Análise Psicológica (2025), 43 (1): 79-96 doi: 10.14417/ap.2174
Spo s adap a ion o compe i ion in Po uguese a hle es: The ole o cogni i e
app aisal
José Miguel Noguei a* / Rui Gomes**
*Uni e sidade do Minho, Escola de Psicologia, G upo de In es igação Adap ação, Rendimen o e
Desen ol imen o Humano, B aga, Po ugal; ** Uni e sidade do Minho, Escola de Psicologia, Cen o
de In es igação em Psicologia, B aga, Po ugal
Abs ac : This s udy analyses he ole o cogni i e app aisal p ocesses in he adap a ion o a s ess ul
si ua ion, p o iding indica ions abou emo ions, coping, and coping e ec i eness. The s udy includes
229 male a hle es (59.8%) and 154 emale a hle es (40.2%), wi h ages be ween 14 and 37 yea s old
(M = 22.85; SD = 5.35) di ided be ween indi idual (n = 157; 41%) and eam spo s (n = 226; 59%).
The e alua ion p o ocol included cogni i e app aisal, emo ions, and coping measu es. The main esul s
we e: (a) challenge, coping, and con ol pe cep ions we e ela ed o posi i e emo ions, a ibu ion o
bene icial e ec s o nega i e emo ions, and use o ac i e p oblem sol ing; and (b) h ea pe cep ion
was ela ed o anxie y and o he nega i e emo ions. In conclusion, his s udy shows ha mo e adap i e
pa e ns o p ima y (high challenge and low h ea pe cep ions) and seconda y (high coping and con ol
pe cep ions) cogni i e app aisals co espond o a highe endency o adap posi i ely o s ess ul e en s.
Keywo ds: Cogni i e app aisal, S ess adap a ion, Coping, Coping e ec i eness, Emo ions.
In oduc ion
S ess can be seen as a se o ac o s capable o des abilizing human unc ioning in he sho
o long e m (McLoughlin e al., 2021). In spo s, he nega i e e ec s o s ess on a hle es, such
as su e ing inju ies, being hinde ed by e e ees, disappoin ing someone, o he possibili y o no
pe o ming o he le el expec ed, ha e been mo e widely s udied, and esea ch has shown ha
hey can ha e an impac on a hle es’ unc ioning (A nold e al., 2017; Didymus & Fle che , 2017).
In addi ion, he way a hle es eac o s ess has a s ong impac on how hey adap o he demands
o compe i ion (Do on & Ma inen , 2017; Gomes, 2014; Gomes e al., 2022; Laza us, 2000b;
Neil e al., 2016; Nicholls & Le y, 2016; Tamminen e al., 2014, 2018; Tu ne & Jones, 2014).
Despi e he impo an e o s o comp ehend he sou ces and e ec s o s ess in a hle es’
wellbeing and pe o mance, some o he a iables mus also be analyzed o be e unde s and how
a hle es eel and eac o spo s. One such a iable is cogni i e app aisal ha e e s o he “p ocess
o ca ego izing an encoun e , and i s a ious ace s, wi h espec o i s signi icance o wellbeing”
(Laza us & Folkman, 1984, p. 31). In simple wo ds, cogni i e app aisal is he p ocess o
e alua ing i a speci ic demand ep esen s a h ea o he pe son’s well-being o , on he con a y,
i i ep esen s a challenge o he pe son due o he eeling o ha ing he necessa y esou ces o
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Co espondence conce ning his a icle should be add essed o: José Miguel Noguei a, G upo de In es igação
Adap ação, Rendimen o e Desen ol imen o Humano, Escola de Psicologia, Uni e sidade do Minho, B aga,
Campus de Gual a , 4710 B aga, Po ugal. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
mee he demands o he s esso . The de elopmen o Laza us’ ansac ional model (1991, 2000a;
Laza us & Folkman, 1984) emphasized he impo ance o s udying adap a ion o s ess in spo s,
highligh ing he dynamic and longi udinal na u e o a p ocess in which cogni i e app aisal
assumes a cen al ole (Didymus & Jones, 2021; Laza us, 2000b). Gi en he ele ance o
cogni i e app aisal in he con ex o adap a ion o s ess, his s udy ollowed simila esea ch
ha used c i ical inciden analysis (O’D iscoll & Coope , 1996) based on c i ical inciden
me hodology (see Flanagan, 1954; Vie ge e , 2019) o analyze he s esso s, he coping and
emo ional esponses o he indi idual, and he consequences o hose esponses. Al hough he e
a e no many s udies using c i ical inciden analysis o s udies wi h s ess in a hle es (Mo ais e
al., 2025), i has been used in e y dis inc a eas, as is he case o occupa ional s ess (S adin e
al., 2020), spo s managemen (Velasco & Jo da, 2020), and spo s coaches (Nichol e al., 2021);
hus, his echnique can be adequa e o analyze s ess in spo s due he e idence ha spo s is a
e y demanding con ex o a hle es and includes e y dis inc sou ces o s ess (Gomes e al.,
2022; Laza us, 2000b; Neil e al., 2016; Nicholls & Le y, 2016), making c i ical inciden analysis
a use ul ool o unde s and in mo e de ail he speci ic s esso s ha a hle es ace du ing hei
ca ee s. In ou s udy, we used c i ical inciden analysis om a quan i a i e pe spec i e o s udy
he ela ionships be ween s ess, cogni i e app aisal, emo ions, coping s a egies, and coping
e ec i eness in he spo s con ex . Speci ically, s ess was unde s ood and measu ed in e ms o
in ensi y (i.e., he le el o s ess ha a hle es el ega ding a speci ic s esso ); cogni i e app aisal
was unde s ood as he p ocess o e alua ing he speci ic s esso (see he abo e de ini ion),
emo ions we e unde s ood as “conscious o unconscious cogni i ely app aised esponses o an
e en ha elici a cascade o esponse endencies mani es ed ac oss loosely coupled esponse
sys ems, such as subjec i e expe ience, acial exp ession, cogni i e p ocessing and physiological
changes” F ed ickson (2001, p. 218), as well as beha io al changes (i.e., e.g., ac ion endencies)
(Russell, 2003); coping was unde s ood as he “p ocess o cons an ly change cogni i e and
beha io al e o s o manage speci ic ex e nal and/o in e nal demands o con lic s app aised as
axing o exceeding he esou ces o he pe son” (Laza us & Folkman, 1984, p. 141); and coping
e ec i eness was unde s ood as he pe son pe cep ion o whe he coping s a egies a e success ul
in elie ing nega i e esponses o s esso s (Laza us, 1999). All he da a abou hese dimensions
we e collec ed 24 o 48 hou s be o e he nex compe i ion (e.g., c i ical e en ) done by he
pa icipan s in ou s udy and hey we e asked o epo he le el o s ess o compe i ion (namely
he possibili y o no achie ing he desi ed pe o mance in he nex compe i ion), how hey
e alua ed he compe i ion (cogni i e app aisal), he emo ions hey el ega ding he compe i ion
(emo ions), how hey would cope wi h he possibili y o no achie ing he desi ed pe o mance
in he compe i ion (coping), and how compe en hey el ega ding hei po en ial s a egies o
cope wi h he possibili y o no achie ing he desi ed pe o mance in he compe i ion (coping
e ec i eness). Then, we analyzed how cogni i e app aisal (as an independen a iable) ela ed
o s ess, emo ions, coping s a egies, and coping e ec i eness (as a dependen a iable), es ing
he pi o al alue o cogni i e app aisal in he a hle e’s adap a ion o a s ess ul e en ela ed o
he nex compe i ion. In o de o augmen he possibili y o he compe i ion being po en ially
s ess ul o a hle es, we collec ed da a nea he end o he spo s season, whe e a hle es we e
exposed o compe i ions ha decided he inal posi ions in he championship, and we also
inc eased he pe cep ion o po en ial s ess by asking a hle es o hink abou a nega i e scena io
ega ding no achie ing he desi ed pe o mance in he compe i ion. This is an impo an
con ibu ion o he li e a u e, as we s udy he se o a iables in ol ed in adap a ion o spo s
s ess (e.g., he s ess ul e en , he cogni i e app aisal o he e en , he emo ions ega ding he
compe i ion, he coping s a egies o deal wi h he demands o compe i ions, and co esponded
coping e ec i eness). Also impo an , his s udy adop s a na u alis ic pe spec i e by collec ing
da a in speci ic compe i i e momen s whe e s ess is expec ed o be p esen in he daily
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unc ioning o he a hle es. In ou s udy, he cogni i e app aisal was analyzed in e ms o h ea
pe cep ion (i.e., he ex en o which he a hle es eel ha he spo s ac i i y is dis u bing and
nega i e o hei pe sonal wellbeing), challenge pe cep ion (i.e., he ex en o which he a hle es
eel he spo s ac i i y is s imula ing and exci ing o hei pe sonal wellbeing) ha a e bo h pa
o p ima y cogni i e app aisal. Li e a u e in spo s indica es ha h ea pe cep ion is mainly
ela ed o nega i e emo ions, and challenge pe cep ion is mainly associa ed wi h posi i e
emo ions and he a ibu ion o a mo e bene icial e ec o emo ions in gene al (Ce in e al., 2000;
Meijen e al., 2020; Skinne & B ewe , 2004). In e ms o seconda y cogni i e app aisal, we
analyzed he coping pe cep ion (i.e., he ex en o which he a hle es eel hey ha e he necessa y
skills o deal wi h he p oblem) and he con ol pe cep ion (i.e., he ex en o which he a hle es
eel hey ha e pe sonal powe o manage he si ua ion) (Gomes, 2014; Laza us, 1991, 1999).
Resea ch has shown ha coping and con ol pe cep ions a e mo e associa ed wi h posi i e
emo ions, as well as he a ibu ion o a mo e posi i e e ec o emo ions on pe o mance (Gomes,
2014; Gomes e al., 2022; Nicholls e al., 2014). Despi e hese in e es ing indings in he
li e a u e, ou s udy imp o es ac ual knowledge by assuming an in eg a ed iew o s ess
adap a ion by conside ing he complex ela ions o s ess, cogni i e app aisal, emo ions, coping
s a egies, and coping e ec i eness. In ac , he e is s ill a long way o go o build an in eg a ed
iew o how a hle es adap o s ess (e.g., Do on & Ma inen , 2017; Nicholls e al., 2014; Wong
e al., 2015), as mos s udies ha e s udied he adap a ion o s ess in spo s by analyzing he
di e en ac o s sepa a ely. Fo example, he e a e s udies on s ess and coping (e.g., Ha wood
e al., 2019; Thelwell e al., 2007), cogni i e app aisal and emo ions (e.g., Neil e al., 2016;
Skinne & B ewe , 2004), cogni i e app aisal and coping (e.g., Anshel e al., 2012; Dugdale e
al., 2002), emo ions and coping (e.g., Nicholls & Le y, 2016), o on coping and coping
e ec i eness (e.g., Nieuwenhuys e al., 2011). Howe e , less e idence exis s o s udies analyzing
s ess, cogni i e app aisal, emo ions, and coping in an in eg a ed way. Wi h ega ds o emo ions,
in addi ion o s udying he in ensi y o emo ions, i is also impo an o analyze he po en ial
bene i s o de imen s ha emo ions can ha e on spo s pe o mance, usually e e ed o as he
di ec ion o emo ions (González-Ga cia e al., 2020; Han on e al., 2008). In his way, his s udy
conside ed bo h he in ensi y and di ec ion o emo ions.
On he o he hand, coping is he abili y o elimina e o mi iga e he nega i e impac caused by
s esso s (Laza us, 1991, 1999). Wi h ega d o he classi ica ion o coping, despi e he exis ence
o a ious ca ego iza ions ( o a e iew o he subjec , see Skinne e al., 2003), we ha e op ed
o use dimensions ha come om he dis inc ion be ween s a egies ocused on p oblem-sol ing
(e.g., ac i e coping), which consis s o ac i e o passi e e o s o change he s ess ul si ua ion,
and s a egies ocused on emo ional egula ion, cen e ed on managing he emo ional dis u bance
caused by he si ua ion (e.g., mood, eligion) (e.g., Laza us & Folkman, 1984). A hi d ca ego y
e e s o emo ional suppo , ela ing o seeking social suppo o suppo om o he s (Tamminen
e al., 2018). In ou s udy, we included a b oad measu e o coping s a egies cap u ing all hese
dimensions o how a hle es can deal wi h spo s s ess (i.e., “no achie ing he desi ed
pe o mance in he nex compe i ion”). In addi ion, ou s udy also included a measu e o coping
e ec i eness because i is impo an o de e mine whe he s a egies success ully elie e nega i e
esponses o s esso s (Laza us, 1999). The da a indica es ha his dimension is associa ed wi h
highe pe o mance in eli e a hle es (Dugdale e al., 2002; Nieuwenhuys e al., 2011) and,
con e sely, ine ec i e use o coping has been associa ed wi h lowe pe o mance and d opping
ou o spo s (Thelwell e al., 2007).
Conside ing hese aspec s, he main aim o his s udy is o analyze how a hle es adap o a
s ess ul si ua ion, aking cogni i e app aisal as a cen al dimension (Gomes, 2014; Gomes e
al., 2022; Jones e al., 2009; Laza us, 1999; Meijen e al., 2020). In his way, ou s udy can
con ibu e o he li e a u e by add essing he opic o cogni i e app aisal as he cen al elemen
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o adap a ion o s ess, as p oposed by se e al heo e ical models dedica ed o s udying how
indi iduals e alua e and eac o s ess ul e en s (see, o example, A nold e al., 2017; Gomes,
2014; Jones e al., 2009; Laza us, 1999; Skinne & B ewe , 2004). In simple wo ds, i i is
demons a ed ha cogni i e app aisal is a pi o al elemen o s ess adap a ion, hen heo e ical
models can p og ess by demons a ing how a e p ocessed he ela ions be ween cogni i e
app aisal and o he impo an a iables o adap a ion o s ess (as is he case o emo ions and
coping).
In sum, in ou s udy, i was hypo hesized ha a hle es wi h mo e posi i e pa e ns o cogni i e
app aisal (i.e., highe alues in he challenge, coping, and con ol pe cep ions and lowe alues
in he h ea pe cep ion) will assume mo e posi i e expe iences in e ms o s ess, emo ions,
coping s a egies, and coping e ec i eness compa ed o a hle es ha assume less posi i e pa e ns
o cogni i e app aisal (i.e., lowe alues in he challenge, coping, and con ol pe cep ions and
highe alues in he h ea pe cep ion).
Me hod
Pa icipan s
The sample consis ed o 383 a hle es, 229 males (59.8%) and 154 emales (40.2%), aged be ween
14 and 37 (M = 22.85; SD = 5.35). The inclusion o a hle es aged unde 18 was because hey we e
pa o senio eams. A hle es om ou spo s we e conside ed: (a) swimming (n = 105; 27.4%),
(b) a hle ics (n = 52; 13.6%), (c) handball (n = 125; 32.6%) and (d) olleyball (n = 101; 26.4%),
di ided in o indi idual (n = 157; 41%) and eam (n = 226; 59%) spo s. The yea s o spo s p ac ice
anged om 3 o 27 yea s (M = 11.65; SD = 4.93). The majo i y o a hle es (n = 234; 61.1%) we e
compe ing o na ional i les; 129 a hle es (33.7%) we e pa o eams compe ing o s ay in he main
na ional championships, and 20 a hle es (5.3%) we e compe ing in Eu opean o wo ld
championships. Mos o he a hle es (n = 275 a hle es; 71.8%) had na ional i les o eco ds, while
108 (28.2%) had local i les o no i les a all. Mo e han hal o he a hle es had al eady ep esen ed
he na ional eam (n = 210; 54.9%), wi h an a e age o 16.5 in e na ional caps (SD = 33.7).
Ins umen s
Demog aphic Ques ionnai e. This ins umen was de eloped o his s udy and e alua ed
pe sonal (e.g., sex, age) and spo (e.g., ype o spo p ac iced by he a hle es, yea s o spo s
p ac ice, le el o compe i ion, spo s eco ds, ep esen a ion o na ional eam) a iables o he
a hle es.
P ima y and Seconda y Cogni i e App aisal Scale (PSCAS) (Gomes & Teixei a, 2016). The
PCAS e alua ed p ima y and seconda y cogni i e app aisal being used o his s udy he
an icipa o y-speci ic e sion asking a hle es o hink abou he nex compe i ion when answe ing
his ins umen . P ima y cogni i e app aisal included wo dimensions: (a) challenge pe cep ion
(3 i ems, α = .61 o his s udy): he ex en o which compe i ion is pe cei ed as posi i e and
s imula ing o he a hle es’ abili ies and (b) h ea pe cep ion (3 i ems, α = .64 o his s udy):
he ex en o which compe i ion is pe cei ed as nega i e and h ea ening o he a hle es’ abili ies.
In he seconda y cogni i e app aisal, wo dimensions we e also e alua ed: (c) coping pe cep ion
(3 i ems, α = .84 o his s udy): he ex en o which he a hle es eel hey ha e he abili y o cope
wi h he compe i i e demands, and (d) con ol pe cep ion (3 i ems, α = .86 o his s udy): he
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ex en o which he a hle es eel hey ha e pe sonal powe in he ace o he demands o
compe i ion. The scale i ems we e answe ed on a se en-poin Like scale (e.g., 1 = Is no
h ea ening o me; 7 = Is e y h ea ening o me), and he sco es o each dimension we e
calcula ed by a e aging he i ems o each dimension. Highe sco es mean highe le els in each
cogni i e app aisal dimension. The con i ma o y ac o analysis o his s udy ga e posi i e
indica ions o he expec ed ac o s uc u e (χ2 = 165.850 (48 g.l.), p < .001; RMSEA = .080,
90% C.I. [.067; .094]; CFI = .928; NFI = .903; TLI = .901).
Spo Emo ion Ques ionnai e (SEQ) (Jones e al., 2005; T ansla ion by Gomes e al., 2022). This
ins umen was applied in an an icipa o y-speci ic e sion asking a hle es o hink abou i e
subjec i e eelings ela ed o he nex compe i ion: (a) anxie y (5 i ems; α = . 86 o his s udy), (b)
dejec ion (5 i ems; α = .88 o his s udy), (c) ange (4 i ems; α = .69 o his s udy), (d) exci emen
(4 i ems; α = .86 o his s udy), and (e) happiness (4 i ems; α = .93 o his s udy). The i ems we e
answe ed on a i e-poin Like scale (0 = No a all; 4 = Ex emely) and he sco es o each emo ion
we e calcula ed by a e aging he i ems o each emo ion. Thus, highe alues mean a highe in ensi y
o he emo ion in ques ion. The con i ma o y ac o analysis o his s udy ga e posi i e indica ions
o he expec ed ac o s uc u e (χ2 = 459.744 [198 g.l.], p < .001; RMSEA = .059, 90% C.I. [.052;
.066]; CFI = .948; NFI = .913; TLI = .939). Fo he pu pose o his s udy, he di ec ion o emo ions
was also assessed, which e e s o he acili a ing o debili a ing e ec s a ibu ed by a hle es o
emo ions ega ding he nex compe i ion. Thus, a se en-poin Like scale was in oduced o each
i em in he ins umen (-3 = Ve y nega i e; 0 = Indi e en ; +3 = Ve y posi i e). The ollowing
eliabili y alues we e ound: (a) anxie y (α = .80 o his s udy), (b) dejec ion (α = .91 o his
s udy), (d) ange (α = .72 o his s udy), (c) exci emen (α = .88 o his s udy), and (e) happiness
(α = .87 o his s udy). Thus, his ins umen was applied in wo e sions (in ensi y and di ec ions),
asking a hle es o hink abou hei emo ions ega ding he nex compe i ion.
Reduced Coping In en o y (Coping-R) (Gomes, 2013). Fo he pu pose o his s udy, a hle es
we e i s asked o indica e he O e all S ess Le el caused by a s ess ul si ua ion, de ined as
“no achie ing he desi ed pe o mance in he nex compe i ion”, answe ing on a i e-poin Like
scale (1 = Low s ess; 5 = High s ess). Nex , i was applied he an icipa o y-speci ic e sion o
he Coping-R being asked o a hle es o a e on a i e-poin Like scale (1 = I will ne e use i ;
5 = I will use i o en) he use o ou coping s a egies o cope wi h he s ess ul si ua ion in he
nex compe i ion: (a) ac i e coping (4 i ems, α = .81 o his s udy), (b) emo ional suppo (4 i ems,
α = .90 o his s udy), (c) humo (4 i ems, α = .83 o his s udy), and (d) denial (4 i ems, α = .65
o his s udy). These ou dimensions in eg a e s a egies cen e ed on he p oblem (ac i e coping),
ac i e emo ional egula ion (humo ), passi e emo ional egula ion (denial), and social suppo
(emo ional suppo ), ollowing indica ions in he li e a u e (Ca e & Scheie , 1994; Endle &
Pa ke , 1990; Nicholls e al., 2014; Tamminen e al., 2018). Due he ac ha he ins umen was
i s used in his s udy, he s uc u e o he ins umen was es ed wi h sepa a e samples o his
s udy wi h explo a o y ac o analysis, ha ing ob ained accep able alues (KMO = .89; Ba le ’s
es =12526.7, g.l. = 1326, p = < .001; a iance explained = 68. 7%) and con i ma o y ac o
analysis which also showed accep able esul s (χ2 = 197.064 (98 g. l.), p < .001; RMSEA = .051,
90% C.I. [.041; .062]; CFI = .960; NFI = .925; TLI = .952; CMIN = 2.011). All ac o loadings o
i ems we e abo e 0.40, which may be conside ed accep able (Cla k & Wa son, 1995).
Coping E ec i eness (CE) (Gomes e al., 2013). This ins umen included one i em o e alua e
how a hle es pe cei e he use o coping s a egies in he ace o he s ess ul si ua ion desc ibed
in he Coping-R, ollowing simila ins uc ions o li e a u e o e alua e he e ec i eness o coping
(Dugdale e al., 2002). The e ec i eness o he coping s a egies was e alua ed by o mula ing a
single i em, anging om 0% (No a all e ec i e) o 100% (Comple ely e ec i e), wi h he answe
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gi en on a Like - ype scale (in e als o 10 pe cen age poin s). The sco e esul s om he alue
a ibu ed by he a hle e, wi h highe sco es signi ying highe e ec i eness in he use o coping
s a egies.
P ocedu e
This s udy was ini ially app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Minho (CEUM
026/2014). Al hough we used a con enience sample o his sample, we ied o gua an ee some
condi ions o in eg a ing he pa icipan s in his s udy: (a) pa icipan s should be included in eams
ha had impo an compe i i e goals ye o achie e in he inal s ages o he spo s season (i.e.,
hey we e compe ing o being na ional champions o o a oid being elega ed o a seconda y
compe i i e season), and (b) we ied o equilib a e, as much as possible, he sample in e ms o
sex and ype o spo s because hese a iables seem impo an in he way a hle es espond o s ess
(Dugdale e al., 2002; Han on e al., 2008; Nieuwenhuys e al., 2011). P io o da a collec ion,
au ho iza ion was sough om he eam manage s and coaches. The a hle es we e hen in o med
abou he na u e o he s udy and hei in ended collabo a ion. Then, he e alua ion p o ocol was
applied o a hle es wi hin 24 o 48 hou s o he nex compe i ion and he selec ed compe i ions
included he inal s age o he spo s season, whe e a hle es we e compe ing o he inal
classi ica ions o hei championships o we e included in he knockou s ages o na ional cups
( his op ion ied o gua an ee ha all a hle es we e exposed o highes le els o s ess in e ms o
spo s pe o mance). The e was a pa icipa ion a e o 92.3%, which equa es o ecei ing and
alida ing 383 o he 415 p o ocols dis ibu ed. All he a hle es signed an in o med consen o m.
Unde age a hle es we e also p o ided wi h a eques o au ho iza ion om hei pa en s o
gua dians.
Resul s
Da a analysis
The da a o his s udy was analyzed using IBM SPSS S a is ics ( e sion 25.0) and he
con i ma o y analysis o he ins umen s was done using IBM SPSS AMOS ( e sion 25.0). In he
i s s ep o da a analysis, i was calcula ed desc ip i e s a is ics o ob ain he mean, s anda d
de ia ion, asymme y, and ku osis o he s udy a iables in o de o analyze cen al endencies,
a iabili y, and dis ibu ion o he da a (Table 1). This i s s ep was impo an o check he
no mali y o he da a, which is a p e equisi e o he alidi y o he o he pa ame ic es s used in
his s udy. Also impo an , all he ins umen s we e analyzed in e ms o ac o ial alidi y o
e alua e he cons uc alidi y (see he sec ion o ins umen s o his s udy). Finally, uni a ia e
and mul i a ia e analyses o a iance we e pe o med o es he hypo hesis o his s udy (i.e.,
di e ences be ween a hle es in e ms o emo ions, coping s a egies, and coping e ec i eness
acco ding o hei pa e ns o cogni i e app aisal).
Desc ip i e analysis
Table 1 includes he mean alues and dispe sion o he a iables in ela ion o o e all s ess
le el (i.e., “no achie ing he desi ed pe o mance in he nex compe i ion”), cogni i e app aisal,
emo ions, coping, and coping e ec i eness (see Table 1). Also impo an , skewness and ku osis
we e analyzed, and no se e e de ia ions om no mali y we e ound.
84
Table 1
Desc ip i e analysis o he a iables
Va iables n Mean Median SD Va . Ku osis Asymme y Min. Max.
S ess Coping-R: O e all s ess 383 3.36 3.00 1.11 1.23 0-.324 0-.468 -1.00 05.0
Cogni i e app aisal EACPS: Th ea pe cep ion 383 4.47 4.47 1.18 1.39 0-.204 0-.131 -1.00 07.0
EACPS: Challenge pe cep ion 383 6.13 6.33 0.81 0.66 -1.120 -1.480 -2.67 07.0
EACPS: Coping pe cep ion 383 5.62 5.67 0.94 0.88 0-.692 0-.758 -1.67 07.0
EACPS: Con ol pe cep ion 383 4.86 5.00 1.33 1.78 -0.368 0-.712 -1.00 07.0
Emo ions (In ensi y) SEQ: Anxie y 383 1.69 1.60 0.91 0.83 0-.563 0-.135 -0.00 04.0
SEQ: Dejec ion 383 0.35 0.00 0.65 0.43 -7.490 -2.600 -0.00 03.8
SEQ: Ange 383 0.37 0.00 0.72 0.52 -6.170 -2.510 -0.00 04.0
SEQ: Exci emen 383 2.27 2.25 0.78 0.62 0-.278 0-.338 -0.00 04.0
SEQ: Happiness 383 2.57 2.75 1.04 1.08 0-.019 0-.664 -0.00 04.0
Emo ions (Di ec ion) SEQ: Anxie y 383 0.15 0.08 0.97 0.95 0-.411 -0.184 -2.60 03.0
SEQ: Dejec ion 383 0.10 0.00 1.30 1.68 0-.430 0-.375 -3.00 03.0
SEQ: Exci emen 383 1.32 1.32 0.89 0.79 0-.928 0-.703 -2.50 03.0
SEQ: Ange 383 0.20 0.00 1.20 1.44 0-.971 0-.250 -3.00 03.0
SEQ: Happiness 383 1.52 1.52 1.00 0.99 0-.061 0-.456 -2.75 03.0
Coping Coping-R: Ac i e coping 383 3.79 4.00 0.79 0.62 0-.276 0-.509 -1.25 05.0
Coping-R: Emo ional suppo 383 3.00 3.00 0.92 0.85 0-.545 0-.025 -1.00 05.0
Coping-R: Humo 383 1.94 1.75 0.94 0.88 0-.928 -1.160 -1.00 05.0
Coping-R: Denial 383 1.77 1.75 0.67 0.46 0-.230 -0.857 -1.00 04.0
Coping e ec i eness CE: Coping e ec i eness 383 7.20 7.00 1.61 2.59 -3.550 -1.180 -0.00 10.0
85
Spo s adap a ion: Cons i u ing he g oups o cogni i e app aisal
The di e ences in psychological ac o s (o e all s ess, emo ions in ensi y and di ec ion, coping,
and coping e ec i eness) acco ding o cogni i e app aisal we e analyzed using mul i a ia e
analyses o a iance ( wo-way MANCOVA) o mul idimensional ins umen s and uni a ia e
analyses o a iance o unidimensional ins umen s (one-way ANCOVA). The assump ions o
no mali y o he applica ion o hese es s we e e i ied.
Compa ison g oups we e es ablished o each o he ou ypes o cogni i e app aisal, based on
he median alues, using he decimal alues i necessa y o cases whe e he e we e ies in he
pa icipan s’ sco es. A dis inc ion was made be ween he g oups wi h he highes (n = 195; 50.9%)
and lowes (n = 188; 49.1%) h ea pe cep ions; he highes (n = 211; 55.1%) and lowes (n = 172;
44.9%) challenge pe cep ions; he highes (n = 185; 48.3%) and lowes (n = 198; 51.7%) coping
pe cep ions, and he highes (n = 220; 57.4%) and lowes (n = 163; 42.6%) con ol pe cep ions.
The analysis was ca ied ou aking in o accoun he di e ences in he dependen a iables (e.g.,
o e all s ess, emo ions in ensi y and di ec ion, coping, and coping e ec i eness), analyzing he
in e ac i e and main e ec s on he p ima y and seconda y cogni i e app aisals, con olling as
co a ia es he e ec s o pe sonal and spo s a iables (e.g., sex, age, and ype o spo ) ha had
signi ican co ela ions wi h he psychological a iables o his s udy. The s a egy o analysis was
he same o p ima y and seconda y cogni i e app aisal, by i s analyzing he in e ac i e e ec s
( h ea and challenge pe cep ions in conjunc ion and coping and con ol pe cep ions in conjunc ion)
and hen analyzing he main e ec s o each dimension o cogni i e app aisal, always con olling
he co a ia e e ec s.
Spo s adap a ion: Di e ences acco ding o p ima y cogni i e app aisal
Rega ding he p ima y cogni i e app aisal, i was no ound an in e ac i e e ec be ween he h ea
and challenge pe cep ions on o e all s ess (Wilks’ λ = 1.75, F(1,377) = 1.64, p = .201, η2 = .004).
Howe e , i was obse ed one main e ec showing ha a hle es wi h a highe h ea pe cep ion
(M = 3.68; SD = 0.97; n = 193) expe ienced highe le els o o e all s ess, compa ed wi h a hle es
wi h lowe h ea pe cep ion (M = 3.04; SD = 1.13; n = 185).
Fo he in ensi y o emo ions, he mul i a ia e es esul was no signi ican (Wilks’ λ = .99,
F(5,367) = .55, p = .720, η2 = .010). Howe e , i was obse ed main e ec s o h ea and challenge
pe cep ions. Rega ding h ea pe cep ion, a hle es wi h highe h ea pe cep ion expe ienced highe
le els o anxie y (M = 2.11; SD = 0.83; n = 193), dejec ion (M = 0.41; SD = 0.70; n = 193), and
ange (M = 0.48; SD = 0.85; n = 193) and lowe le els o happiness (M = 2.33; SD = 0.71; n = 193),
compa ed o a hle es wi h lowe h ea pe cep ion ha expe ienced lowe le els o anxie y
(M = 1.28; SD = 0.78; n = 185), dejec ion (M = 0.28; SD = 0.59; n = 185), and ange (M = 0.26;
SD = 0.53; n = 185), and highe le els o happiness (M = 2.21; SD = 0.85; n = 185). Rega ding
challenge pe cep ion, a hle es wi h a highe challenge pe cep ion expe ienced highe le els o
anxie y (M = 1.85; SD = 0.86; n = 210 ), exci emen (M = 2.49; SD = 0.73; n = 210), and happiness
(M = 2.89; SD = 0.93; n = 210) and lowe le els o dejec ion (M = 0.27; SD = 0.59; n = 210),
compa ed o a hle es wi h lowe challenge pe cep ion ha expe ienced lowe le els o anxie y
(M = 1.52; SD = 0.93; n = 168), exci emen (M = 2.00; SD = 0.77; n = 168), and happiness
(M = 2.18; SD = 1.03; n = 168) and highe le els o dejec ion (M = 0.44; SD = 0.72; n = 168).
Fo o he di ec ion o emo ions, he esul o he mul i a ia e es was no signi ican (Wilks’
λ = .98, F(5,367) = 1.17, p = .325, η2 = .016). Howe e , i was obse ed main e ec s o h ea
and challenge pe cep ions. Rega ding h ea pe cep ion, a hle es wi h a highe h ea pe cep ion
a ibu ed less bene i o happiness (M = 1.50; SD = 1.02; n = 193) and mo e bene i o ange
(M = 0.33; SD = 1.20; n = 193), compa ed o a hle es wi h lowe h ea pe cep ion ha a ibu ed
86
highe bene i o happiness (M = 1.57; SD = 0.92; n = 185) and less bene i o ange (M = 0.05;
SD = 1.17; n = 185). On he o he hand, a hle es wi h highe challenge pe cep ion a ibu ed highe
bene i o exci emen (M = 1.48; SD = 0.85; n = 210) and happiness (M = 1.76; SD = 0.95; n = 210),
compa ed o a hle es wi h lowe challenge pe cep ion ha a ibu ed lowe bene i o exci emen
(M = 1.14; SD = 0.86; n = 168) and happiness (M = 1.25; SD = 0.93; n = 168).
As o coping s a egies, he esul o he mul i a ia e es was no signi ican (Wilks’ λ = .98,
F(4,368) = 1.67, p = .157, η2 = .018). Howe e , i was ound an in e ac i e e ec be ween he
h ea and challenge pe cep ions on emo ional suppo , wi h he g oup wi h highe h ea and
challenge pe cep ions (n = 126) epo ing he in en ion o use his dimension o coping mo e
egula ly han a hle es. Besides, i was ound main e ec s showing ha a hle es wi h highe h ea
pe cep ion epo ed highe use o ac i e coping (M = 3.90; SD = 0.69; n = 193) compa ed o
a hle es wi h lowe h ea pe cep ion who epo ed lowe use o ac i e coping (M = 3.60;
SD = 0.86; n = 185). Also, i was ound main e ec s showing ha a hle es wi h highe challenge
pe cep ion epo ed highe use o ac i e coping (M = 3.93; SD = 0.76; n = 210) compa ed o
a hle es wi h lowe challenge pe cep ion who epo ed lowe use o ac i e coping (M = 3.63;
SD = 0.79; n = 168).
As o he e ec i eness o coping, i was no ound an in e ac i e e ec be ween he h ea
and challenge pe cep ions and coping e ec i eness (Wilks’ λ = .011, F(1,377) = .004, p = .947,
η2 = .000). Table 2 summa izes all he esul s o p ima y cogni i e app aisal.
Spo s adap a ion: Di e ences acco ding o seconda y cogni i e app aisal
Rega ding seconda y cogni i e app aisal, i was no ound an in e ac i e e ec be ween he coping
and con ol pe cep ions and o e all s ess (Wilks’ λ = 2.04, F(1,377) = 1.75, p = .187, η2 = .005).
As o he in ensi y o emo ions, he esul o he mul i a ia e es was signi ican (Wilks’
λ = 0.96, F(5,367) = 3.38, p = .005, η2 = .044), exis ing in e ac i e e ec s be ween coping and
con ol pe cep ions on ange and happiness. Speci ically, a hle es wi h highe le els o coping
pe cep ion and lowe le els o con ol pe cep ion (n = 59) epo ed highe in ensi y o ange . Also,
a hle es wi h highe coping and con ol pe cep ions (n = 123) epo ed highe happiness. Besides
hese in e ac i e e ec s, i was also ound main e ec s, showing ha a hle es wi h lowe coping
pe cep ion exhibi ed highe anxie y (M = 1.91; SD = 0.94; n = 196) and lowe exci emen (M = 2.05;
SD = 0.75; n = 196) compa ed o a hle es wi h highe coping pe cep ion ha exhibi ed lowe
anxie y (M = 1.48; SD = 0.81; n = 182) and highe exci emen (M = 2.51; SD = 0.75; n = 182). I
was also ound a main e ec o con ol pe cep ion on dejec ion, showing ha a hle es wi h lowe
con ol pe cep ion exhibi ed highe dejec ion (M = 0.48; SD = 0.78; n = 161) compa ed o a hle es
wi h highe con ol pe cep ion ha exhibi ed lowe dejec ion (M = 0.24; SD = 0.52; n = 217).
As o he di ec ion o emo ions, he esul o he mul i a ia e es was signi ican (Wilks’
λ = 0.96, F(5,367) = 3.47, p = .004, η2 = .045), exis ing in e ac i e e ec s be ween coping and
con ol pe cep ions on happiness. Speci ically, a hle es wi h highe le els o coping and con ol
pe cep ions (n = 123) a ibu es highe bene i o happiness. Besides hese in e ac i e e ec s, i
was also ound main e ec s, showing ha a hle es wi h highe coping pe cep ion a ibu ed highe
bene i o anxie y (M = 0.43; SD = 0.91; n = 182) and exci emen (M = 1.54; SD = 0.79; n = 182),
compa ed o a hle es wi h lowe coping pe cep ion ha a ibu ed lowe bene i o anxie y (M = -0.12;
SD = 0.94; n = 196) and exci emen (M = 1.13; SD = 0.89; n = 196). I was also ound main e ec s
o con ol pe cep ion on dejec ion, ange , and exci emen . A hle es wi h highe con ol pe cep ion
a ibu ed a mo e bene icial e ec o dejec ion (M = 0.22; SD = 1.30; n = 217), ange (M = 0.33;
SD = 1.16; n = 217), and exci emen (M = 1.42; SD = 0.85; n = 217), compa ed o a hle es wi h
lowe con ol pe cep ion ha a ibu ed lowe bene i o dejec ion (M = -.06; SD = 1.27; n = 161),
ange (M = 0.01; SD = 1.20; n = 161), and exci emen (M = 1.20; SD = 0.88; n = 161).
87
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Adap ação ao s ess compe i i o em a le as po ugueses: O papel da a aliação cogni i a
Resumo: Es e es udo analisa o papel dos p ocessos de a aliação cogni i a na adap ação a uma si uação
de s ess, o necendo indicações sob e emoções, coping e e icácia do coping. A amos a inclui 229
a le as do sexo masculino (59,8%) e 154 do sexo eminino (40,2%), com idades en e os 14 e os 37
anos (M = 22,85; DP = 5,35), dis ibuídos en e modalidades indi iduais (n = 157; 41%) e cole i as
(n = 226; 59%). O p o ocolo de a aliação incluiu medidas de a aliação cogni i a, emoções e es a égias
de coping. Os p incipais esul ados o am: (a) pe ceções de desa io, coping e con olo es i e am
associadas a emoções posi i as, a ibuição de e ei os bené icos às emoções nega i as e u ilização de
es a égias a i as de esolução de p oblemas; e (b) a pe ceção de ameaça es e e associada à ansiedade
e a ou as emoções nega i as. Em conclusão, es e es udo mos a que pad ões mais adap a i os de
a aliação cogni i a p imá ia (pe ceção ele ada de desa io e baixa de ameaça) e secundá ia (pe ceções
ele adas de coping e con olo) co espondem a uma maio endência pa a uma adap ação posi i a a
e en os s essan es.
Pala as-cha e: A aliação cogni i a, Adap ação ao s ess, Coping, E icácia do coping, Emoções.
Submi ed: 28/02/2026 Accep ed: 06/07/2025
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