expe iences.
The ins umen was ca e ully designed o cap u e insigh s in o esponden s’ beha io s,
mo i a ions, and pe spec i es on co-c ea ion in he ou ism con ex .
3.3. Da a Analysis
Da a analysis was conduc ed using he s uc u al equa ion modeling–pa ial leas
squa es (SEM-PLS) me hod wi h Sma PLS 4.0 so wa e. The analysis was pe o med
in wo main s ages: measu emen model analysis (ou e model) and s uc u al model
analysis (inne model). In he measu emen model analysis, he alidi y and eliabili y o
cons uc s we e e alua ed h ough con e gen alidi y, disc iminan alidi y, and cons uc
eliabili y. In he s uc u al model analysis, he ela ionships be ween la en a iables
we e e alua ed. This s age in ol ed calcula ing pa h coe icien s, p- alues, and adjus ed
R squa e o de e mine he signi icance and in luence o independen la en a iables on
dependen la en a iables. The s uc u al model analysis p o ided deepe insigh s in o
he hypo hesized ela ionships wi hin he heo e ical amewo k.
4. Resul s
4.1. Demog aphic Cha ac e is ics
The esponden s in his s udy we e in e na ional ou is s om 20 coun ies, including
Ge many, he Uni ed S a es, F ance, Aus ia, he Uni ed Kingdom, Canada, I aly, Finland,
Japan, he Ne he lands, Spain, Sweden, Swi ze land, India, China, Malaysia, Tu key,
Singapo e, Sou h Ko ea, and he Uni ed A ab Emi a es. This di e si y in esponden s’
coun ies o o igin p o ides aluable insigh s in o he socio-economic con ex s ha shape
ou is s’ pe cep ions and expe iences. De ailed in o ma ion abou he dis ibu ion o
esponden s by coun y can be ound in Table 1.
In e ms o gende , he esponden s we e nea ly e enly dis ibu ed, wi h 51% male
and 49% emale pa icipan s. This balanced gende ep esen a ion allows o an in-dep h
analysis o co-c ea ion in e es among male and emale ou is s. Fu he mo e, 67.3% o e-
sponden s we e ma ied, while 32.7% we e unma ied, p o iding addi ional demog aphic
pe spec i es o he s udy.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 8 o 18
Table 1. Responden by coun y.
Coun y Name Numbe o Responden s (n) Pe cen age (%)
Aus ia 83 20.75
Canada 13 3.25
China 14 3.5
Finland 10 2.5
F ance 16 4
Ge many 86 21.25
India 13 3.25
I aly 11 2.75
Japan 13 3.25
Malaysia 28 7.25
Ne he lands 11 2.75
Singapo e 14 3.5
Sou h Ko ea 9 2.25
Spain 10 2.5
Sweden 9 2.25
Swi ze land 21 5.25
Tu key 3 0.75
Uni ed A ab Emi a es 10 2.5
Uni ed Kingdom 12 3
Uni ed S a es 14 3.5
To al 400 100
4.2. The Measu emen Model
4.2.1. Con e gen Validi y
Con e gen alidi y was assessed by examining he ou e loading alues and a e age
a iance ex ac ed (AVE). Indica o s wi h ou e loading > 0.7 we e conside ed alid, al-
hough alues be ween 0.5 and 0.6 we e accep able o he ini ial esea ch s age, p o ided
ha he AVE alue was > 0.5. The AVE alues can be seen in Table 2.
Table 2. A e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE).
Va iable AVE
Tou is Na ionali y (Y1) 0.831
Mode a ing E ec Y1 be ween X1 and Y2 0.822
Mode a ing E ec Y1 be ween X2 and Y2 0.817
Mode a ing E ec Y1 be ween X3 and Y2 0.824
Tou is Expe ience (X2) 0.644
Tou is In en ion o Co-c ea e (Y2) 0.758
Tou is In ol emen (X3) 0.691
Tou is T us (X1) 0.695
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 15 o 18
e al. (2021) u he suppo s his s udy’s indings by emphasizing he c i ical ole o
cul u al au hen ici y and local adi ions in os e ing meaning ul ou is expe iences. This
in eg a ed pe spec i e o e s a mo e holis ic unde s anding o ou is mo i a ions and
beha io s in he co-c ea ion p ocess.
5.3. Limi a ions and Fu u e S udies
Fu u e esea ch should explo e al e na i e cul u al ca ego iza ions, such as egional
o communi y iden i ies, o p o ide a b oade unde s anding o cul u al in luences on
ou ism beha io . In-dep h quali a i e me hods, including in e iews and ocus g oups,
could unco e he unde lying mo i a ions and pe cep ions ha d i e ou is s’ us and co-
c ea ion in en ions. Longi udinal s udies could also o e insigh s in o how he mode a ing
ole o na ionali y e ol es o e ime wi hin he dynamic in e play o globaliza ion and
cul u al iden i y.
Addi ionally, in es iga ing he ole o digi al pla o ms and social media in shaping
us and co-c ea ion beha io s could p o ide aluable insigh s in o enhancing digi al
engagemen s a egies in ou ism. Fu he esea ch on des ina ion-speci ic ac o s, such as
cul u al au hen ici y and in as uc u al quali y, would en ich he unde s anding o how
hese cha ac e is ics in e ac wi h na ionali y o in luence ou is beha io s.
Ano he limi a ion o his s udy is he unequal ep esen a ion o coun ies in he da a.
The pe cen ages p esen ed in Table 1we e no adjus ed o ensu e equal weigh ing among
coun ies, which may ha e in oduced a po en ial bias in he esul s. Fu u e esea ch
should conside applying weigh ing adjus men s o ensu e a balanced ep esen a ion
ac oss coun ies and educe po en ial biases in c oss-coun y compa isons. This would
p o ide a mo e obus analysis o how na ionali y and o he cul u al ac o s in luence
co-c ea ion beha io s.
Fu u e esea ch could also build on he da ase and me hodology employed in his
s udy o explo e addi ional dimensions o co-c ea ion beha io s. Fo ins ance, he da ase
could be expanded o include mo e di e se cul u al con ex s, allowing o deepe c oss-
cul u al compa isons. Addi ionally, he cu en quan i a i e app oach could be in eg a ed
wi h quali a i e me hods o iangula e indings and p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e unde -
s anding o he unde lying ac o s d i ing ou is us and co-c ea ion in en ions.
6. Conclusions
This s udy highligh s he c i ical ole o na ionali y as a mode a ing ac o in speci ic
dimensions o ou is co-c ea ion beha io s, pa icula ly us . While na ionali y emains a
signi ican de e minan in some con ex s, i s diminishing ele ance in o he s calls o mo e
nuanced and adap i e s a egies in ou ism managemen . By add essing he complexi ies
o cul u al di e si y and le e aging co-c ea ion as a ool, ou ism s akeholde s can enhance
he quali y o ou is expe iences while suppo ing sus ainable ou ism p ac ices. These
indings con ibu e o he e ol ing discou se on he in e play among globaliza ion, cul u al
iden i y, and co-c ea ion in he ou ism indus y.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, A.T.B. and Y.D.P.; me hodology, A.T.B. and V.U.T.; so -
wa e and o mal analysis, A.T.B.; alida ion, Y.D.P.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, A.T.B. and
Y.D.P., w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.T.B., V.U.T. and A.E.M.; supe ision, A.E.M. and V.U.T. All
au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : This s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla-
a ion o Helsinki, and app o ed by he Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d (o E hics Commi ee) o Bina
Nusan a a Uni e si y.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 32 16 o 18
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The o iginal con ibu ions p esen ed in he s udy a e included in he
a icle, u he inqui ies can be di ec ed o he co esponding au ho s.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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