Vie us, Paul; Elis, Jonas; Goe es, Achim; Zille , Con ad; Ka em Höhne, Jan
A icle — Published Ve sion
Following Poli ical Science S uden s Th ough Thei Me hods T aining:
S a is ics Anxie y, S uden Sa is ac ion, and Final G ades in he COVID
Yea 2021/22
Poli ische Vie eljah essch i
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Vie us, Paul; Elis, Jonas; Goe es, Achim; Zille , Con ad; Ka em Höhne, Jan (2025) :
Following Poli ical Science S uden s Th ough Thei Me hods T aining: S a is ics Anxie y, S uden
Sa is ac ion, and Final G ades in he COVID Yea 2021/22, Poli ische Vie eljah essch i , ISSN
1862-2860, Sp inge Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, Wiesbaden, Vol. 66, Iss. 4, pp. 867-884,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11615-025-00613-x
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RESEARCH NOTE
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11615-025-00613-x
Poli ische Vie eljah essch i (2025) 66:867–884
Following Poli ical Science S uden s Th ough Thei
Me hods T aining: S a is ics Anxie y, S uden
Sa is ac ion, and Final G ades in he COVID Yea
2021/22
Paul Vie us · Jonas Elis · Achim Goe es · Con ad Zille ·
Jan Ka em Höhne
Recei ed: 23 Ap il 2024 / Re ised: 4 Ma ch 2025 / Accep ed: 17 Ma ch 2025 / Published online: 24 Ap il
2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac Teaching empi ical social esea ch me hods as a compulso y pa o a cu -
iculum in ol es se e al challenges. S uden s a e o en unawa e o he ele ance o
me hodological aining o hei poli ical science educa ion and i s alue as a ans-
e able skill. In addi ion, some s uden s a e a aid o he ma hema ical componen s
o hei applied s a is ics aining. These challenges can ha e a diminishing e ec
on s uden success. We examine h ee di e en pe spec i es o s uden s’ sa is ac ion
wi h me hods cou ses a a la ge poli ical science depa men in a Ge man uni e si y.
We desc ibe empo al changes in s uden sa is ac ion o e he cou se o a comple e
e m (6 mon hs) and use a se o independen a iables o explain he ou comes.
To do his, we ielded a longi udinal su ey in i e in-pe son me hods and s a is ics
cou ses du ing 2021/2022 a e he heigh o he COVID-19 pandemic in Ge many.
We demons a e ha s a is ics anxie y— he sel - epo ed wo ies abou ge ing lowe
g ades, becoming ne ous, o eeling helpless when sol ing asks ha ocus on
s a is ics—has a subs an ial nega i e e ec bo h on s uden sa is ac ion and on hei
inal g ades. This clea pa e n aises he ques ion o how o op imally suppo s u-
Paul Vie us · Jonas Elis · Achim Goe es · Con ad Zille
Depa men o Poli ical Science, Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen, Duisbu g, Ge many
E-Mail: achim.goe [email protected]
Paul Vie us
E-Mail: paul.[email p o ec ed]e
Jonas Elis
E-Mail: [email protected]
Con ad Zille
E-Mail: con ad.zille @uni-due.de
Jan Ka em Höhne
Ge man Cen e o Highe Educa ion Resea ch and Science S udies (DZHW), Leibniz Uni e si y
Hanno e , Hanno e , Ge many
E-Mail: [email protected]
K
868 P. Vie us e al.
den s who exhibi high le els o nega i e emo ions owa ds s a is ics. Ou indings
con ibu e o he unde s anding o cou se sa is ac ion in academic me hodological
aining and can be used o imp o e he design o cou ses in o de o signi ican ly
educe ailu e and d opou a es.
Keywo ds Teaching · Longi udinal · Me hodology · Uni e si y · Ge many ·
S uden panel
Die Beglei ung on Poli ikwissenscha ss udie enden du ch ih e
Me hodenausbildung: S a is ikangs , Zu iedenhei de S udie enden
und Abschlussno en im COVID-Jah 2021/22
Zusammen assung Die Ve mi lung on Me hoden de empi ischen Sozial o -
schung als obliga o ische Bes and eil de Cu icula b ing meh e e He aus o de un-
gen mi sich. Die S udie enden sind sich o nich übe die Bedeu ung de Me ho-
denausbildung ü ih e poli ikwissenscha liche Ausbildung bewuss . Da übe hinaus
haben einige Angs o den ma hema ischen Komponen en in angewand e S a is ik.
Diese He aus o de ungen können sich nach eilig au den E olg de S udie enden
auswi ken. Unse Bei ag un e such die Zu iedenhei de S udie enden mi den
Me hodenku sen an einem g oßen poli ikwissenscha lichen Ins i u in Deu schland
aus d ei e schiedenen Pe spek i en. Wi besch eiben die zei lichen Ve ände ungen
in de Zu iedenhei de S udie enden übe den Ve lau eines komple en Semes e s
und e wenden meh e e unabhängige Va iablen, um die Messungen zu e klä en.
Dazu wu de eine Längsschni da ene hebung in ün Me hoden- und S a is ikku sen
du chge üh , welche nach dem Höhepunk de COVID-19-Pandemie in Deu sch-
land in P äsenz s a anden. Wi zeigen, dass S a is ikangs , also die selbs be ich e e
So ge, schlech e e No en zu bekommen, ne ös zu we den ode sich hil los zu üh-
len, wenn Au gaben mi S a is ikbezug gelös we den, einen wesen lichen nega i en
Ein luss sowohl au die Ku szu iedenhei als auch au die Abschlussno en ha .
Dieses Mus e wi die F age au , wie S udie ende mi einem hohen Maß an ne-
ga i en Emo ionen gegenübe S a is ik op imal un e s ü z we den können. Unse e
E gebnisse agen zum Ve s ändnis de Ku szu iedenhei in de akademischen Me-
hodenausbildung bei und können dazu genu z we den, die Ges al ung on Ku sen
zu e besse n, um das Schei e n in P ü ungen und die Abb eche quo e de S udie-
enden zu minimie en.
Schlüsselwö e Leh e · Längsschni · Me hodik · Uni e si ä · Deu schland ·
S udie endenpanel
1 In oduc ion
Empi ical me hods aining enables poli ical science s uden s o c i ically assess em-
pi ical esea ch indings and o conduc hei own esea ch p ojec s. I also endows
hem wi h a se o ma ke able skills o u u e jobs. Quan i a i e me hods o m
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Following Poli ical Science S uden s Th ough Thei Me hods T aining: S a is ics Anxie y,... 869
a sizeable pa o hese empi ical me hods, which e lec s he inc eased le el o ap-
plied s a is ics in he social sciences (Włodzimie z 2012; Clogg 1992; Ma a elakis
2019). Be o e ha ing amilia ised hemsel es wi h he de ails o he cu iculum,
many s uden s- o-be a e no awa e ha s udying social sciences includes a subs an-
ial p opo ion o aining in me hods and s a is ics, a p opo ion ha a ies among
uni e si ies. This lack o p io awa eness migh nega i ely a ec s uden s’ sa is-
ac ion wi h hei poli ical science me hods cou ses and jeopa dise hei s udying
success.
The didac ics o poli ical science me hods a e especially impo an o ins uc-
o s, much mo e so han in o he sub ields o poli ical science. Poli ical science
me hods is a subjec -speci ic amalgam o me hods used in adjacen disciplines, such
as an h opology, economics, his o y, psychology, and sociology. I s con en s a e,
u he mo e, buil on he philosophy o science, logic, ma hema ics, and s a is ics.
Whe eas s uden s a e mos mo i a ed o lea n me hods hands-on when hey apply
hem o poli ical science opics, he undamen als o he me hods and he added
alue o knowing how o use hem p ope ly o igina e om and each a beyond
poli ical science. Me hods ins uc o s hus need o p o ide cou ses ha (1) p o ide
an o e iew o he abs ac undamen als, o en examined h ough w i en exams,
and (2) gi e s uden s he possibili y o applying me hods o poli ical science esea ch
p oblems, o en examined h ough w i en p ojec epo s.
Li le is known abou he in-class ecep ion o poli ical science me hods aining,
especially abou how he aining e ol es o e he semes e . This empi ical esea ch
no e answe s he ollowing wo o e a ching esea ch ques ions:
1. Wha d i es s uden sa is ac ion ac oss a semes e o me hods aining in poli ical
science?
2. How impo an is s uden sa is ac ion o s udy success as measu ed by g ades?
We will dis inguish be ween s uc u al ac o s ha shape he s uden expe ience
be o e hey en e uni e si y— o ins ance, hei pa en s0educa ional backg ound and
he s uden 0s inal g ades in high school—along wi h cou se cha ac e is ics such as
a endance, bachelo 0so mas e
0s le el, o whe he a cou se is manda o y, as well
as indi idual cha ac e is ics such as op imism, p oc as ina ion, and sel -e icacy.
To mo i a e he ele ance o s uden sa is ac ion, p e ious esea ch sugges s ha
s uden s’ pe cei ed sa is ac ion wi h cou ses, as well as he indi idual lea ning
p ocess, is pi o al o hei pe o mance and appea s o media e how eaching quali y
ansla es in o s udy success (Ke i e al. 2021). O he s udies, howe e , ind ha dly
any co ela ion be ween s uden cou se sa is ac ion and s uden pe o mance, as bo h
ha e dis inc oo s: noncogni i e ac o s e sus cogni i e ac o s (c . Blanz 2014).
Gi en he p ominen ole o s uden sa is ac ion a ings in cou se e alua ions, and
he a ibu ed high alue o hese e alua ions— o ins ance, in applica ion packages
o p o esso ships—i is c i ically impo an o he poli ical science p o ession o
in es iga e he link be ween s uden sa is ac ion and pe o mance, as well as he
ole o po en ial con ounde s.
To explo e he ambiguous ela ionship be ween s uden sa is ac ion and pe o -
mance in he con ex o me hods aining in he s udy o poli ical science, we
K
870 P. Vie us e al.
in es iga ed he ela ionship be ween hese wo ac o s. The ela ionship can be a -
ibu ed o (1) cou se- ela ed cha ac e is ics, (2) pe sonal a ibu es o he e alua o ,
and (3) o he , a he a bi a y ac o s (e.g. gende o he mig a ion backg ound o
s uden s). To in es iga e his ela ionship, we ielded he longi udinal Pulse Su ey
in he Depa men o Poli ical Science a he Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen wi h
poli ical science s uden s in a single-majo poli ical science s udy p og amme. We
epea edly su eyed 219 s uden s in i e empi ical me hods and s a is ics cou ses
ac oss ou poin s in ime be ween Oc obe 2021 and Feb ua y 2022 o “ eel hei
pulse” du ing he di icul “COVID semes e ”. These i e cou ses di e ed in he
amoun o applied s a is ics, bu all o hem had a leas some elemen s o i . Mo -
ing beyond p e ious s udies on s uden sa is ac ion wi h me hods cu icula—s udies
ha ha e ocused on sa is ac ion wi h me hods aining as a p edic o o sel -as-
sessed compe encies in a c oss-sec ional esea ch design (Auspu g e al. 2015)—we
d ew a mo e nuanced pic u e o he de e minan s o s uden sa is ac ion by including
a ange o cou se- ela ed and s uden - ela ed ac o s, and we collec ed da a ac oss
a ange o cou ses and o e ime. Mo eo e , we asked s uden s o pe mission o
me ge hei inal cou se g ades wi h hei su ey answe s. This allowed us o in es-
iga e s uden sa is ac ion, oge he wi h se e al aspec s o he cou ses hey ook, o
assess hei ac ual s udying success.
The da a collec ion was implemen ed du ing he heigh o he COVID-19 pan-
demic in he win e semes e o 2021/2022. This pe iod e ec makes he indings
pa icula ly use ul, as s uden s we e expe iencing ex ao dina y le els o o ganisa-
ional and psychological s ain. O e ime, he dynamic o he pandemic c ea ed
a ola ile en i onmen in which he me hods and s a is ics aining ook place.
In sum, we demons a e ha he “s a is ics anxie y index”— he sel - epo ed
wo ies a he i s su ey abou ge ing lowe g ades in s a is ics cou ses, becoming
ne ous, o eeling helpless when sol ing asks wi h a ocus on s a is ics—has a clea
and subs an i e e ec bo h on he uni ied sa is ac ion index and on he s uden s’ inal
g ades. This clea pa e n aises he ques ion o how o op imally suppo s uden s
wi h high le els o nega i e emo ions owa ds s a is ics.
Sec ion 2 p esen s he heo e ical amewo k, including a e iew o p e ious
esea ch and he expec a ions o ou own analyses. Sec ion 3 lays ou he Pulse
Su ey da a and ou analy ical s a egy. Sec ion 4 displays he empi ical esul s, and
Sec ion 5 summa ises ou con ibu ions and sugges s some wide implica ions o
in ense s uden su eying.
2 Measu ing S uden Pe o mance in Poli ical Science
2.1 P e ious Resea ch
High-quali y eaching in highe educa ion is a desi able ou come, whe he om
he pe spec i e o s uden s, ins uc o s, o employe s. Howe e , concep ualising,
de ining, and measu ing high-quali y eaching is a challenging ask (Goe es e al.
2015; Lambach e al. 2017). Thinking o eaching si ua ions as an inc ease in he
knowledge base o s uden s h ough knowledge ans e (Gow and Kembe 1993),
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Following Poli ical Science S uden s Th ough Thei Me hods T aining: S a is ics Anxie y,... 871
his ask equi es some e alua ion c i e ia. While s uden pe o mance can o some
ex en be mapped by g ades, using a e age g ades as indica o s o eaching quali y is
p oblema ic because i e lec s unobse ed cha ac e is ics o s uden s, o ins ance,
hei mo i a ion, in elligence, skills, and expe ience. Since s uden s a e ypically no
andomly assigned o cou ses— hey selec hemsel es o a cou se depending on
speci ic c i e ia—a e age cou se assessmen g ades a e likely o be con ounded by
he composi ion o he g oup o s uden s. To mu e such ha d- o-obse e con ounding
ac o s, a ew app oaches ha e measu ed he knowledge o compe encies o s uden s
be o e and a e he cou se and compa ed he s uden s’ p og ess o e ime (Wilson
2013). While s anda dised p e/pos - es ing would heo e ically p o ide objec i e
measu emen s, implemen ing such a sys em ac oss nume ous specialised cou ses,
especially me hods- ela ed cou ses in which s uden s ypically possess li le o no
knowledge be o e he cou se s a s, poses subs an ial p ac ical challenges in e ms
o es de elopmen , alida ion, and adminis a i e esou ces.
Gi en he limi ed easibili y o implemen ing knowledge-based es s, a ypical
app oach o measu ing eaching quali y has been o ely on he s uden s’ subjec i e
cou se e alua ions (see Pineda and S einha d [2020] o an o e iew). This ap-
p oach has a ious ad an ages, as i is ime e icien and deli e s compa able esul s
ac oss cou ses and o e ime. Fo example, s udies show ha s uden sa is ac ion,
as a p edic o a iable, o some ex en explains he pe cei ed s uden pe o mance,
cou se g ades, e en ion a es, and g adua ion a es (Ke i e al. 2021; Kos agiolas
e al. 2019). As a dependen a iable, s uden sa is ac ion is explained by se e al
academic and cou se- ela ed ac o s, such as he quali y o cou se ins uc ion, ad-
ice, and class size (Tessema e al. 2012; Jamelske 2009), as well as by indi idual
and psychological ac o s, such as expec a ions, sel -es eem, and conscien iousness
(Schaepe 2020). Consequen ly, some s udies concep ualise s uden sa is ac ion as
an in e media y a iable ha la gely media es aspec s o eaching quali y on s uden
pe o mance (Ke i e al. 2021).1
Apa om s udies ha emphasise he ole o sa is ac ion, o he esea ch inds
ha s uden sa is ac ion and pe o mance a e ha dly co ela ed (Blanz 2014). A he
same ime, i is impo an o c i ically e lec on he alidi y o s uden pe cep ions in
gene al and s uden sa is ac ion a ings mo e speci ically. Se e al assump ions un-
de lie he use o such pe cep ual measu es: (1) i is assumed ha s uden s emembe
he cou se con en co ec ly when hey e alua e ha con en e ospec i ely, (2) i is
assumed ha s uden s assess he cou se independen ly o indi idual cha ac e is ics
(e.g. wo s uden s wi h he same expe ience o a cou se should come o a simi-
la e alua ion, ega dless o hei pe sonal backg ound), and (3) i is assumed ha
s uden s ake only cou se- ela ed con en in o accoun a he han also conside ing
a bi a y c i e ia (e.g. he pe cei ed skin colou , a ac i eness, age, o gende o he
ins uc o ). These h ee assump ions a e no easy o de end.
1I migh also be possible ha pe o mance causally a ec s s uden sa is ac ion, while mos empi ical
s udies model pe o mance as a consequence o sa is ac ion. This none heless makes i e en mo e impo -
an o heo e ically concep ualise, and empi ically measu e, speci ic aspec s o sa is ac ion ha go beyond
a global measu e o s uden sa is ac ion.
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872 P. Vie us e al.
Rega ding he ques ion o accu a e ecall (assump ion 1), esea ch shows ha
ecall bias is common in su ey esea ch (Blome and Augus in 2015). The longe
ha e en s da e back, and he mo e complex he chain o e en s has been, he g ea e
he likelihood o measu emen e o due o memo y bias (Manzoni e al. 2010). A
he same ime, e alua ions o a one- e m cou se ypically only equi e easonable
amoun s o memo y and cogni i e capaci y. Mo eo e , cou se e alua ions ypically
ask s uden s how o en hey a ended he cou se, which migh p o ide some insigh
in o he eliabili y o hei esponses. The second assump ion calls o a ca e ul
con ol s a egy in which he impac o indi idual cha ac e is ics is held cons an so
ha sys ema ic a ia ions ac oss cou ses do no hampe compa isons.
The hi d assump ion— ha only educa ional con en should be ele an o e al-
ua ions made by s uden s—is un enable. Decades o psychological esea ch show
ha people e alua e o he s based on ca ego ies o med by socialisa ion and by expe-
ien ial and socie al p ocesses (Rhodes and Ba on 2019). While social ca ego isa ion
ep esen s a co e psychological capaci y ha makes he social wo ld accessible in an
e icien and p edic able way, i can also en ail o ms o s e eo yping, p ejudice, and
disc imina ion. An example would be ha eache s who a e pe cei ed as “ou g oup”
membe s ecei e ex ensi ely nega i e e alua ions om s uden s, no because o hei
eaching bu because o hei “o he ness”. Quasi-expe imen al s udies on bias in s u-
den e alua ions show ha , o example, ins uc o s who a e emale and pe sons
o colou ecei e lowe sco es on s uden e alua ions han do whi e men (Chá ez
and Mi chell 2020). Simila ly, ins uc o s who, on a e age, assign be e g ades o
s uden s o assign a low cou se wo kload ecei e be e e alua ions han hose who
do o he wise (Clayson e al. 2006; Ma sh and Roche 2000). S uden s also gi e
highe sco es o mo e a ac i e ins uc o s (Rosa and Klein 2009). To ca y a bi-
a y easoning o ex emes, he a ailabili y o cookies du ing class has been shown
o imp o e s uden s’ e alua ions o eaching (Hessle e al. 2018). Taken oge he ,
he alidi y and use ulness o s uden sa is ac ion a ings as a meaning ul co ela e
o eaching quali y is a om unambiguous. Howe e , ins ead o abandoning he
whole concep o s uden sa is ac ion, we a gue ha i is all he mo e impo an o
u he in es iga e i s de e minan s and consequences wi h app op ia e esea ch de-
signs. A e all, s uden sa is ac ion is posi i ely linked o lea ning ou comes h ough
mo i a ion.
2.2 Ou Expec a ions
To disen angle he mul idimensional inpu ha in o ms s uden sa is ac ion a ings
om he con ex o highe educa ion, we included su ey ques ions ha e e o
(1) sa is ac ion wi h he o ganisa ion o he cou se, (2) sa is ac ion wi h he p epa-
a ion o he ins uc o , (3) sa is ac ion wi h he lea ning p og ess, and (4) o e all
sa is ac ion wi h he cou se. Such a mul idimensional app oach is cong uen wi h
cu en concep ualisa ions o s uden sa is ac ion (Ke i e al. 2021) and should a-
cili a e he sepa a ion o ounda ions ha unde lie an assessmen o hese a ious
ac o s (Blanz 2014). Ou explana o y amewo k employs a mul idimensional e-
sou ce model o sa is ac ion ha guides he selec ion o ele an p edic o a iables
(Ma sh 1980; G een e al. 2015). Speci ically, his model s a es ha s uden sa -
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Following Poli ical Science S uden s Th ough Thei Me hods T aining: S a is ics Anxie y,... 873
is ac ion only pa ially e lec s eaching quali y, as i also con eys he impac o
o he ele an ac o s ha de e mine s uden s’ expec a ions, as well as pe cei ed
and ac ual lea ning success. We can summa ise his in hypo hesis 1: Fac o s o he
han cou se cha ac e is ics ha e measu able e ec s on sa is ac ion. This asse ion
ela es o esea ch ha shows ha ac o s la gely un ela ed o cou ses can also ha e
a s ong ela ionship wi h pe cei ed sa is ac ion. These ac o s include pe sonali y
ai s, s uden mo i a ion, and s ess managemen (Ke i e al. 2021; Co on e al.
2002).
To assess he e ec s o al e na i e explana ions, we included ac o s such as he
s uden s’ educa ional backg ound be o e s udying, mo i a ional aspec s, s a is ics
anxie y, p oc as ina ion, and sel -e icacy, while also including measu es o cou se
cha ac e is ics. Inco po a ing hese pe sonal cha ac e is ics is also expec ed o mi i-
ga e conce ns abou biased assessmen s due o unobse ed con ounde s.
Rega ding he consequences o s uden sa is ac ion, we hypo hesise—in line wi h
p e ious esea ch (Ke i e al. 2021)— ha s uden sa is ac ion wi h eaching is pos-
i i ely associa ed wi h s udying success, measu ed as g ades ob ained in he inal
exams o he cou se (hypo hesis 2). A he same ime, we expec he empi ical
ela ionship be ween s uden sa is ac ion and s udying success o be subs an ially
abso bed once compe ing ac o s a e aken in o accoun (hypo hesis 3). This con-
en ion is based on esea ch ha shows ha s uden sa is ac ion and pe o mance a e
ha dly co ela ed because hey a e oo ed in di e en p ocesses (Blanz 2014). While
s uden sa is ac ion is mo e sys ema ically ela ed o “noncogni i e” ac o s, such
as cou se- ela ed ac o s, social compe ence, and pe sonali y ai s, pe o mance is
la gely based on “cogni i e” ac o s, such as lea ning beha iou and p e ious g ades
(Blanz 2014: p. 282).
Rega ding he speci ic a ibu es o he scope o his s udy, eaching me hodology
in poli ical science in ol es a numbe o challenges ha can ha e a pa icula impac
on s uden s’ success in hei s udies and on how eache s cope wi h hose challenges.
Me hods aining is gene ally conside ed o be demanding, and psychological cha -
ac e is ics, especially s a is ics anxie y (Maloney and Beilock 2012), play a ole
he e. We hus inco po a ed in ou s udy indices o s a is ics anxie y, p oc as ina ion,
and sel -e icacy. This app oach should map pi alls speci ic o me hods cou ses and
help us o unde s and he ole o ime-cons an cha ac e is ics and he esou ces o
s uden s, as well as he cha ac e is ics o he cou ses, in shaping s uden sa is ac ion
and hei academic success.
3 The Longi udinal Pulse Su ey 2021/2022
3.1 Ta ge Popula ion and Field Pe iod
The da a o igina es om a ou -wa e panel su ey called he Pulse Su ey a he
Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen in Ge many. The Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen has
majo p og ammes in social science, bo h a he bachelo o a s and he mas e
o a s le els, wi h s uden s om di e se socioeconomic backg ounds, bo h wi h
oo s in Ge many and om ab oad. The a ge popula ion o s uden s consis ed o
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874 P. Vie us e al.
all s uden s om i e cou ses wi h a poli ical science me hods ocus a he De-
pa men o Poli ical Science a he bachelo o a s and mas e o a s le els, bo h
manda o y and elec i e and ei he lec u e based o semina based, ha s a ed in
he win e semes e 2021/22. All cou ses had a leas some s a is ical componen s,
ei he applied s a is ics o esea ch designs ha need s a is ical analysis du ing he
implemen a ion. Tha a ge popula ion was abou 450 s uden s, wi h 198 who pa -
icipa ed in he i s su ey wa e. Due o panel d opou s, 98 s uden s who ook pa
in all ou wa es emained in he sample we used in he analyses. Conside ing he
sample composi ion, no bias has been in oduced by he panel d opou s (Online Ap-
pendix Table A.1). Online Appendix Table A.2 and Fig. A.1 show de ails o su ey
pa icipa ion.
S uden s we e su eyed ou imes be ween No embe 2021 and Feb ua y 2022
wi h a ield pe iod o 7 days pe wa e. Du ing his pe iod, some es ic ions due o
he COVID-19 pandemic we e s ill in place. Fo example, cou ses we e o e ed in
pe son on campus and we e hen mo ed o emo e eaching in Decembe 2021. On
a e age, su ey comple ion ime was be ween 5 minu es (wa e 1) and 3 minu es
(wa es 2–4). S uden cha ac e is ics wi h no, o expec edly low, a ia ion o e ime
(e.g. psychological measu es) we e co e ed in wa e 1 only. The emaining su -
eys included ques ions on cou se sa is ac ion and cou se a endance. All s uden s
ecei ed wo eminde s pe wa e by hei cou se ins uc o .
Fo de ails on incen i es, da a handling, and e hics, see No e A.1 in he Online
Appendix.
3.2 Va iables
3.2.1 Dependen Va iables
We used ques ions abou s uden sa is ac ion wi h he me hods cou ses aken as well
as he inal g ade achie ed by s uden s in each cou se as dependen a iables. The
ques ions on cou se-speci ic sa is ac ion pe ained o o e all cou se sa is ac ion, sa -
is ac ion wi h he o ganisa ion o he cou se, sa is ac ion wi h he cou se ins uc o ’s
pe o mance, and sa is ac ion wi h he s uden s’ own lea ning p og ess. Each di-
mension o sa is ac ion was measu ed using a se en-poin a ing scale wi h labelled
endpoin s anging om “ e y dissa is ied” o “ e y sa is ied”. We i s calcula ed
mean sco es o each o he ou sa is ac ion ques ions when a s uden was su eyed
wice in di e en cou ses (n= 20; 10.1% o all s uden s in wa e 1). In a second
s ep, we calcula ed he s uden s’ mean o each ques ion o e he ou su ey wa es.
This way, we ans o med ou longi udinal da a s uc u e in o a c oss-sec ional one.
In o de o de i e a uni ied sa is ac ion index om he ou ques ions, we used
p incipal componen analysis (PCA) o educe hese dimensions o sa is ac ion o
a single componen (eigen alue: 2.88, 72% explained a iance).2We used he es i-
2We ind ha using an explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA; wi h p omax o a ion), as well as a con i ma o y
ac o analysis (all s anda dised ac o loadings> 0.6), p oduces ac o sco es ha a e highly co ela ed
wi h he sco es ob ained om a PCA ( PCA_EFA = 0.989, PCA_EFA= 0.991). Using ac o sco es om an
EFA leads o i ually cong uen eg ession esul s, as epo ed in his esea ch no e.
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Following Poli ical Science S uden s Th ough Thei Me hods T aining: S a is ics Anxie y,... 881
Models 9 and 10 include all p edic o a iables, and in model 10 he cou se
dummy a iables a e included. In bo h o hese models, we ind ha equency o
a endance and he s a is ics anxie y index a e signi ican ly ela ed o inal g ades.
Mo eo e , he inclusion o hese a iables esul s in a d op in he coe icien es ima e
o he sa is ac ion measu e. This pa e n co obo a es hypo hesis 3. Speci ically, he
uni ied sa is ac ion index seems o ha e media ed s uden cha ac e is ics such as he
s a is ics anxie y index. Once aken in o accoun , he s a is ics anxie y index appea s
o be mo e indica i e o he inal g ade han he uni ied sa is ac ion index.
5 Conclusions
We p esen h ee majo esul s in explaining s uden sa is ac ion and cou se pe o -
mance in poli ical science cou ses. Fi s o all, s uden sa is ac ion wi h he cou ses
a ended du ing he semes e ollows a sligh U shape o e ime. Sa is ac ion ini ially
dec eases and hen ises again almos o he s a ing le el owa ds he end o he
lec u e pe iod (wa e 4). This end o sa is ac ion is caused by only a ew s uden s
mo ing be ween e y high and e y low le els o sa is ac ion be ween ime poin s.
This shows ha he e is some a ia ion in sa is ac ion be ween s uden s and o e
ime.
Second, we see ela i ely ew signi ican e ec s in wo pe spec i es o he inde-
penden a iables: cha ac e is ics o cou se pa icipa ion and psychological as well
as demog aphic cha ac e is ics o s uden s. None o he cou se a ibu es has any
p ecise e ec s on he uni ied sa is ac ion index. On he o he hand, om he pe -
spec i e o s uden s’ a ibu es, i is in e es ing ha a highe le el o hei pa en s’
educa ion has a nega i e bu s a is ically nonsigni ican associa ion wi h he uni ied
sa is ac ion index. Mos impo an ly, he s a is ics anxie y index shows a nega i e
associa ion wi h he uni ied sa is ac ion index. Also, i has a s ong nega i e es i-
ma ed e ec on he uni ied sa is ac ion index and he s uden ’s sa is ac ion wi h hei
own lea ning p ocess. Sa is ac ion he e o e depends less on he cou se con en and
mo e on ime-cons an and indi idual cha ac e is ics.
Thi d, we analysed he e ec s o cou se and s uden cha ac e is ics on s udy suc-
cess. The si ua ion u ns ou o be simila o he inal g ade ha s uden s achie e
o hei cou se. Thei inal g ade is p ima ily in luenced by hei own educa ional
success in school ( epo ed Abi u g ade) and he s a is ics anxie y scale measu ed
as an index (Mang e al. 2018; Fö s e and Mau 2015). The e ec s o ma hs anxi-
e y—which can al eady ha e a nega i e impac on pe o mance a school (Maloney
and Beilock 2012)—also nega i ely in luence sa is ac ion and g ades a uni e si y.
Ano he ac o a ec ing s udy success is he s uden s’ equency o a endance o
he cou se: A highe equency o a endance has a posi i e and subs an ial e ec
on hei inal g ade. In his speci ic se ing, whe e a endance is gene ally olun-
a y, he e is clea po en ial o imp o ing s udy pe o mance by mobilising s uden s
in o cou se pa icipa ion h oughou he lec u e pe iod. Finally, sa is ac ion wi h
he s uden ’s own lea ning p og ess is associa ed wi h a be e g ade, while o he
dimensions o sa is ac ion show no p ecise e ec s.
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882 P. Vie us e al.
The limi a ions o ou s udy esemble hose o o he esea ch p ojec s ha sample
uni e si y s uden s (Chá ez and Mi chell 2020): The sample size is ela i ely small
and is limi ed o one ins i u ion. Howe e , i is wo h no ing ha esponse a es
h oughou he longi udinal design a e ela i ely high e en be o e accoun ing o
s uden d opou om he cou ses. I emains ha d o assess he possible e ec s o
he COVID-19 pandemic on s udy and esponse beha iou . Al hough we exe cised
a comp ehensi e con ol s a egy— o ins ance, he inclusion o dummy a iables
o each cou se ha abso bed di e ences in exams o di e ences in di icul y o
cou se con en —we need o emphasise ha wi h he one- ime measu e o he inal
g ade, i is no possible o map causal ela ionships be ween a iables wi h ou
esea ch design. Al hough andomised con olled ials a e no easily easible in
he p esen con ex , panel s udies wi h epea ed measu emen o sa is ac ion and
pe o mance ou comes a e an impo an a enue o u u e esea ch. Fu u e esea ch
should he e o e ocus mo e closely on he speci ic e ec s o he subdimensions o
s uden sa is ac ion. This would hen go beyond he limi a ions o his esea ch no e.
Fo poli ical science lec u e s, ou esul s a e sobe ing. We show ha s uden sa is-
ac ion—comp ising a amily o indica o s—only pa ially p edic s g ades. A each-
ing cul u e based on measu ing s uden sa is ac ion will hus ail o b ing o ligh
impo an pa e ns. The inding ha s uden s’ s a is ics anxie y—as measu ed a he
beginning o a cou se—main ains such a s ong impac on bo h sa is ac ion and
g ades h oughou he s udy pe iod calls o a holis ic app oach o me hods ain-
ing. In his app oach, eache s would collabo a e wi h psychological specialis s and
would ac as ga ekeepe s o s a egies o deal wi h hese nega i e emo ions. While
we a e awa e ha a comp ehensi e implemen a ion o hese ecommenda ions migh
be un ealis ic, we ne e heless wan , a leas , o aise he awa eness o ins uc o s
and s uden s o hese in luen ial ac o s.
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion o his a icle (h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11615-025-
00613-x) con ains supplemen a y ma e ial, which is a ailable o au ho ized use s.
Acknowledgemen s We hank Joshua Claaßen o implemen ing he online su ey in Unipa k su ey so -
wa e. The s udy was inanced by seed money o he Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen o P o . Achim Goe es
(incen i es and esea ch assis ance). Jan Ka em Höhne was a pos doc o al esea che in he wo king g oup
o Empi ical Poli ical Science, whe e mos o he wo k was ca ied ou .
Au ho Con ibu ion Concep ualised esea ch: AG; esea ch design: all; li e a u e esea ch: PV; ques-
ionnai e design: CZ, JKH; p e es ing: JKH; ield managemen , da a p o ec ion, and da a linkage: JE; da a
managemen : PV; s a is ical analysis: CZ, PV; i s d a : JE, PV, CZ, AG; inal d a : all; e isions: AG
(lead), all. PV and JE sha e equal i s au ho ship in andom sequence.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
Con lic o In e es P. Vie us, J. Elis, A. Goe es, C. Zille , and J. Ka em Höhne decla e ha hey ha e no
compe ing in e es s.
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