Jun, Minjong; Ecka d , Ro y
A icle
T aining and employee u no e : A social exchange
pe spec i e
BRQ Business Resea ch Qua e ly
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Asociación Cien í ica de Economía y Di ección de Emp esas (ACEDE), Mad id
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Jun, Minjong; Ecka d , Ro y (2025) : T aining and employee u no e : A social
exchange pe spec i e, BRQ Business Resea ch Qua e ly, ISSN 2340-9444, Sage Publishing, London,
Vol. 28, Iss. 1, pp. 304-323,
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In oduc ion
A subs an ial amoun o p io esea ch has in es iga ed he
link be ween aining and employee u no e (Benson e al.,
2004; Hausknech & T e o , 2011; Hea ey e al., 2013; I o &
B o he idge, 2005). Iden i ying he associa ion be ween
aining and employee u no e is impo an as o ganiza ions
a e unlikely o ecei e an adequa e e u n on hei in es men
in aining i employees depa om he o ganiza ion (Haines
e al., 2010; T e o , 2001; T e o & Nybe g, 2008).
Mo eo e , while he knowledge, skills, and abili ies employ-
ees ob ain om aining can posi i ely in luence alue c ea-
ion (Ba ney, 1991; K aime e al., 2011; Van Iddekinge
e al., 2009), employee u no e esul s in he ou low o
knowledge, skills, and abili ies o compe i o s (Benson e al.,
2004; Haines e al., 2010). In addi ion, and mo e b oadly,
employee u no e can nega i ely impac o ganiza ional pe -
o mance (Shaw e al., 2013) as i in ol es addi ional cos s in
he selec ion o eplacemen hi es and implemen a ion o u -
he aining (Jeong, 2008; Shaw e al., 2005) and can esul
in subs an ial dis up ion o he p oduc i e ope a ions o an
o ganiza ion (Reilly e al., 2014). Mo e impo an ly, no o
e y ew clues abou he qui -o -s ay decisions o employees
make i ha d o o ganiza ions o de elop and implemen
e en ion s a egies and ele an human esou ces (HR) p ac-
ices (Bol e al., 2022; Boxall e al., 2003). In o de o a oid
poo in es men s in aining and ac ions ha could po en-
ially nega i ely impac o ganiza ional pe o mance o com-
pe i i e posi ioning, i is necessa y o look ca e ully a he
e ec o aining on employee u no e .
Despi e conside able esea ch a en ion, we lack a clea
unde s anding o he link be ween aining and employee
u no e . Mo e speci ically, while he e ha e been a num-
be o s udies ha suppo a nega i e associa ion be ween
aining and u no e (Benson e al., 2004; Kampko e &
Ma gg a , 2015; Ng e al., 2022), he e a e also s udies ha
sugges a posi i e associa ion (Cao & Hamo i, 2020;
T aining and employee u no e :
A social exchange pe spec i e
Minjong Jun and Ro y Ecka d
Abs ac
T aining is o en hough o bene i o ganiza ions; howe e , hese bene i s only ma e ialize i ained employees emain a
he o ganiza ion. Empi ical indings a e mixed ega ding he di ec ion and signi icance o he aining- u no e associa ion,
which implies he e a e impo an mode a o s o his associa ion. D awing on he social exchange heo y, we posi he
aining- u no e associa ion a ies as a unc ion o wo cha ac e is ics o an o ganiza ion’s employees: job quali ica ion
and educa ional backg ound. We assess hypo heses o hei mode a ing impac on he aining- u no e link using he
Human Capi al Co po a e Panel da a se s om 2009 o 2017. The panel da a analyses suppo he hypo heses ega ding
he in e ac ion e ec s o aining and job quali ica ion on employee u no e and demons a e h ee-way e ec s among
aining, job quali ica ion, and educa ional backg ound. We discuss he heo e ical implica ions o hese indings o he
a ied pe cep ions o he alue o aining and he alue o s aying a he o ganiza ion om a social exchange pe spec i e.
JEL CLASSIFICATION: (1) M53 T aining and (2) J63 Tu no e ; Vacancies; Layo s
Keywo ds
Employee u no e , aining, job quali ica ion, educa ional backg ounds, social exchange heo y
School o Managemen and Bass Cen e o Leade ship S udies,
Bingham on Uni e si y, S a e Uni e si y o New Yo k, Bingham on, USA
Co esponding au ho :
Minjong Jun, School o Managemen and Bass Cen e o Leade ship S udies,
Bingham on Uni e si y, S a e Uni e si y o New Yo k, 313, Academic
Building A, 4400 Ves al Pkwy E, Bingham on, NY 13902, USA.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
1184482BRQ0010.1177/23409444231184482Business Resea ch Qua e lyJun and Ecka d
esea ch-a icle2023
Regula Pape
Jun and Ecka d 305
Haines e al., 2010; T e o & Nybe g, 2008). In addi ion,
he e a e s udies ha epo no signi ican associa ion
be ween aining and u no e (Ba e al., 2002;
Sub amony, 2009; Walk e al., 2019). These indings a e
well aligned wi h he impo ance o he pe son-con ex
in e ace in ecen u no e esea ch since con ex s o con-
di ions, in gene al, can ha e majo implica ions o p edic-
o s o u no e (Bol e al., 2022).
To be e unde s and he mixed e ec s be ween aining
and employee u no e (Hausknech & T e o , 2011), i
would be help ul o iden i y he condi ions unde which
o ganiza ions expe ience mo e o less u no e when an
employe p o ides hei employees wi h aining. This
s udy seeks o make p og ess on his by le e aging he
social exchange heo y (C opanzano e al., 2017;
C opanzano & Mi chell, 2005) o examine i he aining-
employee u no e link depends on wo impo an
employee cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h a i m’s o e all
HR app oach (Hausknech & T e o , 2011): (1) he job
quali ica ion le el o employees and (2) he eliance on
employees wi h a college educa ion. This a icle sugges s
ha hese cha ac e is ics impac employee pe cep ions o
he economic alue o aining and he economic alue o
ecip oca ing by s aying a he o ganiza ion a e aining
and hus o e insigh in o he associa ion be ween aining
and employee u no e . In his a icle, we ocus on
o ganiza ion-le el analysis and conside how he o gani-
za ion-le el HR p ac ices and policies associa ed wi h
employe -p o ided aining and composi ion o employee
cha ac e is ics (quali ica ion and college educa ion) can
ha e in e ac i e e ec s on employee u no e (e.g.,
Hausknech , 2017; Hausknech & T e o , 2011). We es
ou hypo heses using a longi udinal da a se on employees
(Human Capi al Co po a e Panel [HCCP]) and ixed-
e ec s eg ession analyses.
This s udy con ibu es o he ex an li e a u e in wo
ways. Fi s , his a icle p o ides new app oaches o unde -
s anding he inconsis en associa ion be ween aining and
employee u no e (Ga dne e al., 2011; Hausknech &
T e o , 2011; Hea ey e al., 2013; I o & B o he idge,
2005). Speci ically, we le e age he social exchange he-
o y and sugges ha ac o s associa ed wi h an o ganiza-
ion’s o e all HR app oach a e impo an mode a o s o
he associa ion be ween aining and employee u no e .
In doing so, we hope o o e a new way o le e age he
no ion o ho izon al i (Boon e al., 2007, 2019; Kehoe,
2021) wi h espec o hi ing and aining s a egies o shed
ligh on he associa ion be ween aining and employee
u no e . Second, his s udy con ibu es o he social
exchange heo y. Al hough much esea ch on he associa-
ion be ween HR p ac ices and u no e has ocused on
he posi i e meaning o HR p ac ices as social exchanges
be ween an employe and employees (Hausknech &
T e o , 2011; Hea ey e al., 2013), his a icle sugges s
ha he meaning o aining as a social exchange may
a y based on he gene al expe ience and educa ional
backg ounds o an o ganiza ion’s employees. Tha is, no
all HR p ac ices may be pe cei ed posi i ely by employ-
ees, and his could impac he deg ee o which employees
posi i ely ecip oca e by s aying a he o ganiza ion. This
s udy con ibu es o he HR managemen li e a u e by p o-
iding a mo e nuanced and balanced app oach o he
applica ion o social exchange heo y o explain he
aining- u no e ela ionship.
This a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. We begin by p o-
iding an o e iew o he li e a u e on he aining and
employee u no e link. Nex , we in oduce he social
exchange heo y and le e age his heo e ical amewo k
o elucida e he condi ions unde which an o ganiza ion’s
employees migh end o lea e o s ay a e aining.
Speci ically, we ocus on he po en ial mode a ing e ec s
o he o ganiza ion’s HR app oach wi h ega d o he o e -
all le el o employees’ quali ica ions and educa ion. We
hen desc ibe he me hods used o es he s udy’s hypo h-
eses and desc ibe he esul s o ou analyses. Finally, we
discuss he indings and implica ions o his s udy o he
ex an li e a u e.
Theo e ical backg ound and
hypo heses
T aining and employee u no e
A numbe o empi ical s udies ha e ound aining can
educe employee u no e in a ious job g oups, such as
high- echnology enginee s (e.g., Fe a e al., 2005), law-
ye s (e.g., Malos & Campion, 2000), pha macy employees
(e.g., Kos e e al., 2011), nu ses (e.g., C. H. Lee &
B u old, 2003), and se ice s a (e.g., Gelade & I e y,
2003; Van Iddekinge e al., 2009). Mo eo e , p e ious
me a-analyses ha e shown ha human esou ce de elop-
men (HRD) p ac ices including aining can educe
employee u no e (Hausknech & T e o , 2011; Hea ey
e al., 2013; Ng e al., 2022). This employee- u no e -
educing e ec is sugges ed o ma e ialize because he sig-
nal o in es men s in aining leads o an inc ease in job
commi men and a dec ease in u no e in en ion o wo k-
e s (Hausknech & T e o , 2011; Hea ey e al., 2013). In
addi ion, some o he p io aining esea ch has ocused
on he concep o pe cei ed o ganiza ional suppo (POS),
which can a ise wi h aining p og ams o explain he
e ec s o aining on educing u no e (Aguinis &
K aige , 2009; C opanzano & Mi chell, 2005; K aime
e al., 2011; Mo ei a e al., 2020).
F om a di e en poin o iew, he e is also a line o
esea ch which sugges s ha aining may inc ease
employee u no e . This pe spec i e sugges s a posi i e
link based on he idea ha a wo ke ’s mobili y op ions
could inc ease om aining (T e o , 2001). In pa icu-
la , as mode n labo ma ke condi ions os e mo e
306 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(1)
bounda yless ca ee s, employees ha e g adually been
able o show hei ma ke abili y om accumula ed skills
and job expe iences o o he employe s who may be
willing o o e highe compensa ion (Becke , 1964;
Gaul e al., 2010). Ul ima ely, based on he p o iciency
imp o ed by aining, employees may inc ease hei
u no e in en ions and sea ch o an oppo uni y o ge
a highe -paying job (T e o , 2001; T e o & Nybe g,
2008) and/o be a ge ed by compe i o s. Indeed, a num-
be o s udies ha e p o ided suppo o his posi i e
associa ion be ween aining and u no e (Cao &
Hamo i, 2020; I o & B o he idge, 2005; T e o &
Nybe g, 2008).
Gi en p io heo e ical and empi ical indings, aining
can ha e ei he a posi i e o a nega i e e ec on u no e .
I he posi i e and nega i e e ec s o aining on u no e
occu simul aneously in an o ganiza ion, and hese a e
e lec ed in u no e esea ch, o se ing e ec s o aining
on u no e migh appea . The wo di e en e ec s o
aining on employee u no e migh make he o e all
associa ion be ween aining and u no e nonsigni ican .
Consis en wi h his possibili y, p e ious s udies ha e also
epo ed nonsigni ican associa ions be ween aining and
u no e (Ba e al., 2002; Walk e al., 2019).
In summa y, he p esence o inconsis en indings
ega ding he associa ion be ween aining and u no e
sugges s he e may be impo an mode a o s o his asso-
cia ion. To sea ch o po en ial mode a o s, we ake he
posi ion ha inc eased conside a ion o an o ganiza ion’s
employee cha ac e is ics may shed ligh on why employee
u no e inc eases o dec eases when a i m p o ides ain-
ing o i s employees. Speci ically, he pe cep ions o he
bene i s and cos s o aining and o going po en ial mobil-
i y op ions migh be a ied depending on he cha ac e is-
ics o an o ganiza ion’s employees, and hese may be
in luenced by he hi ing app oaches used by he o ganiza-
ion. To explo e his idea u he , his s udy e isi s he
assump ions o he social exchange heo y (C opanzano &
Mi chell, 2005) and ocuses on he cha ac e is ics o
employees.
A social exchange pe spec i e
D awing on he social exchange heo y, p io esea ch has
emphasized ecip oci y ules/no ms and social exchanges
o e nego ia ed ules and economic exchanges (C opanzano
& Mi chell, 2005). Recip oci y ules/no ms in ol e he
p o ision o a bene i in he expec a ion ha his a o will
be e u ned in an equi alen bu no necessa ily same man-
ne (Blau, 1964; Gouldne , 1960). Gi en ha he co e
aspec s o he social exchange heo y eside in ecip oci y
ules and no ms (Gouldne , 1960), he ac o ini ia ing
exchanges and he a ge ini ially ecei ing exchanges can
be any o ganiza ional en i y such as employees, leade s,
eams, and o ganiza ions. Al hough social exchange heo y
has la gely been applied o a pe son- o-pe son exchange
(e.g., leade -membe exchange: Se oon e al., 1996; social
exchanges among cowo ke s: Deckop e al., 2003), many
ecen s udies ha e also u ilized his heo y o explain he
impo ance o he quali y o an o ganiza ion- o-employee
exchange (e.g., POS: Eisenbe ge e al., 2001; social con-
ac be ween employees and he o ganiza ion: Slack e al.,
2015). The pe cei ed ecip oci y will be di e en depend-
ing on he ecipien ’s e alua ion o he bene i and eelings
o obliga ion o main ain he ecip oci y no m (Blau, 1964;
Homans, 1961). Fu he mo e, acco ding o esea ch on
POS h ough which social exchange heo y has been
widely s udied (Eisenbe ge e al., 2001; Ha is e al.,
2007), pe cei ed in es men in aining and pe cei ed ben-
e i s o aining can lead o employees’ high commi men
(Al-Emadi & Ma qua d , 2007; Ba le , 2001; Khan &
Iqbal, 2020).
In he con ex o aining and employee u no e , he
si ua ion-speci ic cos -bene i calcula ion is a baseline
decision model ega ding how o espond o ano he pa y
a e ecei ing i s a o s. This means social exchange can
be ini ia ed by o ganiza ions/employe s when hey send a
signal o ca ing o o suppo ing employees (Gould-
Williams, 2007). Gi en ha he pu pose o aining is o
imp o e employees’ job- ela ed skills and socializa ion in
hei o ganiza ions (Ma hieu e al., 1992), i aining is
use ul in e ms o knowledge ans e abili y and applica-
bili y a he wo kplace, he employees end o be sa is ied
wi h hei aining and jobs (Giang eco e al., 2009;
K aime e al., 2011). This sa is ac ion can be he i s s ep
o making a posi i e psychological con ac be ween an
employe and employees, which is based on mu ual
expec a ions o long-las ing ela ionships o social
exchanges be ween an employe and employees (Cullinane
& Dundon, 2006; Rousseau, 1989).
In esponse o ecei ing his aluable bene i om hei
employe , social exchange heo y sugges s employees may
ecip oca e by s aying a he o ganiza ion. I employees
pe cei e he alue o aining and eel obliged o epay his
o ganiza ion’s a o , hey may become mo e commi ed o
hei o ganiza ion and p o ide mo e disc e iona y wo k
e o (F enkel & Bednall, 2016). P e ious aining li e a-
u e has also suppo ed he idea ha aining imp o es
employees’ wo k engagemen s by inc easing hei job-
ela ed capabili ies and wo k mo i a ion (Fle che , 2016),
which leads o in- ole and ex a- ole pe o mance like ask
pe o mance and o ganiza ional ci izenship beha io
(Guan & F enkel, 2019). Thus, he endency o ained
employees o s ay a he o ganiza ion is bene icial o he
o ganiza ion h ough imp o ed employee engagemen and
i s ou comes (Al es e al., 2013; Ka a epe, 2013).
Howe e , i is impo an o conside ha , depending on
he cha ac e is ics o he employees, he e may be di e -
en ial pe cei ed alue in aining (Newman e al., 2011),
and his, in u n, may impac how many employees eel a
Jun and Ecka d 307
need o ecip oca e. Tha is, he u ili y o he aining, and
hus he p opensi y o ecip oca e wi h he aluable ac ion
o s aying a he o ganiza ion, may a y based on he ype
o employees a he o ganiza ion. In addi ion, he alue o
s aying a he o ganiza ion o ecip oca e he alue ecei ed
om aining may also a y depending on he cha ac e is-
ics o he employees. Speci ically, o he ex en ha
employees wi h mo e op ions in he labo ma ke may pe -
cei e g ea e oppo uni y cos s om s aying a hei cu -
en o ganiza ion (Haines e al., 2010), he alue o s aying
a he o ganiza ion may be pe cei ed o be g ea e han he
alue o aining ecei ed om he o ganiza ion. In ha
social exchange heo y is ul ima ely abou ecip oca ing in
a manne ha is equi alen om a alue s andpoin (Haines
e al., 2010), and i may he e o e be ha o ce ain ypes
o employees, aining is no enough o a bene i o
employees o en ice hem o o go hei mo e aluable
op ions on he labo ma ke .
Taken oge he , we belie e ha he social exchange
heo y p o ides a pa simonious heo e ical amewo k o
unde s and how he o ganiza ion’s emphasis on ce ain
employee cha ac e is ics can impac he deg ee o which
he employees a he o ganiza ion pe cei e he alue o
aining ecei ed and he alue o ecip oca ing by s aying
a he o ganiza ion and ha hese in luence he associa ion
be ween aining and u no e a he o ganiza ional le el.
The o e a ching sugges ion is ha employee u no e is
mo e likely as he pe cei ed alue o aining dec eases
and he pe cei ed cos o s aying inc eases. We ocus on
wo impo an employee cha ac e is ics, job quali ica ion
and educa ional backg ound, in his s udy and le e age
his gene al amewo k o discuss how an o ganiza ion’s
emphasis on hese can impac he associa ion be ween an
o ganiza ion’s aining policies and p ac ices and employee
u no e . Figu e 1 is a isual depic ion o ou gene al con-
cep ual amewo k.
Job quali ica ion. Job quali ica ion is he job-speci ic com-
bina ion o knowledge, skills, and expe iences, which a e
possessed by job holde s in pa icula posi ions (Wang
e al., 2016). The i be ween his combina ion and he ask
equi emen s o a speci ic job posi ion de e mines job
quali ica ion (Wan e al., 2012; Zhu e al., 2018). Low-
quali ied employees ep esen a poo i be ween hei
knowledge/skills/expe iences and he ask equi emen s
o hei jobs. As a esul , such employees a e no able o
ul ill all hei job equi emen s and ha e lowe ask pe -
o mance. In his case, hey a e no ye sui able o he job
posi ions a he ime o joining he o ganiza ion and should
be eplaced o con inue o lea n o mee he job equi e-
men s o hei posi ions (Wang e al., 2016). O ganiza ions
may hi e employees ha a e no ully quali ied o educe
labo cos s (e.g., in line wi h a cos leade ship s a egic
posi ion—Miles & Snow, 1978) o in esponse o apid
g ow h. On he o he hand, highly quali ied employees
e e o hose wi h knowledge and skills ha mee o
exceed he ask equi emen s o he job and hus ha e
highe le els o job pe o mance. O ganiza ions may
choose o ely on highly quali ied employees o educe
hei onboa ding ime a he o ganiza ion o as a way o
mee b oade s a egic goals associa ed wi h quali y (Miles
& Snow, 1978).
When an o ganiza ion a ge s he hi ing o low-quali ied
employees, coupling his wi h aining HR policies and
p ac ices is necessa y and use ul o he employees o pe -
o m hei job- ela ed du ies. This is because al hough he
o ganiza ion can eplace he low-quali ied employees wi h
o he employees o newcome s, i chooses o gi e hem an
oppo uni y o lea n and g ow o mee he job equi emen s
(Wang e al., 2016). As hese ini ial ac ions and in e ac-
ions wi h an employee a e he i s impo an s eps o
building a quali y employmen ela ionship, low-quali ied
employees would pe cei e aining as a use ul social
exchange and ai ea men , which inc eases he employ-
ees’ POS and mo i a es he employees o epay he employ-
e ’s a o by s aying a he o ganiza ion (Hausknech &
T e o , 2011; Hea ey e al., 2013).
On he o he hand, when an o ganiza ion has highly
quali ied employees, he e may be a misma ch be ween he
aining an o ganiza ion supplies and he needs o hei
employees, which could lead o employees pe cei ing
such aining as low alue and esul in nega i e eac ions
(Lambe e al., 2012). The easons o such pe cep ions
and eac ions a e wo old. Fi s , aining can ha e less u il-
i y o high-quali ied employees han o low-quali ied
employees since hey al eady possess he equisi e job
knowledge and skills and a e able o pe o m app op ia ely
Figu e 1. Concep ual amewo k o impac o human
esou ce cha ac e is ics (job quali ica ion and educa ional
backg ound) on aining-employee u no e associa ion.
308 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(1)
and make a posi i e signal o hei supe iso s and cow-
o ke s (Haines e al., 2010). Second, highly quali ied
employees may be eluc an o ake aining because hey
may no wan hei high skills and pe o mance o be
a ibu ed o he i m’s aining. Such employees migh
belie e hey can ou pe o m o he s wi hou aining.
T aining may e en be iewed as a dis ac ion ha esul s
in ew bene i s in e ms o pe o mance imp o emen and
signaling o hei abili ies and skills o o he o ganiza-
ional membe s. T aining o highly quali ied employees
may he e o e be iewed as a supe luous ac i i y ha is
disconnec ed om hei needs. As a esul , high-quali ied
employees may be unlikely o pe cei e aining as a alu-
able bene i p o ided by hei employe ha jus i ies
ecip oca ing wi h an in-kind beha io , such as emaining
a he o ganiza ion.
In summa y, i an o ganiza ion elies on unde quali ied
employees, he use o aining p og ams is likely o be pe -
cei ed as a aluable bene i o hei employees, and his, in
u n, will inc ease he chances he employees will ecip o-
ca e by s aying a he o ganiza ion. Al e na i ely, i an
o ganiza ion emphasizes highly quali ied employees, i is
less likely o hei employees o pe cei e aining as a al-
uable bene i and ecip oca e by s aying a he o ganiza ion.
The hypo hesis s a ed in o mal e ms is he ollowing:
Hypo hesis 1. The job quali ica ion le el o an o gani-
za ion’s employees will mode a e he associa ion
be ween aining and employee u no e , such ha he
associa ion be ween aining and employee u no e is
posi i e when job quali ica ion is high and nega i e
when job quali ica ion is low.
Educa ional backg ound. Educa ion plays an impo an ole
in labo ma ke s, and p e ious s udies ha e ound ha
indi iduals wi h high educa ional backg ounds ea n highe
sala ies o wages, a e less likely o expe ience unemploy-
men , and end o wo k in mo e p es igious occupa ions
han hose wi h low educa ional backg ounds (Hulin e al.,
1985; Wei, 2015). Many employe s also ini ially conside
applican s’ educa ional backg ound as a signal o hei
basic cogni i e abili y when ec ui ing and selec ing
employees (Renwick & Tosi, 1978) because hose gene al
abili ies acqui ed om o mal educa ion and applied du -
ing ha o mal educa ion can be bene icially le e aged a
hei wo kplace (Becke , 1964; Wei, 2015). Since be e -
educa ed indi iduals ha e mo e oppo uni ies in he labo
ma ke han less-educa ed indi iduals, hey may ha e a
highe pe cep ion o he alue hey would be ecip oca ing
o he o ganiza ion by s aying a e ecei ing aining. Fu -
he mo e, wi h s onge educa ional backg ounds, he job-
ele an abili ies imp o ed h ough aining can s eng hen
a posi i e signal o aluable knowledge, skills, and abili-
ies o o he employe s in he labo ma ke (Haines e al.,
2010; Mo is e al., 2017; T e o , 2001).
In esponses o an equi alen magni ude sugges ed by
he social exchange heo y, he e is an inc eased isk o
o ganiza ions/employe s ha employees wi h high educa-
ion le els may he e o e no see aining as p o iding
enough o a bene i o en ice hem o o go hei mo e alu-
able op ions on he labo ma ke . Simila ly, as weake edu-
ca ional backg ounds educe mobili y op ions (Hanushek
e al., 2017; Royal y, 1998), employees wi h lowe le els
o educa ion likely see ewe oppo uni y cos s by s aying
a he cu en o ganiza ion and hus a e mo e likely o
espond o he o ganiza ion’s aining p ac ices by emain-
ing a he o ganiza ion. Consis en wi h hese a gumen s,
o ganiza ions ha ely on employees wi h high le els o
educa ion a e likely o see mo e employee u no e when
hey p o ide aining han hose ha ely on employees
wi h lowe le els o educa ion. We he e o e hypo hesize:
Hypo hesis 2. The educa ional backg ound o an o gan-
iza ion’s employees will mode a e he associa ion
be ween aining and employee u no e , such ha he
associa ion be ween aining and employee u no e is
posi i e when employees ha e a high le el o educa-
ional backg ound and nega i e when employees ha e a
low le el o educa ional backg ound.
Me hod
Sample
To es hese hypo heses, we use da a om he HCCP om
he Ko ea Resea ch Ins i u e o Voca ional Educa ion and
T aining (KRIVET). KRIVET collec ed he HCCP da a by
asking s a egy, human esou ce managemen (HRM),
HRD, and R&D p o essionals o answe su ey ques ions
ela ed o hei co esponding special y a eas among s a -
egy (planning/adjus men ), HR p ac ices, demog aphic
in o ma ion abou employees, and R&D ac i i ies. This
da a sou ce has been used in p e ious schola ly s udies
(e.g., Kim & Ployha , 2014, 2018; Shaw e al., 2013) and
is ideal o his s udy as i con ains da a associa ed wi h an
o ganiza ion’s aining policies and p ac ices, employee
cha ac e is ics, and employee u no e a he o ganiza ional
le el. The longi udinal na u e o he da a is also an ad an-
age in his s udy as i allows o model es ima ion ech-
niques (e.g., ixed-e ec s models) ha can educe conce ns
associa ed wi h omi ed a iable bias (Haines e al., 2010).
Ko ea is an app op ia e con ex o examine he hypo h-
eses as aining p ac ices o Ko ean i ms can play a
c i ical ole in imp o ing i m pe o mance (Kim &
Ployha , 2014), as well as be a means o es ablish e ec-
i e employe -employee ela ionships. In addi ion, he
wo ocal mode a o s (e.g., job quali ica ion and educa-
ional backg ound) in his s udy a e loosely coupled in
Ko ea. Tha is, a i m can ha e employees ha ha e high
educa ional backg ounds bu low job quali ica ion. This
Jun and Ecka d 309
is due o he high alue in Ko ean cul u e placed on col-
lege educa ion and an emphasis on gene al college ank-
ings a he han speci ic college majo s. In pa icula , as
he Ko ean labo ma ke has an abundance o college-
educa ed indi iduals a he na ional le el,1 he e is a en-
dency o Ko eans o selec and apply o a college by
conside ing school anking a he han choosing a pa -
icula majo o hei ini ial job placemen and u u e
ca ee (H. Lee e al., 2016). In esponse o his his o ical
and cul u al aspec ela ed o college educa ion, some
Ko ean i ms also end o ec ui and selec college g ad-
ua es based on he candida es’ school anking i s and
hen hei college majo la e because hey see mo e
po en ial in hei gene al knowledge due o high compe i-
ion o school anking han majo -speci ic skills. This
esul s in a labo ma ke wi h indi iduals ha can a y
wi h espec o job quali ica ion and college educa ion. I
also p o ides an empi ical con ex whe e i ms may need
o p o ide job-speci ic aining o add ess gaps in
employees’ knowledge and skills. This allows aining o
po en ially play a g ea e ole in ini ially es ablishing
social exchanges be ween an employe and employees as
aining can simul aneously mee he po en ial needs o
bo h he employe and employees. Gi en his unique and
impo an decoupling and a ia ion be ween quali ica ion
and educa ion and he gene al alue o aining o
Ko ean i ms, his con ex p o ides adequa e a iabili y
and a sui able en i onmen o ou s udy.
Rega ding he HCCP da a s uc u e, o unde s and he
p ocess o accumula ion and de elopmen o employees’
knowledge, skills, and expe iences and i s e ec i eness,
he KRIVET has biennially conduc ed he HCCP su eys
o he same i ms since 2005 and comple ed he se en h-
wa e su ey in 2017 (2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015,
and 2017). KRIVET also collec ed co po a e annual inan-
cial da a om he Ko ean In o ma ion Se ice. We used
hese da a a he o ganiza ional le el om he 2009 o 2017
ime ame in his s udy as he su eys o hese yea s con-
sis en ly collec ed he necessa y in o ma ion o he ocal
independen and dependen a iables o his s udy.
Ou inal sample size is 308 i ms in h ee b oad indus-
ies: manu ac u ing (222 i ms), inance (21 i ms), and
non- inance se ice (65 i ms). The a e age i m age in he
sample is 36.35 yea s, and he a e age numbe o employ-
ees is 704.43. The a e age a io o he employees ha ing
college deg ees is 63.78%, and he majo i y (93.36%) o
employees in hese o ganiza ions a e classi ied as ull- ime
employees. The da a anspa ency able o he sample and
da a sou ces is p o ided in Appendix 1.
Measu es
Dependen a iable: employee u no e . In he HCCP su -
ey, HR p o essionals p o ided da a abou how many
employees olun a ily depa ed hei o ganiza ion in he
su ey yea . Consis en wi h p io esea ch, we measu ed
employee u no e by di iding he numbe o olun a y
depa u es among ull- ime employees by he numbe o
o al ull- ime employees and hen escaled by mul iplying
by 100 (Kim & Ployha , 2018). The numbe o olun a y
depa u es does no include he numbe o egula e i ees,
no does i include adjus men s o employmen le els such
as layo s, ad iso y esigna ion, ea ly e i emen , o ans-
e s o a ilia es o pa ne s.
Independen a iable: aining. HR p o essionals in he
HCCP su ey also p o ided in o ma ion abou whe he
aining was p o ided by he o ganiza ion o hei employ-
ees in he su ey yea . Focusing on aining p o ided by
he o ganiza ion is consis en wi h p io esea ch (Kim &
Ployha , 2014) and can be iewed as a social exchange
wi h he employees as i is an HR p ac ice designed o
imp o e hei job-speci ic skills. Ou measu e le e aged
hese da a and u ilized a dummy a iable whe e “1” was
coded i he aining was p o ided by he o ganiza ion and
“0” o he wise.
Mode a o 1: quali ica ion. The le el o employee job quali-
ica ion was measu ed based on i ems ela ed o he ma ch
o he o ganiza ion’s employees’ job- ela ed skills and job
demands. As job demands can a y based on di e en
unc ional a eas o he i m, he HCCP su ey collec s da a
on he quali ica ion le el o an o ganiza ion’s employees
in eigh unc ional a eas o he i m: R&D, se ice, engi-
nee ing, managemen , p oduc ion, p oduc de elopmen ,
und managemen , o co e p o essional employees. The
same eques “Please espond ega ding he job- ela ed
skill le el o employees in ligh o he le el o o ganiza-
ional equi emen s” was gi en o each ele an unc ional
a ea p ac i ione and hey selec ed one o i e choices
(1 = a below he le el o job demands, 2 = somewha
below he le el o job demands, 3 = simila o he le el o
job demands, 4 = somewha abo e he le el o job demands,
and 5 = a abo e he le el o job demands) o indica e he
quali ica ion le el o employees wo king in hei a ea o
he o ganiza ion. The esponses ac oss he unc ional a eas
we e agg ega ed ia he mean unc ion o c ea e an
o ganiza ion-le el measu e o he quali ica ion le el o
he o ganiza ion’s employees.
The numbe o unc ional a eas a ied based on he
indus y; howe e , all had adequa e in e nal eliabili y.
Mo e speci ically, he esponden s in he manu ac u ing
indus y answe ed only i e ields (R&D, se ice, engi-
nee ing, managemen , and p oduc ion), and he C onbach’s
alpha o he i e i ems was 0.840. The esponden s in he
inance indus y answe ed only ou ields (se ice, man-
agemen , p oduc de elopmen , and und managemen ),
and he C onbach’s alpha o he ou i ems was 0.825.
Las , he esponden s in he non- inance se ice indus y
answe ed only ou ields (R&D, se ice, managemen ,
310 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(1)
and co e alen ed employees), and he C onbach’s alpha o
he ou i ems was 0.791.
Mode a o 2: educa ional backg ound. The educa ional le el
o employees was measu ed using he p opo ion o
employees in a i m wi h an unde g adua e o highe (i.e.,
mas e /PhD) college educa ion. Speci ically, his p opo -
ion was calcula ed as he pe cen o o al ull- ime employ-
ees wi h unde g adua e o highe deg ees.
Con ol a iables. We con olled o a numbe o i m cha ac-
e is ics. Fi s , we con olled o i m size using he numbe
o o al employees as la ge o ganiza ions may in es mo e
in HR managemen (Kim & Ployha , 2018), and his, in
u n, could impac he p esence o aining p ac ices, he
composi ion o employees, and employee u no e (Hea ey
e al., 2013). We used he logged alue o o al employees
o lessen he impac o skewness in his a iable. Second,
we con olled o p io i m pe o mance by using a lagged
alue o e u n on asse . P io i m pe o mance is impo -
an o con ol o in his s udy because i can impac he
a ailabili y o esou ces o se e al HR p ac ices including
aining p og ams (W igh e al., 2005) and employee u n-
o e (Koys, 2001). Thi d, we con olled o i m age (cu -
en yea — ounda ion yea + 1) as i m age can impac
employee u no e (Lane e al., 1996) and he ma u i y o
HR p ac ices (Xiu e al., 2017). Fou h, we con olled o
he lis ing ype o each i m as his could in luence he abil-
i y o aise unds and he a ailabili y o su plus esou ces o
suppo in es men s in aining p ac ices. The h ee lis ing
ypes a e (1) i ms whose secu i ies a e aded on he Ko ea
Composi e S ock P ice Index (simila o New Yo k S ock
Exchange) s ock ma ke , (2) i ms whose secu i ies a e
exchanged on he Ko ea Secu i ies Deale s Au oma ed
Quo a ion (The Na ional Associa ion o Secu i ies Deale s
Au oma ed Quo a ion is he benchma k o i ) s ock ma -
ke , and (3) unlis ed/p i a e i ms, and hese we e measu ed
using a dummy a iable app oach. Fi h, we included he
deb a io (deb /capi al) as a con ol a iable since high-
deb condi ions migh keep he i m om in es ing in ain-
ing (Jeong, 2008) and also could impac he composi ion o
an o ganiza ion’s employees.
We also con olled o se e al ele an aspec s associ-
a ed wi h he o ganiza ion’s employee cha ac e is ics. Fi s ,
we con olled o he ull- ime-employee a io ( he numbe
o o al ull- ime employees/ he numbe o o al employ-
ees) because non- ull- ime employees a e no associa ed
wi h aining and olun a y u no e , and he eliance on
non- ull- ime employees could impac he gene al cul u e
and clima e. Second, o con ol o po en ial e ec s o gen-
de ega ding olun a y u no e ela ed o pa en al lea e
o o he issues in he Ko ean con ex (Cho e al., 2010), we
con olled o he male a io ( he numbe o male ull- ime
employees/ he numbe o o al ull- ime employees). Thi d,
we added unioniza ion as ano he con ol a iable (F eeman
& Medo , 1983) as unioniza ion has been ound o impac
employee olun a y u no e le els (I e son & Cu i an,
2003) and be associa ed wi h HR p ac ices such as pay,
bene i s, o aining (Haines e al., 2010).
A numbe o ac o s associa ed wi h HR p ac ices we e
also added as con ols o he models. Fi s , we con olled
o he p opo ion o he employees pa icipa ing in aining
(Kim & Ployha , 2014). When a aining p ac ice is p esen
in he Ko ean con ex , i is o en gi en o mos o he
employees in a simila o e en he same manne (Yoo &
Lee, 1987). None heless, we included his con ol a iable
in he models o accoun o i any o he i ms in he sample
de ia ed om his endency. This con ol a iable also helps
o accoun o he possibili y ha he employees a some
o ganiza ions may engage in mo e han one aining p o-
g am pe yea . Second, we con olled o selec i e s a ing.
Selec i e s a ing is ope a ionalized as one minus a i m’s
selec ion a io; he selec i e a io is measu ed by aking he
p opo ion o applican s ac ually hi ed di ided by he o al
numbe o applican s (Kim & Ployha , 2014). This a iable
is associa ed wi h bo h he e ec i eness o ec ui ing and
selec ion and he quali y o employees (Kim & Ployha ,
2014) and is impo an o con ol o as i could be ela ed o
he ocal employee cha ac e is ics o his s udy (job quali i-
ca ion and educa ion) and employee u no e . Thi d, we
con olled o downsizing in he p io yea since i can in lu-
ence subsequen olun a y u no e and he e ec s o ca ee
de elopmen HR p ac ices (T e o & Nybe g, 2008). We
measu ed downsizing wi h he downsizing a io, which is
calcula ed as he a io o he numbe o lea e s due o down-
sizing (e.g., layo , ad iso y esigna ion, ea ly e i emen ,
and ans e s o a ilia es o pa ne s) o o al employees.
Fou h, we con olled o i e ypes o u u e ewa ds o
pa icipa ing in aining using ou dummy a iables: no
ewa ds, e alua ion, compensa ion, p omo ion, and job
o a ion. I he e is ano he u u e ewa d ela ed o aking
aining such as p omo ion based on he sco es o aining,
his could impac he pe cei ed alue o he aining, and
employees migh s ay a he o ganiza ion because he e is
ano he oppo uni y o ca ee de elopmen o ewa ds
wi hin he o ganiza ion. K aime e al. (2011) also iden i ied
ha he e a e in e ac ion e ec s be ween de elopmen al HR
p ac ices and ca ee oppo uni ies wi hin he o ganiza ion
on p edic ing u no e . Fi h, as ou main independen a i-
able is ela ed o aining p o ided by he o ganiza ion, we
con olled o he e ec s o aining p o ided by en i ies
ou side he o ganiza ion. We calcula ed ex e nal aining by
aking a bina y a iable abou whe he employees ecei e
aining om ex e nal en i ies. Six h, we also con olled o
he e ec s o mone a y and nonmone a y compensa ion as
his can impac employee u no e (An a i e al., 2014; Pa k
e al., 1994) and may be pa icula ly ele an depending on
he composi ion o he employees (c . An a i e al., 2014).
To measu e his a iable, we ook he mone a y compensa-
ion cos s (sala y and bonus) pe employee ( o al mone a y
Jun and Ecka d 311
compensa ion cos s/ o al employees) and employee bene i
cos s pe employee ( o al employee bene i cos s/ o al
employees) as con ol a iables and used he na u al loga-
i hm o hose alues due o highly skewed dis ibu ions.
Se en h, gi en ha selec ion p ac ices a e ela ed o aining
p ac ices (Kim & Ployha , 2018) and can in luence he
composi ion o employees (Ployha & Hale, 2014), we
con olled o s a ing cos s pe employee ( o al s a ing
cos s/ o al new employees).
Finally, we con olled o he po en ial in luence o
indus y and ime. To accoun o he e ec s o he indus-
y, we added dummy a iables based on he h ee-digi
Ko ean S anda d Indus ial Classi ica ion codes (Kim &
Ployha , 2014, 2018; Shaw e al., 2013). To con ol o
ime- ele an e ec s (e.g., changes o gene al labo ma ke
condi ions o e ime), we added dummy a iables o he
su ey yea s (2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2017) as con-
ol a iables in he model.
Da a analysis
To es he hypo heses, we implemen ed a panel-da a anal-
ysis app oach by using a ixed-e ec s model. Fixed-e ec s
models can be an e ec i e and b oad way o add ess omi -
ed a iable endogenei y issues (An onakis e al., 2010)
and is a commonly used app oach o analyze panel da a
(Bliese e al., 2020; Kezdi, 2004). Al hough bo h andom-
and ixed-e ec s models can be iable op ions o mode-
ling wi hin-en i y associa ions, ixed-e ec s models a e
app op ia e because his s udy is in e es ed in examining
wi hin- i m phenomena and ela ionships a he han iden-
i ying exogenous shocks o he impac s o highe -le el
en i ies (Bliese e al., 2020). Clus e obus s anda d e o s
we e used in all he ixed-e ec s models o lessen he
po en ial issues o nonindependence and he e oskedas ic-
i y ha can a ise wi h panel da a (An onakis e al., 2010).
To es Hypo heses 1 and 2, we used se e al models.
Fi s , in Model 1, we inse ed he dependen a iable
(employee u no e ) and all he con ol a iables. We
added he independen a iable ( aining) in Model 2 and
he wo mode a o s (quali ica ion and educa ional back-
g ound) in Model 3. Each in e ac ion e m “ aining X
quali ica ion o educa ional backg ound” was added in
Models 4 and 5, espec i ely. We inse ed bo h in e ac ion
e ms a he same ime in Model 6. Finally, we checked
whe he he mode a ing e ec o each mode a o on he
associa ion be ween aining and u no e is s a is ically
signi ican in Models 4, 5, and 6.
Resul s
Co ela ion analysis
We ha e summa ized he means, s anda d de ia ions, and
co ela ions o he ocal a iables, as well as epo ed
s anda d desc ip i e s a is ics o all con ols including
co ela ions and signi icance le els (Be ne h & Aguinis,
2016) in Table 1. Employee u no e has a nega i e and
signi ican co ela ion wi h aining ( = −.066, p
alue = .021) bu a posi i e one wi h p io downsizing
( = .200, p alue < .001). In addi ion, employee u no e
is no signi ican ly co ela ed wi h quali ica ion ( = −.002,
p alue = .950) and educa ional backg ound ( = −.044, p
alue = .130). T aining is posi i ely co ela ed wi h quali i-
ca ion ( = −.093, p alue = .001).
Tes ing hypo heses
As shown in Table 2, he basic associa ion be ween ain-
ing and employee u no e is no signi ican be o e he
in e ac ion e ms a e inse ed (β = .119, s anda d
e o s = 2.063, = 0.058, p = .954 in Model 2; β = .040,
s anda d e o s = 2.093, = 0.019, p = .985 in Model 3).
To es Hypo hesis 1, we used he ixed-e ec s models.
As shown in Model 4 o Table 2, he esul indica ed ha
he in e ac ion e ec o “ aining X quali ica ion” was
posi i e and signi ican (β = 7.75, s anda d e o s = 3.764,
= 2.059, p = .040 in Model 4; β = 7.592, s anda d
e o s = 3.749, = 2.025, p = .044 in Model 6).
Acco dingly, Hypo hesis 1 was suppo ed. As shown in
Figu e 2, he posi i e associa ion be ween aining and
employee u no e was iden i ied in he case o high job
quali ica ion ( om 41.97% o 46.56%). On he o he
hand, he nega i e associa ion be ween aining and
employee u no e was iden i ied in he case o low job
quali ica ion ( om 48.03% o 45.22%).
To es Hypo hesis 2, we used Models 5 and 6. The
esul s do no include a signi ican in e ac ion e ec
be ween aining and educa ional backg ound (β = 5.554,
s anda d e o s = 7.044, = .788, p = .431 in Model 5;
β = 4.659, s anda d e o s = 6.934, = 0.672, p = .502 in
Model 6). These indings do no suppo ou hypo hesis
ha a high educa ional backg ound signi ican ly mode -
a es he associa ion be ween aining and employee u no-
e a he o ganiza ional le el. We discuss an al e na i e
explana ion o his in he ollowing “Pos hoc analysis”
and “Discussion” sec ions.
Pos hoc analysis
Since Hypo hesis 2 was no suppo ed, we decided o ana-
lyze he da a u he o assess i he e ec o aining on
employee u no e o he educa ion le el o employees is
con ingen on he job quali ica ion le el. Speci ically, we
included he h ee-way in e ac ion e m among aining,
job quali ica ion, and educa ional backg ound in Model 7
o explo e he join in e ac ion e ec s among hem on
employee u no e . Acco ding o he esul s o Model 7,
he e is a signi ican h ee-way in e ac ion e ec among
aining, job quali ica ion, and educa ional backg ound
318 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(1)
al e na i e heo e ical pe spec i es, such as psychological
con ac s (Rousseau, 1989) and human capi al (Becke ,
1964). Wi h ega d o psychological con ac heo y
(Cullinane & Dundon, 2006), we p o ide meaning ul
bounda y condi ions o his li e a u e. Speci ically, gi en
ha psychological con ac , which e e s o an employee’s
belie ega ding condi ions and e ms o ecip ocal
exchange ela ionship wi h his o he o ganiza ion
(Rousseau, 1989), is closely associa ed wi h he social
exchange heo y, his s udy implies ha he p o ision o
inducemen HR p ac ices such as aining o he employ-
ees does no always gua an ee psychological con ac s
wi h employees and, in u n, employee commi men due
o cha ac e is ics o he employees. Acco dingly, a mo e
nuanced iew may be called o ega ding he use o psy-
chological con ac pe spec i es when looking a he
aining and u no e link. Rega ding human capi al pe -
spec i es, ou a icle sugges s a speci ic way o human
capi al esea ch o conside how o achie e bo h aluable
ained employees and low olun a y u no e , which can
be impo an o human capi al-based compe i i e ad an-
age (Co , 1997). This is impo an o he li e a u e on
human capi al because in es men s in aining and de el-
opmen a e c i ical o a aining aluable and commi ed
employees and hei e ec s on o ganiza ional pe o -
mance o unc ioning, and hese in es men s a e cos ly in
e ms o bo h di ec cos s o aining and po en ial isks
om olun a y u no e o such aluable employees
(Dess & Shaw, 2001). In his ein, his s udy implies he e
is alue in hinking abou con ingen aspec s among ain-
ing and employee cha ac e is ics and also highligh s he
po en ial bene i s and implica ions o ho izon al i among
HR p ac ices such as selec ion and aining. Gi en such
implica ions, concep ual o e lap, and complemen a i ies,
we encou age u u e esea ch on aining and u no e o
gi e g ea e conside a ion o u he in eg a e he social
exchange heo y, psychological con ac s, and human
capi al pe spec i es.
P ac ical implica ions
In e ms o implica ions o p ac i ione s, he indings o
his s udy sugges ha o ganiza ions could educe olun-
a y u no e by being mo e mind ul abou he applica ion
o aining depending on he cha ac e is ics o hei
employees. Speci ically, i an o ganiza ion elies on
employees who a e no quali ied and do no ha e college
deg ees, ou indings sugges ha employe s can a emp o
build a ecip ocal ela ionship wi h hei employees by in es -
ing in and p o iding aining o hem and ha his can educe
employee u no e a e ecei ing aining. Howe e , i
employees a e quali ied and ha e s ong educa ional back-
g ounds, leade s o HR p ac i ione s should be cau ious abou
he use o aining p og ams and explici ly conside addi ional
ac ions ha could be aken (e.g., modi ying compensa ion
s uc u es, wo k design, and o he po en ially a ac i e job
ea u es) o educe endencies o hei employees o lea e
he o ganiza ion a e ecei ing any aining. In summa y,
ega ding he p o ision o aining and i s po en ial impli-
ca ions o employee u no e , ou s udy sugges s i migh
be help ul o employe s and HR p ac i ione s o conside
he le el o quali ica ion o hei employees and he educa-
ional backg ounds o employees.
Limi a ions
This s udy has se e al limi a ions. Fi s , he e migh be
addi ional a iables ela ed o indi idual di e ences which
a e no a ailable in he HCCP da a se bu could ha e a
po en ial in luence on he pe cep ions o aining.
Speci ically, u u e esea ch is needed o deeply examine
he mode a ing e ec s o pe sonali y ai s on he associa-
ion be ween aining and u no e . Fo example, highly
ex a e ed people who a e ac i e, alka i e, sociable, and
socially a en i e (Ba ick & Moun , 1991) migh ha e
posi i e social ne wo ks and in e ac ions in hei wo k-
places, which makes hei oppo uni y cos s o lea ing,
losing hei exis ing social ne wo ks and o he s’ acknowl-
edgmen s, high. Thus, i he e a e many ex o e ed
employees in he o ganiza ion, he associa ion be ween
aining and olun a y u no e migh be nega i e. Second,
we used he aining a iable and employee u no e a i-
able ha occu ed in he same yea since he HCCP da a
se s ha e been collec ed biennially. As a esul , i is ha d o
in e he causa ion be ween aining and employee u no-
e conside ing employee quali ica ions and educa ion
le els h ough his s udy. A u u e s udy could in es iga e
his possible issue by using a da a se ies ha allows o
ime-lagged a iables associa ed wi h aining and u no-
e . Thi d, we only u ilized employe -p o ided aining
and ex e nal aining as he aining a iables in he mod-
els. Howe e , he e a e o he ypes o aining. Fo ins ance,
employees can choose he aining ha i s hei own in e -
es s, job posi ions, o quali ica ions in some o ganiza ions,
which migh in luence subsequen u no e di e en ly.
Fu u e esea ch can examine he di e en e ec s o a i-
ous ypes o employe -p o ided aining on employee
u no e . Fou h, ou use o a single coun y o ou sample
is a po en ial limi a ion in ha he e may be di e en labo
ma ke dynamics in o he coun ies ha could in luence
he esul s o ou indings. Fo example, as one o he
e iewe s poin ed ou , employees wi h lowe skills may
ha e mo e oppo uni ies in labo ma ke con ex s o high
economic g ow h and low unemploymen le els, and his
may al e he indings p esen ed in his s udy. As we no ed
p e iously, he labo ma ke con ex in Sou h Ko ea du ing
he ime ame o ou s udy is no such a labo ma ke , and
ou inclusions o yea - ixed e ec s help o add ess any
empo al a ia ions in gene al unemploymen . Thus, while
his issue is no p esen in he cu en s udy, we encou age
Jun and Ecka d 319
u u e esea ch o examine he ocal cons uc s and asso-
cia ions o his s udy in o he coun ies o see how labo
ma ke con ex (and o he be ween-coun y di e ences)
could in luence hese indings.
Conclusion
T aining has inconsis en e ec s on employee u no e .
Speci ically, unde ce ain ci cums ances, aining can
inc ease o dec ease employee u no e a he o ganiza-
ional le el. To unde s and his inconsis en pa e n o
e ec s, we employed he social exchange heo y
(C opanzano e al., 2017; C opanzano & Mi chell, 2005)
and empi ically examined he di e en associa ions
be ween an o ganiza ion’s aining HR p ac ice and
employee u no e depending on wo mode a o s associ-
a ed wi h an o ganiza ion’s employees: he le el o job
quali ica ion and educa ional backg ound. Ou indings
indica e ha he cha ac e is ics o an o ganiza ion’s
employees do impac he aining and u no e associa ion
and lend suppo o he gene al social exchange heo e ical
app oach de eloped and used in his a icle. In doing so,
we hope o p o ide a new heo e ical amewo k o u u e
esea ch o u he explo e he di e en ial associa ions
be ween aining and employee u no e .
Da a A ailabili y S a emen
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable om
he co esponding au ho upon easonable eques .
Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s
The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h
espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his
a icle.
Funding
The au ho (s) ecei ed no inancial suppo o he esea ch,
au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle.
ORCID iD
Minjong Jun h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-3009-9155
No e
1. Acco ding o S a is ics Ko ea, 41.63% o Ko eans in he
age ange 25–64 yea s we e college g adua es du ing he
ime ame o his s udy (2009–2017), whe eas he OECD
(O ganiza ion o Economic Coope a ion and De elopmen )
membe a e age was 32.88% o he same age ange and
ime ame.
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Jun and Ecka d 323
Appendix 1
Da a anspa ency able
The da a epo ed in his s udy we e ob ained om he
HCCP collec ed by he Ko ean Resea ch Ins i u e
Voca ional Educa ion and T aining. The websi e o he
HCCP desc ip ion in English is h ps://www.k i e . e.k /
eng/eu/eh/euDAADs.jsp, and we ob ained he da a om
h ps://www.k i e . e.k /ku/ha/kuCCFDs.jsp. This web-
si e in ol es la ge and mul i ace ed da abases wi h in o -
ma ion associa ed wi h i ms, employees, and manage s.
As he HCCP has been used o examining managemen
esea ch ques ions, i is likely ha o he esea che s ha e
u ilized po ions o he HCCP da a se s om he websi e
in published, in-p ess, and wo king pape s. A bibliog a-
phy o Ko ean con e ence p esen a ions using he HCCP
is a ailable a h ps://www.k i e . e.k /ku/ha/kuCCELs.
jsp;jsessionid=Q5MEcg5FwIRZcB0P3WUSKbiQaRGH
QG1850KhOG9K3P8D3LAbp1cV7b5 g151WVnM.
k i e 3_se le _engine5. The main a iables (i.e.,
employee u no e , aining, quali ica ion, and educa-
ional backg ound) and ela ionships examined in he
p esen s udy ha e no been examined in any p io o cu -
en s udies. To he bes o ou knowledge, he ollowing
able iden i ies he only o he s udies wi h di ec o e lap
among he ocal a iables examined in he cu en a icle.
As shown in he able, he e a e no o e laps in e ms o
he measu emen s o aining, quali ica ion, and educa-
ional backg ound. Fu he mo e, he ime ame ha MS1
(only 2005), MS2 (only 2005), and MS3 (only 2005)
ocus on a e di e en om ha o he cu en manusc ip
(2009–2017).
Va iable name MS1 (S a us = Published) MS2 (S a us = Published) MS3 (S a us = Published)
Employee u no e X X X
T aining
Quali ica ion
Educa ional backg ound
