Transnational migration and (in)security: challenges, threats and vulnerabilities of the African immigrants in Portugal

Uni e sidade do Minho
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais
Simon Okechukwu Ayogu
T ansna ional Mig a ion and
(In)secu i y: Challenges, Th ea s
and Vulne abili ies o he A ican
Immig an s in Po ugal
Simon Okechukwu Ayogu
T ansna ional mig a ion and (I
n)secu i y: Challenges,
T
h ea s
and Vulne abili ies o he A ican
I
mmig an s in Po ugal
UMinho | 2025
Feb ua y 2025
~
Uni e sidade do Minho
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais
Simon Okechukwu Ayogu
T ansna ional Mig a ion and
(In)secu i y: Challenges, Th ea s and
Vulne abili ies o he A ican
Immig an s in Po ugal
PhD Thesis
Doc o al p og am in Sociology
Wo k supe ised by:
P o º Dou o Luís Manuel Jesus Cunha
P o ª Dou o a Ri a Ma ia Gonçal es Ribei o
23
Feb ua y 2025
ii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
How excellen , O Lo d, is you lo ing kindness. Thank you o you many gi s, including b inging his
in ellec ual oyage o a success ul end. This wo k came o ligh hanks o God and he gi o some human
and ma e ial esou ces He eadily ga e me. I gi e Him all glo y, honou , and my unending hymn o p aise.
My p ojec supe iso s, P o . D . Luís Manuel Jesus Cunha and P o . D . Ri a Ma ia Gonçal es Ribei o,
despi e hei busy schedules, we e always help ul wi h sugges ions and co ec ions. I canno hank hem
enough o hei a ailabili y, ad ice, encou agemen , and pa ience, which led o he success ul comple ion
o he hesis. They gene ously in es ed hei ime and expe ise in his modes wo k. While I ake
esponsibili y o any sho comings in his wo k, I a ibu e all he c edi o hei disposi ions. The Thesis
Moni o ing Commi ee,
Comissão de Acompanhamen o de Tese (CAT),
and Facul y Dean also dese e
my g a i ude.
To he Holy Ghos Cong ega ion—my eligious amily, immedia e communi y membe s, and o he
con è es—especially hose who suppo ed me du ing he mos challenging momen s o his wo k, hank
you o you pa ience and encou agemen . You a e he wind benea h my wings.
My hea also goes ou in p o ound g a i ude o he pa ishione s o S . John he Bap is Noguei a and S .
Pe e Loma in he A chdiocese o B aga, whe e I se e as a pa ish p ies . You con inue o unc ion as a
bas ion o my unde akings because my days begin and end wi h you.
Many hanks o all hose who kindly ag eed o be in e iewed o his wo k. They a e like co-au ho s since
hey p o ided he aw ma e ials and, a imes, unsa ou y li e expe iences ha se ed as he p ima y da a.
I since ely app ecia e i .
The A ican Ca holic Communi y in he Pa ia cha e o Lisbon and my expe iences wi h you as you
chaplain ha e inspi ed me o emba k on his wo k. You s o ies and ou sha ed li es a e in e wined in o
he ab ic o his wo k, and I am immensely hank ul.
Las ly, my hea o e lows wi h deep g a i ude o nume ous o he s, especially he amily o Ilde onso and
Ekezie, my b o he , whose iendship I ha e sha ed and whose suppo saw me h ough he inal and

i
mos daun ing s ages o hese doc o al s udies. To all hose who ha e con ibu ed o my aining, known
o unknown, nobody dese es my hanks mo e han you do. I am o e e indeb ed.
DECLARATION OF INTEGRITY
I decla e ha I ha e conduc ed his academic wo k wi h in eg i y. I con i m ha I ha e no used plagia ism,
any o m o undue in o ma ion use, o alsi ied esul s du ing he p ocess leading o i s elabo a ion.
I u he decla e ha I ha e ully acknowledged he Code o E hical Conduc o he Uni e si y o Minho.
Uni e si y o Minho, B aga, Feb ua y 2025
Simon Okechukwu Ayogu
i
ABSTRACT
T ansna ional Mig a ion and (In)secu i y: Challenges, Th ea s and Vulne abili ies o A ican Immig an s
in Po ugal
This esea ch conduc s a sociological s udy on mig a ion and ansna ionalism as social phenomena ha
pe sis and con inue o gain signi icance in con empo a y socie ies. Indus ialised na ions wi h low bi h
a es depend on mig an s o ill gaps in he labou ma ke . A he same ime, poli ical and economic
ins abili y in he Global Sou h p opels mass mig a ion o he mo e s able and p ospe ous coun ies o he
Global No h.
This mo emen has signi ican consequences and implica ions o bo h he coun ies o o igin and hose
o des ina ion, con ibu ing o he widening o ansna ional ela ions. This s udy expands mig a ion
esea ch beyond he bo de s o Lusophone A ican coun ies, as ecen mig a ion ends ha e seen many
non-Lusophone A ican mig an s a i e in Po ugal.
Ou s udy examines he elemen s o A ican mig a ion o Po ugal in he 21s cen u y, ocusing on
con empo a y (in)secu i y issues: he challenges, h ea s, and ulne abili ies aced by A ican immig an s
in Po ugal. Va ious ac o s, om economic aspi a ions o socio-poli ical challenges, unde sco e he
complex na u e o A ican mig a ion o Po ugal. The s udy u ilised semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h
pa icipan s aged be ween 20 and 65 (n = 30) and hema ic analysis o he collec ed da a.
The esul s indica ed ha economic p ospec s in Po ugal we e he p ima y ac o a ac ing mos
mig an s. Besides inancial di icul ies, de iciencies in he educa ion and heal h sys ems, poli ical
ins abili y, and subs anda d public se ices we e also ci ed as mo i a ions o mig a ion by he A ican
immig an s included in he sample o his s udy.
This hesis con ibu es signi ican ly o unde s anding he challenges su ounding mig a ion and
in eg a ion s a egies and knowledge o A ican mig a ion o Po ugal and ansna ionalism. I o e s
ele an in o ma ion o u u e esea ch and policy in e en ions and aims o in o m and enligh en he
academic communi y, policymake s, and indi iduals in e es ed in mig a ion s udies and policy ini ia i es.
Keywo ds: A ican mig an s, insecu i y, mig an ulne abili ies, Po ugal, ansna ionalism
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RESUMO
Mig ações T ansnacionais e (In)segu ança: Desa ios, Ameaças e Vulne abilidades dos Imig an es
A icanos em Po ugal
Es a in es igação ealiza um es udo sociológico sob e as mig ações e o ansnacionalismo enquan o
enómenos sociais que pe sis em e con inuam a ganha signi icado nas sociedades con empo âneas. As
nações indus ializadas com baixas axas de na alidade dependem dos mig an es pa a p eenche as
lacunas no me cado de abalho. Ao mesmo empo, a ins abilidade polí ica e económica no Sul Global
impulsiona a mig ação em massa pa a os países mais es á eis e p óspe os do No e Global.
Es e mo imen o em consequências e implicações signi ica i as an o pa a os países de o igem como
pa a os de des ino, con ibuindo pa a o ala gamen o das elações ansnacionais. Es e es udo expande
a in es igação sob e mig ação pa a além das on ei as dos países a icanos lusó onos, uma ez que as
endências mig a ó ias ecen es êm is o mui os mig an es a icanos não lusó onos chega em a Po ugal.
O nosso es udo examina os elemen os da mig ação a icana pa a Po ugal no século XXI, cen ando-se
nas ques ões con empo âneas de (in)segu ança: os desa ios, ameaças e ulne abilidades en en ados
pelos imig an es a icanos em Po ugal. Vá ios a o es, desde as aspi ações económicas aos desa ios
sociopolí icos, sublinham a na u eza complexa da mig ação a icana pa a Po ugal. O es udo eco eu a
en e is as semies u u adas com pa icipan es com idades comp eendidas en e os 20 e os 65 anos (n
= 30) e à análise emá ica dos dados ecolhidos.
Os esul ados indicam que as pe spe i as económicas em Po ugal são o p incipal a o que a ai a
maio ia dos imig an es. Pa a além das di iculdades inancei as, as de iciências nos sis emas de educação
e de saúde, a ins abilidade polí ica e os se iços públicos de má qualidade o am ambém ci ados como
mo i ações pa a a mig ação pelos imig an es a icanos incluídos na amos a des e es udo.
Es a ese con ibui signi ica i amen e pa a a comp eensão dos desa ios em o no das es a égias de
mig ação e in eg ação e pa a o conhecimen o da mig ação a icana pa a Po ugal e do ansnacionalismo.
O e ece in o mação ele an e pa a u u as in es igações e in e enções polí icas e isa in o ma e
escla ece a comunidade académica, os deciso es polí icos e os indi íduos in e essados nos es udos
sob e mig ação e inicia i as polí icas.
Pala as-cha e: Mig an es a icanos, insegu ança, ulne abilidades dos mig an es, Po ugal,
ansnacionalismo
xi
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 In o ma ion lea le o he in e iews ......................................................................... 206
Appendix 2 In e iewee’s In o med W i en Consen .................................................................... 208
Appendix 3 In e iewee’s In o med Ve bal Consen ..................................................................... 210
Appendix 4 Guide o a semi-s uc u ed in e iew ......................................................................... 212

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“The new agenda o sus ainable de elopmen ecognises mig an s, e ugees, and displaced
pe sons as ulne able g oups and calls o ull espec o hei human igh s. Pu suing he new
goals and a ge s, including he one o uni e sal heal h co e age, will add ess mul iple economic,
social, and en i onmen al de e minan s o he well-being o people and he plane ha sus ains
hem.”
- Ma ga e Chan, Di ec o -Gene al o he Wo ld Heal h
O ganisa ion1
“The ex ao dina y challenges, such as he cu en e ugee and mig a ion si ua ion, equi e us o
wo k oge he o add ess hei oo causes in coun ies o o igin and coun ies o ansi ion and
des ina ion. We need o collabo a e on his new challenge and ind new and sus ainable esponse
me hods.”
- Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka1
“Th ough ansna ional ac i i ies, immig an s become ans-mig an s able o main ain, build, and ein o ce
mul iple linkages wi h hei coun ies o o igin.”
-Schille e al. 2
1 On he adop ion o he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen by he Uni ed Na ions (25-27 Sep embe , 2015). The new Agenda. T ans o ming ou
wo ld: The 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen . Decl a a ion 23, A/RES/70/1.
h ps://sus ainablede elopmen .un.o g/con en /documen s/21252030%20Agenda%20 o %20Sus ainable%20De elopmen %20web.pd ? e
2 Exce p om Schille e al., (1992). Ci ed in Dunn (2005, pp.16). Dunn, K. M. (2005). A pa adigm o ansna ionalism o mig a ion s udies.
New Zealand Popula ion Re iew, 31(2), 15-31.
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INTRODUCTION
In ecen decades, he mo emen o people ac oss na ional bo de s has in ensi ied, d i en by a
complex in e play o ac o s, including economic dispa i ies, poli ical ins abili y, en i onmen al
changes, and he aspi a ion o be e oppo uni ies and imp o ed li ing condi ions (Heins, 2024).
Amids hese global mig a o y lows, A ican mig an s ep esen a subs an ial and dynamic g oup
whose expe iences and challenges p o ide c i ical insigh s in o he b oade con ex o ansna ional
mig a ion (Ciaba i & Simonsen, 2024). T ansna ional mig a ion has eme ged as a de ini i e
phenomenon o he 21s cen u y, ans o ming socie ies, eshaping economies, and al e ing
cul u es globally. T ansna ionalism de ies he adi ional bina y app oach o mig a ion, which iews
i as a linea depa u e, a i al, se lemen , and in eg a ion p ocess. Ins ead, i emphasises he
luidi y and simul anei y o c oss-bo de in e ac ions, acknowledging he complex and ongoing
na u e o mig an expe iences (Heins e al., 2023; Lauben hal, 2023; Massey, 2023). Among he
egional mig a ion lows, he mo emen o A ican mig an s o Eu ope, pa icula ly o coun ies like
Po ugal, s ands ou due o i s his o ical, socio-economic, and geopoli ical dimensions (Idemudia
& Boehnke, 2020).
T ansna ionalism, as a icula ed and expounded upon by Schille e al. (1992), o e s a lens o
unde s anding he con inuous in e ac ions and connec ions ha mig an s main ain ac oss bo de s.
Mig a ion signi ican ly in luences he social ab ic o sending and ecei ing coun ies, as mig an s
con ibu e o he hos socie y in nume ous ways, including cul u al di e si y, labou o ce
pa icipa ion, and economic con ibu ions h ough emi ances (Ra ha e al., 2011). Mig an s also
ace subs an ial challenges ha mus be add essed o os e social cohesion and p e en
ma ginalisa ion. This pe spec i e highligh s he mul i-si ed na u e o mig an s' li es, whe e hey
simul aneously na iga e and nego ia e hei iden i ies, a ilia ions, and ac i i ies wi hin mul iple
na ional con ex s. Fo A ican mig an s in Po ugal, his en ails main aining cul u al, economic, and
social ies wi h hei coun ies o o igin while adap ing o he hos socie y (Peixo o e al., 2019). Fo
Po ugal, a coun y wi h a colonial his o y in A ica, unde s anding cu en mig a ion ends and
hei implica ions is c ucial o o mula ing inclusi e social policies and p omo ing mul icul u al
in eg a ion.
2
F om he mig an s' pe spec i e, hei li ed expe iences, aspi a ions, and he nume ous obs acles
hey ace e oke emo ions and pe cep ions, depending on how hey un old. Mo eo e , he e a e
equen men ions in he li e a u e o issues such as disc imina ion, cul u al adap a ion, and socio-
economic in eg a ion, which a e c i ical a eas o conce n (Hu e al., 2021; Djogbenou e al., 2024;
Wang & Gio anis, 2024). Unde s anding hese aspec s can in o m be e suppo sys ems and
in eg a ion policies, ul ima ely enhancing he well-being and po en ial o A ican mig an s in any
loca ion whe e he mig a ion winds ca y hem.
In doing his, he ocus need no be solely on p o iding insigh s in o he ansna ional connec ions
main ained by mig an s; highligh ing he ongoing ies wi h hei coun ies o o igin and he dual
in luence on hos and home socie ies also becomes ele an .
My in e es in his hesis, which o e s p o ound insigh in o he eali ies aced by mig an s om
A ican Indigenous communi ies li ing in Po ugal and s i ing o access necessa y in e en ions,
s ems i s ly om my own expe ience as a mig an , ha ing esided in Po ugal o many yea s, and
secondly om my in e ac ions wi h a ious g oups o A ican mig an s om di e se backg ounds
li ing in Lisbon, whe e I se ed as he chaplain o he A ican Ca holic Communi y.
This esea ch domain add esses c i ical issues a he o e on o sociopoli ical discou se,
in luencing policy-making, in e na ional ela ions, and he e e yday li es o millions o indi iduals
wo ldwide. In hos coun ies, mig an s con ibu e o economic g ow h, cul u al di e si y, and
inno a ion; howe e , hey also encoun e signi ican obs acles ha impede hei in eg a ion and
o e all well-being. By examining hei insecu i ies and ulne abili ies, his esea ch can in o m he
de elopmen o policies and p ac ices o enhance hei social inclusion, access o se ices, and
p o ec ion o hei igh s. Fo home coun ies, unde s anding he expe iences o hei diaspo a can
guide e o s o suppo hei ci izens ab oad and le e age he po en ial bene i s o mig a ion, such
as emi ances and he ans e o skills.
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Fu he mo e, his s udy in e sec s nume ous disciplines, including sociology, an h opology, poli ical
science, geog aphy, public heal h, and mo e. This in e disciplina y app oach enhances he
unde s anding o mig a ion as a complex and dynamic phenomenon in luenced by a ious social,
economic, and poli ical ac o s. The scien i ic in es iga ion in o he d i e s o mig a ion, pa e ns o
mo emen , and esul an challenges imp o es heo e ical amewo ks. I con ibu es o mo e
comp ehensi e models o human mobili y and b oadens he discou se in he li e a u e conce ning
he dynamism o A o-Luso mig a ion. By ocusing on A ican mig an s in Po ugal, he indings
om his s udy can in o m e idence-based policymaking in de eloping a ge ed in e en ions ha
add ess he speci ic needs and ulne abili ies o mig an popula ions.
This s udy on “T ansna ional Mig a ion and (In)secu i y: Challenges, Th ea s and Vulne abili ies o
A ican Immig an s in Po ugal” speci ically aims o iden i y he insecu i ies, challenges, h ea s,
and ulne abili ies con on ed by ansna ional mig an s o A ican o igin in hei hos , ansi , o
home coun ies, and o asce ain how hese ac o s in luence he u u e o A ican mig a ion o
Po ugal. To achie e his aim, he esea ch has ou lined he ollowing gene al objec i es:
The i s objec i e is o iden i y he pa icipan s' mo i es o emig a ion and de e mine whe he
he e a e di e ences in add essing he basic needs o locals and A ican mig an s ega ding hei
li elihood and li ing condi ions. The second objec i e aims o iden i y he signi ican challenges,
insecu i ies, and h ea s ha , due o hei di e se backg ounds, could inc ease he ulne abili y o
A ican mig an s in hei hos coun y. The hi d objec i e is o analyse he ela ionship be ween
hese challenges, he oppo uni ies o in eg a ion, and he decisions su ounding e u n mig a ion.
The ou h objec i e is o elabo a e on he in e iewees' expec a ions ega ding esol ing issues
ela ed o mig an s’ well-being.
4
Fu he mo e, o achie e hese objec i es, he s udy aims o answe he ollowing esea ch
ques ions:
a) Wha challenges did mig an s ace in hei home coun ies ha in luenced hei decisions o
mig a e?
b) Wha a e he p ima y sou ces o insecu i y, h ea , and economic ulne abili y ha A ican
mig an s ace in Po ugal?
c) How do A ican mig an s in Po ugal na iga e and con on di e en o ms o insecu i y, including
h ea s o hei physical sa e y, ac s o iolence, exploi a ion, and disc imina ion?
d) To wha deg ee do ansna ional ne wo ks, social suppo sys ems, and communi y esilience
mechanisms enhance he p o ec ion and esilience o mig an s agains insecu i y?
e) Wha policy amewo ks and in e en ions a e necessa y a na ional and ansna ional le els o
add ess he secu i y needs and p omo e he p o ec ion o A ican mig an s in Po ugal?
) Do hese expe iences ha e las ing implica ions o he u u e pa hs o A ican mig an s in Po ugal?
Wi hin he amewo k o ansna ionalism, mig a ion heo y emphasises he ongoing c oss-bo de
connec ions ha mig an s main ain, which challenges adi ional no ions o mig a ion ha ocus
solely on one-way mo emen and se lemen (Bilecen & Lubbe s, 2021). The s udy iden i ies h ee
main ypes o heo ies: mic o-le el heo ies, which conside mig a ion decisions om an indi idual
pe spec i e, including expec a ions, plans, and cons ain s; mac o-le el heo ies ha highligh
mig a ion decisions om an agg ega e iewpoin , encompassing he mac oeconomic s uc u e o
he economy; and meso-le el heo ies ha b idge mig a ion decisions be ween mic o and mac o
le els, inco po a ing amily ies, social ne wo ks, pee g oups, and communi y bonds
(Wick amasinghe & Wimala a ana, 2016), o ming he basis o he heo e ical amewo k.
The (in)secu i y concep encompasses a b oad spec um o mig an issues, anging om indi idual
human ha m o economic, ecological, and social h ea s, isks, and ulne abili ies (Hi sch Ballin e
al., 2020). T adi ional secu i y s udies ocus on physical sa e y and p o ec ion om ha m; howe e ,

5
in A ican mig a ion, secu i y may ex end beyond physical sa e y o include economic s abili y, legal
p o ec ion, social accep ance, and psychological well-being (Vie i & Sc ibne , 2013). In es iga ing
hese dimensions p o ides a comp ehensi e iew o he ulne abili ies aced by mig an s and he
s a egies hey employ o na iga e hei complex eali ies. This holis ic app oach could con ibu e
o mig a ion heo y by in eg a ing secu i y s udies wi h ansna ionalism, o e ing a nuanced
pe spec i e on he mig an expe ience. Thus, by inco po a ing ansna ionalism wi h he concep
o (in)secu i y, his esea ch adop s a ho ough iew o (in)secu i y, examining a ious dimensions
and hei impac on he o e all well-being o mig an s, mainly how A ican mig an s in Po ugal
expe ience and espond o such challenges.
This esea ch adop s a quali a i e design, employing semi-s uc u ed in e iews and hema ic
analysis o examine he expe iences o A ican mig an s in Po ugal. The quali a i e app oach was
selec ed because i can cap u e ich, de ailed accoun s o mig an s' li es, o e ing mo e p o ound
insigh s in o hei challenges and coping s a egies (B aun & Cla ke, 2006).
Using pu posi e sampling, pa icipan s we e selec ed om a ious A ican coun ies, di e en age
g oups, and wi h di e se leng hs o esidence in Po ugal. This di e si y ensu es a comp ehensi e
unde s anding o he mig a ion expe ience ac oss di e en con ex s and backg ounds (B aun &
Cla ke, 2006).
Da a collec ion in ol ed lexible in e iews, enabling pa icipan s o a icula e hei expe iences and
pe spec i es in hei own wo ds while s ee ing he discussion owa ds key hemes ele an o he
esea ch ques ions. This me hod acili a es he explo a ion o complex and sensi i e opics, such
as disc imina ion, economic challenges, and ansna ional p ac ices.
The s udy also employed e lexi e hema ic analysis o analyse he ansc ibed da a using ATLAS i
24 o Windows o iden i y he mos p ominen hemes and pa e ns eme ging om he in e iews.
This me hod is an accessible and heo e ically lexible in e p e a i e app oach o quali a i e da a
6
analysis ha aids in iden i ying and analysing pa e ns o hemes wi hin a gi en da a se while also
conside ing he e lexi e in luence o my in e p e a ions as he esea che (By ne, 2022).
The hesis was di ided in o six chap e s, aligning wi h he p esen s udy's aim and objec i es.
The hesis commences wi h a b oad in oduc ion o he p ima y subjec o his examina ion. I also
ou lines he a ionale o he esea ch and i s aims and objec i es.
Chap e 1 p o ides insigh s om global pe spec i es on A ican mig a ion o Po ugal and highligh s
A ican mig a ion and d i ing ac o s.
Following his in oduc ion, Chap e 2 p esen s a li e a u e e iew on he c i ical opic o mig a ion
dynamism. I ocuses on ansna ional mig a ion, examining he ulne abili ies aced by A ican
mig an s du ing hei jou neys and hei se lemen , speci ically in Po ugal.
Chap e 3 ocuses on he opic's heo e ical backg ound. This sec ion o e s an o e iew o ele an
mig a ion heo ies, enhancing unde s anding o he subjec .
Chap e 4 ou lines he me hodology, o e ing mo e de ailed insigh s in o he app oaches u ilised o
conduc he esea ch.
Chap e 5 p o ides he indings om he in e iews, highligh ing he a ious con ibu ions o
indi iduals who pa icipa ed in he semi-s uc u ed in e iews.
Chap e 6 p esen s a discussion ha includes explana ions and in e p e a ions o he esea ch
indings wi hin he con ex o he hesis ques ion and li e a u e e iew while explo ing hei
connec ion o exis ing s udies. I also o e s concluding ema ks, highligh s he esea ch's
limi a ions, and sugges s a enues o u u e wo k on in eg a ed solu ions o mig a ion- ela ed
issues.
7
CHAPTER 1
MIGRATION DYNAMISM: INSIGHTS FROM GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES TO AFRO-EURO
MIGRATION
1.1 Backg ound
Fo cen u ies, mig a ion has played a c ucial ole in shaping indi idual pa hs, amily s uc u es,
and he e olu ion o en i e na ions (de Haas e al., 2019; Ni a e al., 2023). This complex
phenomenon in ol es he mo emen o indi iduals ac oss bo de s, d i en by many ac o s,
including economic oppo uni ies, poli ical ins abili y, en i onmen al challenges, and aspi a ions
o sel -be e men (Cas elli, 2018). Mig a ion anscends simple geog aphical eloca ion; i
p o oundly impac s he social, economic, and cul u al landscapes o o igin and des ina ion egions
(Ajayi, 2024). Consequen ly, he in ica e in e ac ion be ween mig a ion and de elopmen has
become a key a ea o in e es o schola s, policymake s, and in e na ional o ganisa ions (Lana i
& Ven u ini, 2021).
Mig a ion o en ep esen s a pe sonal pu sui o be e li ing condi ions and b oade oppo uni ies.
This mo emen can be mo i a ed by he desi e o imp o ed employmen p ospec s, access o
be e educa ional esou ces, o he necessi y o escape challenging ci cums ances in one's coun y
o o igin (Ba am, 2015; UN, 2023). The consequences o mig a ion a e signi ican , as
demons a ed by nume ous indi idual na a i es ha illus a e he imp o emen o pe sonal li es
and he en ichmen o he communi ies in o which mig an s in eg a e (Esses, 2018). These s o ies
o en highligh he esilience, adap abili y, and ingenui y equi ed o na iga e he complexi ies o
es ablishing a new li e in an un amilia en i onmen (Czaika & Reinp ech , 2022).
In ligh o mode nisa ion and ecen de elopmen s in human mobili y, con empo a y mig a ion has
e ol ed o a s age whe e immig an s es ablish and main ain complex, mul i-s anded social
ela ionships ha link hei socie ies o o igin wi h hei new places o se lemen (Basch e al.,
1994). This phenomenon illus a es ha mig an s a e pa o wo o mo e dynamically in e linked
8
wo lds. This ad anced pe spec i e on mig a ion encompasses no only hose who physically
eloca e bu also hose who emain in hei home coun ies ye a e connec ed o mig an s h ough
ansna ional social ne wo ks. Mig a ion hus signi ican ly impac s amilies, ca alysing euni ica ion
and sepa a ion (Mos oway, 2020).
Common aspi a ions can also mo i a e amily mig a ion, while o he s may emba k on indi idual
jou neys o b oaden hei ho izons and mi iga e po en ial isks (Ra ha e al., 2011b). The
complexi ies o ansna ional amilies na iga ing di e se cul u al landscapes unde sco e he
signi ican impac o mig a ion on he esilience o amilial bonds and he ansmission o cul u al
alues o u u e gene a ions (Ko man e al., 2022). Howe e , he geog aphical sepa a ion esul ing
om mig a ion can in oduce challenges such as iden i y, belonging, and he p ese a ion o
cul u al he i age wi hin diaspo ic communi ies (de Haas, 2021).
Na ions expe ience he e ec s o mig a ion in a ious ways. On he one hand, mig a ion can
s imula e economic g ow h by add essing labou sho ages, os e ing inno a ion h ough cul u al
di e si y, and acili a ing he ans e o expe ise (Con ini & Ca e a, 2022). On he o he hand,
b ain d ain, o en linked wi h emig a ion, esul s in he loss o highly skilled indi iduals om hei
home coun ies, unde mining specialised knowledge and expe ise in hei coun ies o o igin
(Koczan e al., 2021). The social and poli ical implica ions o mig a ion, which encompass na ional
iden i y, cul u al in eg a ion, and social cohesion, equi e policymake s' ca e ul conside a ion and
s a egic planning.
The c i ical link be ween mig a ion and de elopmen is emphasised h ough emi ances, which
e e o he mone a y con ibu ions made by mig an s o hei coun ies o o igin (Ande sson &
Siegel, 2020). These unds se e as a i al li eline o amilies le behind, acili a ing signi ican
ad ancemen s in po e y alle ia ion, educa ion, and heal hca e in nume ous de eloping na ions
(de Haas, 2010; Newman-G igg, 2020). Concu en ly, ecipien coun ies expe ience enhanced
economic s abili y and g ow h due o hese emi ances. Despi e he po en ial o mig a ion o d i e
economic p og ess, i also p esen s a ious challenges. Deba es o e bo de egula ions, e ugee
igh s, and he e hical esponsibili ies o he in ol ed na ions o en domina e global mig a ion
15
Figu e 2. A concep ual amewo k o he d i e s o in e na ional mig a ion.

16
Adap ed om IOM (2022), his igu e illus a es how he a ious d i e s, acili a o s, and ba ie s
o mig a ion in e ac (Fo esigh , 2011). The e a e i e p ima y mac o-le el d i e s o mig a ion:
economic, demog aphic, social, poli ical, and en i onmen al (Figu e 1.2). These c ea e he b oad
con ex wi hin which indi iduals mo e om one loca ion o ano he . Addi ionally, mic o-le el ac o s,
such as age, gende , and income le el, in luence how mac o ac o s a ec mig a ion decisions a
he pe sonal o household (mic o) le el. Las ly, in e ening ac o s can ei he acili a e o hinde
mig a ion (meso-le el ac o s), including he human, inancial, physical, and psychological bene i s
and cos s o mo ing, as well as he emig a ion and immig a ion policies ha make some o ms o
mig a ion mo e s aigh o wa d and o he s mo e complex. The in e play among hese h ee se s o
d i e s de e mines how many indi iduals will mig a e om hese communi ies o o igin, o which
des ina ions, h ough wha modes o a emp ed en y, and wi h wha ype o ecep ion.
1.3.1. Economic d i e s
Economic d i e s, including highe wages, job a ailabili y, inancial c ises, ade and in es men
oppo uni ies, demand o o eign labou , and he cos o li ing, a e widely ecognised as cen al
mo i es o in e na ional mig a ion, p o oundly in luencing indi iduals' decisions o eloca e ac oss
bo de s (So o e al., 2024). A he co e o his phenomenon is he pu sui o imp o ed economic
oppo uni ies, such as highe wages, be e employmen p ospec s, and enhanced li ing s anda ds,
which o en se e as powe ul incen i es o mig a ion (Goodwin-Hawkins & Da ydd Jones, 2022).
Fo many indi iduals, especially om inancially challenged o de eloping egions, he economic
gap be ween hei homeland and p ospec i e des ina ions can be s a k (King & Collye , 2016;
D i saki & D i saki, 2024). This economic imbalance encou ages he mo emen o labou owa ds
mo e p ospe ous egions, whe e he p omise o inancial s abili y, upwa d mobili y, and he abili y
o suppo amilies h ough emi ances is mo e p onounced.
A conside able body o li e a u e indica es ha a signi ican dispa i y in a e age income, measu ed
in e ms o GDP pe capi a (GDPPC) be ween o igin and des ina ion coun ies, se es as a key
de e minan o in e na ional mig a ion (Giménez-Gómez e al., 2019; Simpson, 2022). In o he
wo ds, he ela i ely lowe p ima y income in sou ce coun ies han he pe capi a income in
des ina ion coun ies mo i a es po en ial immig an s o eloca e. In his con ex , he ac ual
economic dep i a ion and se e e po e y p e alen in many A ican coun ies will likely exe a
17
subs an ial push e ec on mig an s and e ugees om A ica (Czaika & Reinp ech , 2022).
Con e sely, economic de elopmen and ela i ely high pe sonal incomes in Eu ope d aw in
immig an s.
The global economy plays a c ucial ole in shaping mig a ion pa e ns, wi h labou ma ke demands
in de eloped coun ies o en d i ing he in lux o mig an s om less de eloped egions (Findlay &
S ewa , 2002; Jaumo e e al., 2016; Goodwin-Hawkins & Da ydd Jones, 2022). As indus ies in
high-income coun ies expand, he e ends o be an inc eased demand o bo h skilled and
unskilled labou ha he local wo k o ce alone canno sa is y (Haj o e al., 2021). This c ea es
oppo uni ies o mig an s eage o ill hese gaps, pa icula ly in he heal hca e, cons uc ion,
ag icul u e, and echnology sec o s. Fu he mo e, ou sou cing jobs and global economic
es uc u ing can displace wo ke s in ce ain a eas, compelling hem o seek employmen ab oad.
In his con ex , in e na ional mig a ion can be iewed as a esponse o global economic ends,
whe e indi iduals aim o align hei labou wi h ma ke s ha o e be e ewa ds.
Howe e , he economic d i e s o mig a ion in ol e mo e han simply he pu sui o income o
employmen . They also include b oade economic conside a ions, such as he ques o inancial
secu i y and he oppo uni y o build weal h o e ime (Giménez-Gómez e al., 2019). Mig an s
equen ly eloca e o coun ies whe e hey can bene i om be e educa ion, heal hca e, and
housing, he eby con ibu ing o long- e m economic s abili y and he in e gene a ional ans e o
weal h (Toyin-Thomas e al., 2023; Mazzalli e al., 2024). Fu he mo e, he abili y o send
emi ances back o hei home coun ies is c ucial in sus aining households and e en en i e
communi ies, hus ein o cing mig a ion as an essen ial economic s a egy (Mazzalli e al., 2024).
In summa y, economic ac o s emain cen al o he mo i es o in e na ional mig a ion, highligh ing
he in e connec edness o global labou ma ke s and he endu ing human aspi a ion o economic
imp o emen .
18
1.3.2. Social and cul u al d i e s
Cul u al a achmen s, social no ms, and hei e olu ion a e pi o al in shaping mig a ion pa e ns.
Socie al expec a ions and oles can ei he es ic indi iduals om eloca ing despi e hei
aspi a ions o empowe hem o pu sue oppo uni ies elsewhe e. Policies and p ac ices ha
disc imina e agains o pe secu e indi iduals based on social and cul u al no ms may con ine hem
o a pa icula loca ion o o ce hem o lee dange (Baldwin, 2017). Fo ins ance, social and
cul u al a i udes owa ds sexual o ien a ion, emale labou o ce pa icipa ion, emale geni al
mu ila ion, and domes ic iolence can unde mine how people can mig a e o ac as signi ican
d i e s o mig a ion. These a i udes impac hose who a e di ec ly a ge ed and hose who do no
sha e he unde lying alues.
As socie ies p og ess, mig a ion may become a olun a y choice a he han a necessi y. I is o en
in luenced by he social emi ances mig an s ansmi back home, shaping alues and p inciples.
Fo ins ance, as women ha e a ained g ea e au onomy, he po en ial o mig a e o employmen
o educa ion could be signi ican ly expanded. Social ne wo ks also play a pi o al ole in mig a ion
(Blumens ock e al., 2023) by p o iding mig an s wi h essen ial in o ma ion and esou ces o
acili a e bo de c ossings, secu e employmen and housing, and in eg a e in o new communi ies.
Family o ma ion and euni ica ion se e as key social d i e s o mig a ion, in luencing mo emen
bo h wi hin local communi ies and ac oss in e na ional bo de s (di Belgiojoso & Te ze a, 2018). In
amily o ma ion, indi iduals mig a e o ma y and es ablish a household wi h a na ional o a
o eigne esiden in he des ina ion coun y. Simila ly, amily euni ica ion occu s when a spouse
o pa en mig a es i s and la e b ings o he amily membe s o join hem.
Educa ion is a signi ican social d i e o mig a ion (Czaika & Reinp ech , 2022). Pa en s eloca e
o secu e be e educa ional oppo uni ies o hei child en, while young indi iduals mo e o pu sue
highe educa ion. As a esul , in e na ional educa ion p og ams a e expanding, wi h ins i u ions
ac i ely a ac ing s uden s and hei ui ion ees while os e ing c oss-bo de collabo a ions
(Valen ine e al., 2017). While some mig an s in end o s ay empo a ily o hei s udies, o he s
ind long- e m oppo uni ies, such as employmen o ma iage, in hei hos coun y.
1.3.3. En i onmen al ac o s
19
En i onmen al changes, especially clima e change, signi ican ly a ec land, communi ies, and
mig a ion. The In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC) Fi h Assessmen Repo (2014)
p ojec s ha clima e change will inc easingly d i e popula ion displacemen h oughou he wen y-
i s cen u y.
En i onmen al ac o s, pa icula ly clima e change, in luence mig a ion h ough ou key pa hways.
Recu en d ough s h ea en li elihoods, pa icula ly in u al a eas dependen on ain- ed
ag icul u e, while dese i ica ion, land deg ada ion, and ecosys em loss exace ba e hese
challenges. Rising sea le els and coas al e osion p og essi ely ende egions uninhabi able and
dis up ag icul u al ac i i ies. Addi ionally, he inc easing equency and in ensi y o na u al
disas e s, some linked o clima e change, such as ea hquakes, loods, wild i es, o nadoes,
sunamis, and cyclones, u he d i e mig a ion (Moo e & Wesselbaum, 2023; Daous & Selby,
2024).
Con lic s o e sca ce esou ces, p edominan ly wi hin na ions, can esul in poli ical ins abili y,
communal, e hnic, and eligious di isions, as well as mass displacemen o people. The mo e
de ailed e idence e iewed by he IPCC indica es ha “ex eme wea he e en s p o ide he mos
di ec pa hway om clima e change o mig a ion”; howe e , in he long e m, “sea le el ise, coas al
e osion, and loss o ag icul u al p oduc i i y will ha e a signi ican impac on mig a ion lows”
(Adge e al., 2014, pp. 767-69). P e-exis ing le els o esilience a o d some households a g ea e
capaci y o cope wi h en i onmen al d i e s while ende ing o he s mo e ulne able.
These le els o esilience can ha e a ying impac s. On one hand, mo e esilien households may
be be e able o emain a home and adap o en i onmen al changes. On he o he hand,
esilience also p o ides indi iduals wi h he inancial, social, and human esou ces necessa y o
mig a e. The mos ulne able will be he mos se e ely a ec ed, ye hey will also be he leas
equipped o mig a e any signi ican dis ance om hei homes.
1.3.4. Ci il con lic s
20
Ex ensi e e idence indica es ha indi iduals a e mo e inclined o mig a e du ing ci il con lic s han
when hei home coun ies a e ee o such u moil (Ibáñez & Vélez, 2008; Schmeidl, 2001; Weine ,
1992). When sa e y and secu i y a e comp omised, he an icipa ed e u ns on labou , de elopmen
p ojec s, and in es men s a e conside ably diminished. Gi en ha ci il con lic s di ec ly impac
indi iduals' secu i y and li elihoods, people a e o en compelled o mig a e in sea ch o al e na i e
su i al s a egies. Con olling o economic and o he ac o s, one can gene ally expec o obse e
mo e mig an s om coun ies a aged by ci il con lic s.
The poli ical landscape in A ica is gene ally ma ked by his o ical injus ices and opp essi e
go e nance s uc u es (Ongâayo, 2008). Since gaining independence, many s a es ha e
expe ienced ci il wa s, widesp ead mass killings o ci ilians, and a ious o ms o di ec poli ical
iolence o decades (Dunn, 2009). The Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen
(2018) demons a ed ha , wi hin he A ican con ex , se e e con lic s equen ly lead o a
signi ican ly inc eased low o in e nally displaced pe sons o e ugees seeking asylum ac oss
bo de s, indica ing ha con lic s may se e as a ca alys o economic mig a ion.
1.3.5. Demog aphic d i e s
Popula ion g ow h has decele a ed in many egions, wi h mos o he global popula ion esiding in
middle-income coun ies (Popula ion Re e ence Bu eau, 2021). Howe e , he momen um om
pas and p esen e ili y a es indica es ha he wo ld’s popula ion will con inue o expand e en
as u u e e ili y may decline (Blue & Espenshade, 2011). Wo ld e ili y a es (i.e., he numbe o
child en pe woman) ha e dec eased o 2.3, bu e ili y in low-income coun ies emains high, a
4.7 child en pe woman (Popula ion Re e ence Bu eau, 2021). Fe ili y in highe -income coun ies
is below eplacemen le els a 1.5 (Popula ion Re e ence Bu eau, 2021). In high-income coun ies,
he popula ion is an icipa ed o decline as socie ies age: he numbe o indi iduals aged 65 and
o e is p ojec ed o ise om 700 million in 2020 o 1.5 billion by 2050 (UN DESA Popula ion
Di ision, 2020b). Wi hou immig a ion, hese as ly di e en e ili y pa e ns imply ha he
popula ion sha es o he wo ld’s coun ies will change o e he ensuing decades.
1.3.6. Ins i u ions

21
Poo ins i u ional pe o mance in he sou ce coun ies may be a signi ican mo i e o emig a ing
in sea ch o be e -pe o ming ins i u ions (Baudassé e al., 2018). O en, dic a o ial egimes se e
as a push ac o o mig a ion. The absence o democ acy, poli ical igh s, ci il libe ies and
pe asi e co up ion de e mig an s seeking g ea e eedoms (Solimano, 2010). In line wi h
Hi schman's (1970) “exi and oice” dicho omy, indi iduals migh choose o mig a e when
ins i u ions a e unsa is ac o y and undamen al human igh s a e iola ed.
In na ions cha ac e ised by au oc a ic poli ical sys ems and s a e-sponso ed pe secu ion,
ha assmen , disc imina ion, and o u e, indi iduals who disag ee wi h he go e nmen ’s policies
o ideology and possess mino i y eligious belie s o e hnic backg ounds (Solimano, 2010) a e
compelled o mig a e. In non-democ a ic coun ies, e en i indi iduals do no ace physical
pe secu ion, es ic ions on undamen al eedoms may ul ima ely d i e hem o lea e hei coun y
o o igin.
In summa y, i he poli ical en i onmen is hos ile, he endency is ha he economic ou come is
likely o be poo . The e o e, such si ua ions p omp mig a ion o poli ical and inancial easons. In
his con ex , Solimano (2005) a gues ha in non-democ a ic cases, “indi iduals who a e
dissa is ied o disconnec ed om he cu en poli ical and economic condi ions may choose o
lea e hei home coun ies." I is, he e o e, no un easonable o assume ha be e ins i u ional
quali y educes mig a ion lows. In con as , poo ins i u ional pe o mance mo i a es indi iduals o
lea e hei home coun ies and eloca e o mo e democ a ic and sa e coun ies o pu sue be e
eedom, p o ec ion, educa ion, and ca ee s.
Thus, Lucas (2015), Naudé (2010), Ruyssen, and Rayp (2014), among o he s, illus a e ha he
low o mig a ion wi hin A ica, pa icula ly in a-A ican mig a ion, is signi ican ly in luenced by he
con inen 's poli ical landscape. Fu he mo e, due o he excessi ely ep essi e na u e o a ious
egimes, many A ican coun ies ha e consis en ly anked low in e ms o poli ical igh s and ci il
libe ies o decades. These unde lying ci cums ances ha e le nume ous A icans ulne able o
displacemen , including bo h in e nal mig a ion and emig a ion om he con inen .
1.4. E hnici y and cul u al di e si y in A ica
22
A ica, si ua ed be ween he A lan ic and Indian Oceans, anks as he second-la ges con inen on
Ea h. I s geog aphical ex en s e ches om he Medi e anean Sea in he No h o he Sou he n
Ocean in he Sou h. This as landmass is p edominan ly opical, wi h nea ly ou - i hs o i s a ea
in he opics, making i he mos opical con inen wo ldwide (Bedai e al., 2023). The con inen 's
e ain exhibi s ema kable di e si y, cha ac e ised by he Saha a domina ing he no he n hi d,
opical ain o es s in he cen al egions, and he Kalaha i and Namib Dese s shaping he
sou he n landscape. These a ied ecosys ems a e in e spe sed wi h expansi e g asslands, while
Medi e anean clima es p e ail along he no he n and sou he n coas lines.
A ica's ich cul u al apes y is a es amen o i s endu ing human p esence, spanning o e
200,000 yea s (Campbell e al., 2014; Schlebusch & Jakobsson, 2018). The con inen has
unc ioned as a c adle o ci ilisa ion, wi nessing he mig a ion o i s inhabi an s o popula e o he
egions o e ime (Vicen e e al., 2021). This ex ensi e his o y, coupled wi h A ica's di e se
opog aphy, has suppo ed nume ous e hnic g oups, a ying om hund eds o housands,
depending on de ini ions o e hnici y and ibe (Pa naik & Ba al, 2020). These g oups sha e
common cul u al elemen s, including language, eligion, and he i age, which o m he ounda ion
o A ica's cul u al iden i y.
A ica's mul i-e hnic composi ion is e iden in he p esence o nume ous e hnic g oups, each
possessing i s dis inc dialec s, social cus oms, and adi ions (Fo es-Lima e al., 2024). Se e al
o A ica's majo e hnic g oups ha e popula ions su passing ens o millions, including he Hausa
(30 million) ac oss Nige ia, Chad, Came oon, Nige , Ghana, Cô e d’I oi e, and Sudan; he Yo uba
(30 million) in Nige ia and Benin; he O omo (30 million) in E hiopia and Kenya; he Igbo (30
million) in Nige ia and Came oon; he Shona (10 million) in Zimbabwe and Mozambique; and he
Zulu (10 million) in Sou h A ica, among o he s (Ikudayisi & Odeyale, 2019). These g oups o m
he co e o A ica's cul u al landscape, shaping adi ions, occupa ions, and se lemen pa e ns
ac oss he con inen .
Unde s anding A ican se lemen pa e ns equi es p o oundly examining he sociocul u al and
socioeconomic ac o s ha shape mo emen and communi y dynamics. Wi h o e 3,000 dis inc
23
A ican ibal names, he con inen 's e hnic map i idly illus a es i s e hno-linguis ic di e si y
(Figu e 3).
24
Figu e 3. Map o A ica depic ing he majo e hnic g oups. Adap ed om Saylo (2011).
31
Add essing he issue o mig a ion lows om A ica s a s wi h es ablishing a mo e equi able and
jus global o de ha os e s sus ainable de elopmen and upholds he so e eign y and sel -
de e mina ion o A ican na ions. This o de mus also include comp ehensi e mig a ion policies
beyond me ely add essing immedia e mig a ion lows, con on ing he s uc u al inequali ies ha
d i e mig a ion om A ica o Eu ope.
1.7. Fo ced Mig a ion and Volun a y Mig a ion
Fo ced mig a ion o en e e s o he mo emen o displacemen o indi iduals om hei homes
due o na u al and human-induced e en s, including loods, d ough s, amines, iolen con lic s,
pe secu ion, and human igh s iola ions (Cas les, 2006). On he o he hand, mig a ion can be
iewed as olun a y when i is no d i en by physical o psychological coe cion; i in ol es a
conscious decision o pu sue desi able goals in people’s li es a he han me ely a ma e o
p e e ence. The mig an comes om a posi ion o su iciency and has genuine op ions o will ully
change hei immig an s a us, along wi h access o eliable, us ed, comp ehensible, ele an ,
and up- o-da e in o ma ion abou he in ended des ina ion be o e deciding o mo e (O onelli &
To esi, 2013).
The di e ence be ween o ced and olun a y mig a ion lies in he ac o s in luencing mig a ion
(Commey, 2021). The in e ac ion and in e dependence o hese ac o s can make i challenging o
iden i y wha d i es indi iduals o mig a e o shapes hei aspi a ions, he eby sus aining a g owing
in ellec ual in e es in issues ela ed o in e na ional mig a ion (Engel & Ibanez, 2007).
O e he yea s, mos mig a ions wo ldwide ha e been associa ed wi h olun a y mo emen .
Ne e heless, he wo ld is wi nessing inc easing numbe s o displaced pe sons due o ongoing
c ises. An es ima ed 114 million people ha e ecen ly been o cibly displaced globally, including
mo e han 35.3 million e ugees, 5.4 million asylum seeke s, and app oxima ely 5.2 million
indi iduals equi ing in e na ional p o ec ion om he 281 million in e na ional mig an s wo ldwide
in 2023 (UN, 2023). Whe he olun a y o o ced, his mo emen may expose indi iduals o
undesi able si ua ions, making i essen ial o ensu e hei sa e y and igh s, as his could ha e
signi ican economic implica ions o bo h sending and ecei ing coun ies (Pijnenbu g & Rijken,
2021).

32
No all indi iduals acing hese unpleasan condi ions lea e hei coun ies (Kuhn , 2019; Williams,
2015; Zimme man, 2011). Resea che s ag ee ha he socioeconomic cha ac e is ics o indi idual
mig an s in luence he decisions o displaced pe sons o mig a e om hei home coun y (Adhika i,
2013; Zimme man, 2011). I is inc easingly asse ed ha mig an s displaced by con lic and
iolence lea e hei coun ies p ima ily in sea ch o sa e y (B yne, 2016).
In imes o con lic and iolence, indi iduals ace h ea s o hei secu i y and he loss o hei
li elihoods as hey lee hei coun ies o sa e y and be e economic oppo uni ies, o en ansi ing
h ough na ions wi h imp o ed economic p ospec s (Zimme man, 2009; 2011). The economic
en i onmen plays a signi ican ole in in luencing mig a ion decisions and aspi a ions. De Haas
(2011) obse ed ha poli ical ep ession only occasionally esul s in subs an ial mo emen s o
people ac oss bo de s i economic oppo uni ies emain a ailable. Fac o s such as na u al disas e s,
hough empi ically p edic ed as po en ial igge s o la ge mig a ion lows (Mendelsohn e al., 2006;
Tol e al., 2004), may no di ec ly in luence in e na ional mig a ion bu a he a ec in e nal
mig a ion (Alem e al., 2016; G ay, 2009; Raleigh e al., 2010). This, in u n, leads o apid
u banisa ion, which impac s economic oppo uni ies in u ban a eas (Ba ios e al., 2006;
Hende son e al., 2017).
Mig a ion may also wi ness a boom in pe iods o communal con lic s and iolence, a ec ing
economic oppo uni ies. One example is he he de - a me con lic in Nige ia (Amnes y
In e na ional, 2018), which igge s in e na ional mig a ion. Rega dless o he dis inguishing ac o s
be ween o ced and olun a y mig a ion, mig an s o bo h ypes a e compelled o mig a e i egula ly
due o policies (such as igh ened bo de con ols and es ic i e isa egula ions) in hei po en ial
des ina ion coun ies (de Haas, 2007, 2011; Mbaye, 2014).
Howe e , olun a y mig an s such as in e na ional s uden s, gues wo ke s, o hose pa icipa ing
in wo ke exchange p og ammes h ough bila e al ag eemen s a e no compelled o engage in
i egula mig a ion by hese policies. The mig a ion policies o he mig an s' coun ies o o igin,
pa icula ly in au ho i a ian s a es, also es ic mig a ion lows (de Haas, 2011; Commey, 2021).
The li e a u e indica es ha , like o he s, mig an s o A ican o igin make signi ican con ibu ions
o he holis ic de elopmen o bo h hos coun ies and hei coun ies o o igin.
33
1.8. T ansna ionalism as a p ospec i e al e na i e o global in eg a ion
O e he pas h ee decades, eme ging esea ch in he social sciences has signi ican ly edi ec ed
and expanded he scope o mig a ion s udies, emphasising he concep o ansna ional mig a ion.
This new unde s anding acknowledges ha some indi iduals simul aneously belong o mul iple
socie ies while main aining ies o hei coun y o o igin. Fundamen ally, ansna ional li ing
pe ains o indi iduals wi h sus ained and equally signi ican a achmen s, in e ac ions, and
p esences in wo o mo e socie ies sepa a ed by na ional bo de s, ypically o sel -imp o emen
(Nowicka, 2020; Ca ling e al., 2021; P ies, 2022; Casinade , 2023).
T ansna ionalism is deeply in e connec ed wi h e u n mig a ion a ising om globalisa ion, as
ansmig an s na iga e choices, conce ns, and iden i ies wi hin social ne wo ks ha ex end ac oss
mul iple socie ies (Tedeschi e al., 2022). This phenomenon comp ises economic ac i i ies such
as business in es men s in home coun ies and inancial emi ances, alongside poli ical ac i i ies
like main aining membe ship in poli ical pa ies o hei coun y o o igin, o ing in i s elec ions,
and e en seeking o un o poli ical o ice. Mo eo e , ansna ionalism encompasses sociocul u al
exchanges, whe e in e ac ions acili a e sha ing ideas and meanings. These exchanges o en occu
du ing inc eased isi s by immig an s o hei home coun ies o isi s by non-mig an s o iends
and amilies in ecei ing coun ies. Such mig a ions can p o oundly a ec he li es o indi iduals in
he sending and hos socie ies.
Howe e , he economic, poli ical, and socio-cul u al implica ions o ansna ional mig a ion sugges
ha while ansna ional mig an s can be esiden s o hei new communi y like anyone else, hei
daily li es depend on people, money, ideas, and o he esou ces in a comple ely di e en
en i onmen . This u he indica es ha he p ospec s o de eloping ce ain na ions a e linked o
he ac i i ies o hei espec i e diaspo as (Lima, 2010). This implies ha e e y mig an can be
bo h an agen and a subjec o ansna ionalism, engaging in ansna ional ac i i ies and p ac ices
o a ying ex en s (IOM, 2010). Consequen ly, he e is a need o a ce ain deg ee o balance in
hese engagemen s, e en as he wo socie ies may ake on di e ing oles in he li e o he mig an .
This phenomenon is o en mo e no iceable among pa icula g oups, including li es yle mig an s,
expa s, empo a y labou mig an s, and in e na ional s uden s. These g oups a e mainly
34
ca ego ised by hei easons o eloca ing and hei deg ee o eedom in choosing whe e o li e
unde he p e ailing ci cums ances.
Acco ding o Ca ling e al. (2021), while li es yle mig an s and expa ia es a e pe cei ed as ela i ely
a luen indi iduals o all ages who mo e ei he pa - ime o ull- ime o loca ions ha , o a ious
easons, o e a be e quali y o li e o hem, expe s a e seen as a p i ileged class o mobile
p o essionals and hei amily membe s, ypically associa ed wi h a li es yle o c oss-bo de
connec i i y and a de achmen om local socie y. This classi ica ion is conside ed disc imina o y
as i s ips away hei p ima y iden i y as immig an s (Kou onin, 2015; Ta a u, 2019). Many
indi iduals in he o me ca ego y may no necessa ily be mig an s in he con en ional sense o
ha ing changed hei habi ual esidence. Ye , hey lead ansna ional li es ha challenge he
adi ional no ion o mig a ion.
Tempo a y labou mig an s o en engage in ‘con ac wo ke mig a ion,’ d i en by he pu sui o
employmen oppo uni ies. These indi iduals a e gene ally unable o eluc an o se le pe manen ly
in he hos coun y. This hesi ance may s em om a ious ac o s, such as an imbalance be ween
wo k and leisu e o be ween p oduc i e and ep oduc i e esponsibili ies (Dau e gne & Ma sden,
2014; Sa ka , 2017; Valen a, 2020; Ca ling e al., 2021; Pipe , 2022). Con e sely, hose who
en ol in educa ional p og ammes ou side hei usual coun y o esidence while main aining social,
amilial, and economic ies a e classi ied as in e na ional s uden s. While many ansna ional
mig an s end o g a i a e owa ds he Uni ed S a es, he Uni ed Kingdom, and Aus alia, in a-
Eu opean mobili y is pa icula ly signi ican in ansna ional li ing. The ela ionship be ween ee
mo emen policies and Eu opean go e nmen ini ia i es has acili a ed ex ensi e and luid mobili y,
especially among s uden s (Ca ling e al., 2021).
The e is an a gumen ha some mig an s may be mo e ansna ional han o he s, wi h hose li ing
in wo coun ies appea ing o be he mos ansna ional. Fo ins ance, Jews (Eu opeans) esiding
in Ame ica o A icans and o he Asians li ing in Eu ope a e conside ed o be mo e ansna ional
han hei Sou h Ame ican coun e pa s (Bokse Liwe an , 2021; Caa ls e al., 2021). Wha makes
someone mo e ansna ional may no necessa ily depend on hei loca ion o esidence. Ins ead,
i is e lec ed in he in ensi y o ansna ional p ac ices such as ans e ing money, sending goods,
and communica ing wi h people ac oss bo de s. In his sense, i is clea ha ansna ionalism is
35
no solely d i en by ma ginalisa ion bu also by hose who lead ansna ional li es, which can
include bo h mig an s and non-mig an s.
Mo eo e , echnological ad ancemen s ha e ende ed anspo a ion and communica ion
signi ican ly mo e accessible and a o dable. In addi ion, in e na ional mig a ion has become i al
o he demog aphic u u e o many de eloped na ions. Decolonisa ion, combined wi h he di ision
o communis coun ies and he eme gence o human igh s, alongside nume ous o he ac o s,
can also in luence he p e alence o ansna ionalism (Lima, 2010).
1.9. Social emi ances as a po en ial esou ce
E en om a a , emig an s ansmi ideas, beha iou , iden i ies, and social capi al back o hei
home communi ies. These may include p ac ices like democ acy, heal h, gende equali y, human
igh s, and communi y o ganisa ion (Tuccio & Wahba, 2020). Unlike global cul u al lows, social
emi ances can be aced explici ly h ough designa ed channels, enabling he iden i ica ion o
hei dissemina ion pa hways and ac o s in luencing impac . They can p oduce posi i e and
nega i e e ec s (Lac oix e al., 2016). While some iew mig an s as ca alys s o enhanced
democ a isa ion and accoun abili y, o he s associa e hem wi h he ise o ma e ialism and
indi idualism.
Social emi ances ep esen a signi ican ly unde u ilised de elopmen esou ce ha , when
s a egically le e aged, can enhance socioeconomic indica o s in sending and ecei ing coun ies.
Mig an s and non-mig an s ope a e wi hin ansna ional social ields, indica ing ha he ac o s
in luencing hei socioeconomic s a us a e also ansna ional (Kane, 2021). By sys ema ically
p omo ing he exchange o in o ma ion on heal h and educa ion be ween sou ce and hos coun ies,
p ac i ione s and policymake s can ha ness he di e se ideas, belie s, and esou ces ha mig an s
possess (Lau & Rodge s, 2021). This app oach enables educa o s and heal hca e p o ide s in bo h
egions o be e unde s and he ansna ional in luences on mig an s' li es, hus accessing a wide
a ay o ools o imp o e hei condi ions. Impo an ly, a he han iewing emi ance lows as a
inancial bu den on he des ina ion coun y, hey should be ecognised as a mechanism o add ess
his o ical imbalances in de elopmen (Baumeis e e al., 2019). While i is un ealis ic o expec
mig an s' p i a e ans e s o subs i u e o he esponsibili ies o home s a es, pa icula ly in he
36
con ex o declining aid budge s, i is essen ial o acknowledge he subs an ial de elopmen al
po en ial ha mig an emi ances hold.
1.10. P omo ing de elopmen h ough e u n and epa ia ion
Wi hou p ejudice o he dual a ilia ion o mig an s, e u n and epa ia ion a e gene ally seen as
he na u al conclusion o he mig a ion cycle and a p e equisi e o he sus ainable pa icipa ion o
mig an s and e ugees in local de elopmen . Ideally, mig an s a e expec ed o ha e accumula ed
capi al and de eloped skills ab oad ha can be e ec i ely in es ed in hei home coun ies
(Sø ensen e al., 2003). Among he h ee "du able" solu ions o e ugee c ises – in eg a ion in he
i s coun y o asylum, ese lemen in a hi d coun y, o e u n o he homeland – e u n is o en
ega ded as he mos a ou able and "na u al" op ion. Howe e , insu icien a en ion has been
paid o how hese a ious ou comes a e in luenced by he cha ac e is ics o e u nees, he du a ion
o hei s ay ab oad, hei le el o in eg a ion in o hos coun ies, and he mo i a ions behind
di e en e u n ypes.
Nume ous s udies indica e ha sho - e m e u ns, pa icula ly among low-skilled mig an s who
ei he ail o adap o he hos coun y o e u n ab up ly, a e less likely o con ibu e signi ican ly
o de elopmen . In con as , p olonged s ays ab oad, whe e mig an s accumula e sa ings o mee
speci ic de elopmen objec i es, demons a e much g ea e po en ial o de elopmen al impac
(Sø ensen e al., 2003). The de elopmen al bene i s o e u n o epa ia ion also depend on he
skills and ap i udes o he e u nees, as well as he a ailabili y o a suppo i e social, economic,
and ins i u ional en i onmen in he coun y o o igin (Ghosh, 2000). In e ugee epa ia ion, a
coope a i e poli ical clima e among o me ad e sa ies is essen ial (Um, 2023). None heless,
e idence sugges s ha s a es wi h a ecen his o y o iolen con lic a e mo e likely o encou age
con ibu ions om e ugees ab oad a he han hei di ec in ol emen in he pos -con lic na ion-
building p ocess (Janmy , 2022; Şahin-Mencü ek & Tsou apas, 2023).
Repa ia ion o s ic en y es ic ions could signi ican ly impac he mig a ion-de elopmen nexus.
I many mig an s e u n o de eloping coun ies o con lic esolu ion leads o la ge-scale
epa ia ion, emi ances will sha ply decline, aising he isk o enewed ins abili y. Fu he mo e,
he cu en end o con ining e ugees and asylum seeke s o hei coun ies o egions o o igin

37
limi s hei li elihood oppo uni ies. Consequen ly, hey ha e a educed capaci y o gene a e
emi ances compa ed o hose in mo e p ospe ous mig a ion des ina ions (Sø ensen e al., 2002).
1.11. Unde s anding he mu ual pa ne ship in A ican mig a ion o Eu ope
Mig a ion has played a c ucial ole h oughou human his o y, acili a ing he low o cul u es, ideas,
and alen s ac oss bo de s. Wi h he cu en ocus on he mo emen o people om A ica o Eu ope,
his phenomenon has ga ne ed widesp ead in e es o i s di e se impac s (Caa ls e al., 2021).
When iewed on a la ge scale, i p esen s an oppo uni y o signi ican g ow h o A ican mig an s
and Eu opean hos coun ies, pa ing he way o mu ually ad an ageous collabo a ion. The a i al
o A ican mig an s no only enhances he much-needed di e si y in Eu ope bu also in uses a
weal h o alen and skills. Fields such as heal hca e, echnology, academia, and en ep eneu ship
bene i conside ably om hese indi iduals' expe ise (Vasile e al., 2023). By ha nessing his
di e se pool o skilled p o essionals, Eu opean coun ies can add ess labou sho ages, os e
inno a ion, and s imula e economic g ow h; mo eo e , exchanging knowledge and expe ise
bols e s he o e all de elopmen and compe i i eness o Eu opean indus ies.
No ably, he in lux o A ican mig an s p esen s a unique oppo uni y o Eu ope o s eng hen i s
demog aphic composi ion. Wi h declining bi h a es and an ageing popula ion, many Eu opean
na ions encoun e economic challenges and moun ing p essu e on social wel a e sys ems (Flahaux
& De Haas, 2016). Howe e , he a i al o A ican mig an s, who a e gene ally younge and ha e
a highe e ili y a e, p o ides a solu ion o hese demog aphic dispa i ies. They can injec ene gy
in o Eu opean communi ies and con ibu e o he sus ainabili y o pension and heal hca e
p og ammes. Fu he mo e, in eg a ing A ican mig an s in o Eu opean socie ies adds aluable
cul u al di e si y, in using i ali y and dynamism in o hese communi ies. Exposu e o a ious
cus oms, languages, and pe spec i es os e s a sense o cohesion and accep ance, leading o a
mo e inclusi e and ha monious socie y (Lindsay, 2021). This cul u al exchange also bene i s
Eu opean na ions by b oadening hei unde s anding o global pe spec i es and p omo ing
coope a ion and uni y.
A ican-Eu opean mig a ion is inc easingly in luenced by inciden s o acism and xenophobia, which
ha e become pe asi e in many Eu opean socie ies (Moyo & Mpo u, 2020). In some ins ances, an
38
A ican immig an seeking o es ablish hemsel es in Eu ope is likely o encoun e signi ican
hos ili y oo ed in deep-sea ed acial p ejudices and ea o he "o he ." These nega i e a i udes
mani es in a ious ways, om o e ac s o disc imina ion o mo e sub le, sys emic biases ha
hinde mig an s' access o employmen , housing, and social se ices (Ball e al., 2022). The ise
o a - igh poli ical mo emen s ac oss Eu ope has exace ba ed hese issues, as hese g oups o en
exploi public ea s o immig a ion o ad ance na ionalis agendas. Consequen ly, A ican mig an s
a e no only ma ginalised socially bu a e also equen ly scapegoa ed o b oade socio-economic
challenges, such as unemploymen and p essu e on public esou ces. This clima e o xenophobia
unde mines e o s o in eg a e mig an s in o socie y, pe pe ua ing cycles o exclusion and
inequali y.
In esponse o hese g owing ea s and he pe cei ed h ea o immig a ion, Eu opean go e nmen s
a e inc easingly adop ing mo e es ic i e immig a ion policies (Schapendonk, 2012). These
policies o en aim o limi he in lux o mig an s, mainly om A ica, h ough s ic e bo de con ols,
igh ened asylum p ocedu es, and mo e igo ous en o cemen o depo a ion o de s. The end
owa ds he secu i isa ion o mig a ion e lec s a b oade shi in policy-making, whe e mig a ion is
amed p ima ily as a secu i y issue a he han a humani a ian o economic one. Such es ic i e
measu es no only cu ail oppo uni ies o legal mig a ion bu also exace ba e he ulne abili ies
o hose who manage o en e Eu ope, as hey a e o en o ced in o p eca ious and in o mal sec o s
o socie y, whe e hey a e mo e suscep ible o exploi a ion and abuse (Ball e al., 2022). The
igh ening o immig a ion policies, coupled wi h he ise o xenophobia, hus p esen s signi ican
challenges o A ican mig an s, highligh ing he need o comp ehensi e and equi able app oaches
o mig a ion managemen ha p io i ise human igh s and social inclusion.
On he o he hand, he allu e o Eu ope o A ican mig an s lies in he p omise o subs an ial
economic gains h ough emi ances (Enai oghe, 2020). These i al unds a e ans e ed back o
hei coun ies o o igin, suppo ing amilies and boos ing local economies. Ul ima ely, hese
emi ances play a pi o al ole in enabling A ican communi ies o in es in c ucial a eas such as
educa ion, heal hca e, and in as uc u e, he eby pa ing he way o po e y educ ion and long-
e m de elopmen (Awumbila, 2017).
39
Fu he mo e, A ican mig an s who ha e jou neyed o Eu opean socie ies gain aluable expe ience
ha can be channeled in o posi i ely impac ing hei homecoming. Li ing in a new en i onmen
allows hem o gain di e se pe spec i es on go e nance s uc u es, educa ional sys ems, and social
dynamics, p o iding c ucial insigh s ha can be ha nessed o d i e p og ess in hei home coun ies
(Idemudia & Boehnke, 2020b). This "b ain gain" phenomenon holds immense po en ial o
os e ing inno a ion, en ep eneu ship, and enhanced go e nance in A ica.
The ad an ages o A ican mig a ion o Eu ope ex end beyond me e demog aphic changes. They
p esen subs an ial oppo uni ies o mu ually bene icial pa ne ships h ough exchanging alen s,
cul u al di e si y, and economic con ibu ions (Geu s & Lubbe s, 2023). This dynamic in e ac ion
enables A ican immig an s and Eu opean hos na ions o h i e collec i ely by le e aging hei
s eng hs and os e ing a symbio ic ela ionship. Emb acing mig a ion as a collabo a i e en u e
highligh s he impo ance o inclusi e policies and in e na ional coope a ion in ha nessing he
immense po en ial o his complex and e ol ing phenomenon.
E ec i e mig a ion managemen equi es mo e han supe icial solu ions; i necessi a es a
p o ound unde s anding o he unde lying causes and a commi men o sus ainable and equi able
global mig a ion sys ems. Add essing he oo causes o mig a ion om de eloping na ions is
c ucial o c ea ing long- e m solu ions. Economic dispa i y, poli ical ins abili y, and en i onmen al
deg ada ion a e signi ican ac o s d i ing mig a ion, and comp ehensi e s a egies mus include
e o s o imp o e economic condi ions, enhance poli ical s abili y, and mi iga e ecological damage
in mig an s' coun ies o o igin. Fu he mo e, os e ing social uni y and comba ing p ejudice in
o igin and des ina ion coun ies is essen ial o c ea ing an en i onmen whe e mig an s a e alued
and can con ibu e meaning ully o socie y. Fo ins ance, inclusi e communi y ini ia i es in Eu ope
ha celeb a e cul u al di e si y and suppo in eg a ion can help alle ia e he challenges aced by
A ican mig an s, p omo ing a mo e cohesi e socie y.
By aluing mig an s' con ibu ions and add essing he undamen al d i ing o ces behind mig a ion,
we can s i e o a mo e uni ied and balanced global socie y, enhancing he well-being o indi iduals
and communi ies (Uni ed Na ions, 2022b). This holis ic app oach o mig a ion ecognises i s
complexi y and po en ial, ad oca ing o a u u e in which mig a ion is a sou ce o g ow h and
mu ual bene i .
40
CHAPTER 2
TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION
2.1. Vulne abili y, h ea s and insecu i y
Mig a ion has been pi o al h oughou human his o y, con inuously shaping socie ies and cul u es.
O e he cen u ies, indi iduals ha e o en mig a ed om hei home coun ies in sea ch o be e
li ing condi ions, in ending o se le in mo e de eloped egions, p ima ily Eu ope and No h Ame ica.
These a eas a e commonly iewed as p o iding enhanced sa e y and mo e luc a i e oppo uni ies
o hei skills and se ices (Hoxhaj e al., 2020). I is essen ial o ecognise ha mig a ion is no
me ely d i en by he need o escape di e ci cums ances such as iolence, wa , hunge , o ex eme
po e y (Cas elli, 2018; Amnes y In e na ional, 2023). Many mig an s a e p opelled by pe sonal
and p o essional g ow h aspi a ions, seeking en i onmen s ha o e imp o ed socioeconomic
p ospec s and quali y o li e.
Howe e , i is undeniable ha no all mig an s each hei ini ially in ended des ina ions (Amb osini
& Haje , 2023). Va ious un o eseen ac o s and challenges can impede hei jou ney, compelling
hem o econside hei plans. These obs acles ange om s ic immig a ion policies and bo de
con ols o unexpec ed socio-poli ical changes in ansi and des ina ion coun ies (Kassa &
Dou gnon, 2014). The mig a ion jou ney is augh wi h unce ain ies, and he likelihood o being
di e ed om one’s p ima y des ina ion is a i al conside a ion o anyone con empla ing eloca ion.
Po en ial mig an s, he e o e, ace he challenge o adap ing hei plans in esponse o hese
dynamic and o en unp edic able ci cums ances.
Mo eo e , as expec ed, e en upon a i ing a hei in ended des ina ions, he p e ailing condi ions,
including economic down u ns, social ensions, and shi s in immig a ion policies, can signi ican ly
in luence hei capaci y o in eg a e and lou ish in hei new su oundings. These ac o s may
occasionally o ce mig an s o eloca e once mo e in sea ch o imp o ed oppo uni ies elsewhe e
(ICMPD, 2022; Bijwaa d & Wahba, 2023). This unde sco es he luid na u e o mig a ion and he
necessi y o mig an s o emain adap able and esilien in esponse o changing ci cums ances.
47
2.2.2. S uc u al ulne abili y and mig a ion dynamics
S uc u al ulne abili y is pa icula ly signi ican when examining he condi ions aced by mig an s
in hei hos coun ies. Mig an communi ies equen ly encoun e s uc u al ulne abili y due o
sys emic inequali ies and a ious o ms o s uc u al iolence, o en acialised and en enched
wi hin poli ical and economic ins i u ions. These sys ems os e unequal dis ibu ions o esou ces
and powe , wo sening he ulne abili y o speci ic g oups (Li a ec & Basom, 2023). S uc u al
iolence encompasses he exploi a ion and opp ession expe ienced by mig an s and e hnic
mino i ies, which subs an ially a ec s hei social hie a chy and exposu e o s uc u al ulne abili y
(Ca u h e al., 2021).
The IOM policy documen s indica e a complex ela ionship be ween mig a ion and ulne abili y:
Mig a ion can cause ulne abili y, esul om i , o impede i (Flega , 2018). Si ua ional ulne abili y
aligns wi h he i s scena io, whe e mig a ion i sel induces ulne abili y.
Howe e , s uc u al ulne abili y accoun s o he la e wo scena ios. Fo ins ance, e ugees
leeing pe secu ion illus a e mig a ion as a esul o s uc u al ulne abili y, whe e he sociopoli ical
con ex o hei coun y o o igin d i es hei mo emen . Con e sely, s uc u al ulne abili y can
also hinde mig a ion, as seen in poo and ma ginalised g oups unable o eloca e du ing na u al
disas e s due o a lack o esou ces (Sille & Aydin, 2022).
Consequen ly, s uc u al ulne abili y signi ican ly in luences mig a ion pa e ns and equi es
comp ehensi e policies o ackle hese sys emic challenges. Howe e , ulne abili y is pe cei ed as
a consequence o he in e ac ion be ween con ex ual ac o s and pe sonal cha ac e is ics. This
iewpoin indica es ha p oac i e policies aimed a add essing and alle ia ing speci ic
ci cums ances can assis indi iduals in mo ing ou o ulne abili y (Keywood, 2017).
2.3. Th ea
This issue conce ning he sa e y and well-being o mig an s in o eign na ions encompasses
nume ous challenges and isks hey ace upon a i al and du ing hei s ay in hos coun ies. These
h ea s can a ise om physical sa e y and legal, socio-economic, and in e pe sonal ac o s.

48
Ins ances o acciden s ela ed o ansi , obbe y, and de en ion by bo de police and o he secu i y
agencies can cause signi ican dis ess o hose lea ing hei coun ies o he i s ime. This
expe ience is pa icula ly se e e o i egula mig an s going o hei des ina ion ia he Saha a o
sea ou es. Legal h ea s may eme ge om es ic i e immig a ion policies, a lack o legal s a us,
o he isk o de en ion and depo a ion, lea ing mig an s suscep ible o exploi a ion and abuse.
Socioeconomic h ea s appea as obs acles o accessing essen ial se ices, disc imina ion in
employmen , and sociocul u al ma ginalisa ion, in ensi ying mig an s' ulne abili y o po e y,
homelessness, and social exclusion.
In e pe sonal h ea s such as xenophobia, acism, bullying, psychological o u e, b eaches o
human igh s, gende -based iolence, an i-mig an sen imen , and he c iminalisa ion o mig a ion
u he compound he challenges aced by mig an s, unde mining hei sa e y, digni y, and well-
being in o eign na ions (El-Khou y e al., 2021). Addi ionally, conce ns a ise o e he ma ke alue
o educa ion acqui ed in a ious sending coun ies, he lack o coun y-speci ic skills such as
language and an unde s anding o he ecei ing coun ies’ labou ma ke ins i u ions, spa ial
seg ega ion, ins i u ional ac o s, and a ious o ms o disc imina ion (Guzi e al., 2023).
As disc imina ion agains mig an s and i s consequences a e c i ical de e minan s o he economic,
sociocul u al, and ci ic-poli ical u u e o ecei ing socie ies and indi iduals seeking o make hese
socie ies hei new home, unde s anding he mul i ace ed h ea s aced by mig an s in bo h hei
home and hos coun ies is essen ial o de eloping e ec i e policies and in e en ions o ensu e
hei p o ec ion. This unde s anding would help p omo e hei in eg a ion and inclusion wi hin hos
communi ies, sa egua ding hei igh s, digni y, and well-being h oughou hei mig a ion jou ney
and, mo e b oadly, add essing nume ous mig a ion- ela ed challenges (Esses, 2021).
2.4. Insecu i y
The incidence o insecu i y—and he sa e y and well-being o mig an s in o eign na ions—
encompasses nume ous h ea s and ulne abili ies ha mig an s may encoun e du ing hei
jou ney and upon a i al in he hos coun y. This can ake a ious o ms, such as physical sa e y
isks, economic ins abili y, social ma ginalisa ion, and legal unce ain y (Fon ana, 2022). Mig an s
49
o en ace di e condi ions du ing ansi , including human a icking, exploi a ion, iolence, and
haza dous a el ou es, which lea e hem exposed o ha m and u he exploi a ion. Those who
ha e ecen ly a i ed in he des ina ion coun y may encoun e sys emic ba ie s o accessing
essen ial se ices, employmen , housing, and legal p o ec ion, exace ba ing hei ulne abili y and
jeopa dising hei sa e y and well-being. Disc imina o y a i udes, including un iendly policies
a ge ing mig an s, u he con ibu e o hei insecu i y, os e ing a clima e o ea , ma ginalisa ion,
and exclusion (Fon ana, 2022).
As men ioned p e iously, he absence o legal s a us o documen a ion can inc ease mig an s’
ulne abili y o de en ion, depo a ion, and a bi a y ea men by au ho i ies, heigh ening hei
sense o insecu i y and unde mining hei igh s and digni y (Moyce & Schenke , 2018). In addi ion
o economic insecu i y, mig an s equen ly encoun e signi ican ba ie s o accessing essen ial
se ices such as heal hca e, educa ion, and housing. Limi ed access o a o dable heal hca e
se ices due o legal es ic ions, language ba ie s, and lack o documen a ion can jeopa dise
mig an s' heal h ou comes and wo sen exis ing heal h dispa i ies.
Simila ly, in ce ain a eas, ba ie s o accessing quali y educa ion o mig an child en—including
language obs acles, a lack o educa ional esou ces, and disc imina ion—hinde hei academic
success and long- e m in eg a ion p ospec s. Fu he mo e, he sho age o a o dable and sui able
housing op ions o ces many mig an s in o o e c owded and subs anda d li ing condi ions,
exace ba ing hei ulne abili y o exploi a ion, homelessness, and social exclusion (Gab ielli &
Impiccia o e, 2022). Mo e signi ican ly, he language ba ie poses a se ious challenge du ing
adap a ion, as nume ous mig an s ha e epo ed di icul ies in in e ac ion despi e hei p o iciency
in English, highligh ing he need o e ec i e communica ion o achie e in eg a ion. The clash o
cul u al iden i ies u he complica es he adjus men p ocess, wi h some mig an s s i ing o
p ese e hei he i age while adap ing o a new en i onmen .
Sus aining a du able and dependable na ional secu i y amewo k will become inc easingly
challenging in he con ex o ising global human insecu i y, necessi a ing a obus esponse o all
ac o s con ibu ing o his insecu i y. Beyond in es ing in de elopmen o lessen he desi e o
mig a e, na ional and in e na ional au ho i ies mus implemen app op ia e policies o add ess
50
h ea s o human secu i y, he eby os e ing condi ions o mig a ion based on choice a he han
necessi y.
Fo many yea s, owing o i s colonial pas , Po ugal has been a signi ican des ina ion o mig an s
om Po uguese-speaking coun ies, including Angola, B azil, Cape Ve de, Guinea-Bissau,
Mozambique, and São Tomé e P íncipe, wi h a no able expansion o mig a ion co ido s (Ca alho,
2022; Raimundo, 2023; Wih ol de Wenden, 2023; Kal e , 2024). In he con ex o A ican-Luso
mig a ion, Po ugal’s hos ing o di e se communi ies o mig an s is p og essi ely ex ending beyond
Po uguese-speaking na ions. I now includes Anglophone and F ancophone mig an s seeking
oppo uni ies beyond he A ican con inen , e lec ing a b oade demog aphic shi in i s mig an
popula ion.
The incidence and ac o s con ibu ing o ba ie s such as loneliness and disc imina ion among
ce ain Po uguese-speaking A ican mig an s, speci ically Angolan, Cape Ve dean, Guinean, and
Mozambican s uden s and wo ke s esiding in Po ugal, ha e been ho oughly documen ed o e
he yea s (Al es & King, 2021; Cai ns e al., 2021; Dou o , 2024; Male Cal o e al., 2022; Ne o
& Ba os, 2003; Ne o & Wilks, 2017; Ne o, 2020; Ne o, 2021a; Ne o, 2021b; Ne o e al., 2022;
Ne o & Pin o, 2022; Oli ei a e al., 2017; Wih ol de Wenden, 2023; Wilks & Ne o, 2016).
As mig a ion co ido s expand and communi ies g ow, s udies conce ning non-Po uguese-
speaking mig an s om A ica a e becoming inc easingly i al o a mo e comp ehensi e
unde s anding o A ican mig an s in Po ugal. This should encompass a b oade spec um o social
classes and egions, acknowledging ha indi iduals who mig a e may encoun e a ious challenges
in adap ing o o emb acing he hos cul u e, ega dless o hei social s anding.
The scope o ansna ionalism conce ning A ican mig a ion o Po ugal a ises om he a ious
o ms o in e connec edness and in e ac ions ha occu be ween na ions—indi iduals o
communi ies ha con inue o engage wi h hei home s a es a e eloca ing ab oad (Ma ino, 2016;
T o ão, 2016; Declich & Rode , 2018; Peixo o e al., 2019; Ca ling e al., 2021). Nume ous
ac i i ies and a i udes cons i u e his phenomenon, including sending emi ances, main aining
social and amily ne wo ks, pa icipa ing in eligious and cul u al e en s, and engaging in poli ical
o ci ic a ai s a home and ab oad (Ah ens & King, 2023).
51
T ansna ionalism e lec s he e ol ing na u e o mig a ion oday, whe e immig an s a e said o
inhabi a ious social, economic, and cul u al landscapes while main aining meaning ul
connec ions ha c oss bo de s (Lauben hal, 2023; Mo ales e al., 2023; Ka ki & Moasun, 2024).
52
CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ON MIGRATION
3.1. O e iew o mig a ion heo ies
In his sec ion, he heo e ical amewo k o mig a ion is p esen ed wi h a s ong ocus on
ansna ional mig a ion, e iewing exis ing s udies while p ima ily discussing heo ies ela ed o
mig a ion. I explo es he easons o mig a ion and subsequen ly p esen s heo e ical a gumen s
ega ding how he decision o mig a e may be in luenced by he economic challenges and ad e se
li e ci cums ances aced by mig an s on he mo e. Nume ous schola s ha e p oposed models o
cla i y he concep o mig a ion and i s associa ed ac i i ies. De eloped o e he pas 50 yea s,
ansna ional mig a ion heo ies d aw on an in e disciplina y ounda ion ha includes economics,
sociology, geog aphy, comme ce, managemen , law, poli ical science, demog aphy, and
psychology.
These heo ies seek o elucida e he mo emen o a ious popula ions o speci ic egions a
pa icula imes and he unde lying mo i a ions o such mig a ions. They also add ess he
de e en s ha may dissuade indi iduals ini ially inclined o mig a e om hei home coun ies.
No ably, se e al heo ies closely in es iga e he insecu i y expe ienced by mig an s, a i al aspec
o ansna ional mig a ion.
The heo ies can be b oadly ca ego ised in o h ee main ypes: mic o, mac o, and meso-le el
heo ies (Table 1). The mic o-le el heo ies encompass he push and pull ac o s heo y,
neoclassical mic o-mig a ion heo y, and beha iou al models, which examine mig a ion decisions
om an indi idual’s pe spec i e, including hei expec a ions, plans, and cons ain s.
The mac o-le el heo ies include neoclassical mac o-mig a ion heo y, mig a ion as sys ems heo y,
dual labou ma ke heo y, wo ld sys ems heo y, and mobili y ansi ion heo y. These heo ies
p esen mig a ion decisions om an agg ega e pe spec i e, ocusing on ac o s such as he
economy's mac oeconomic s uc u e.

53
The meso-le el heo ies encompass social capi al, ins i u ional, ne wo k, cumula i e causa ion, and
New Economics o Labou Mig a ion heo ies. These heo ies me ge mig a ion decisions be ween
mic o and mac o le els, including amily ies, social ne wo ks, pee g oups, and communi y bonds
(Wick amasinghe & Wimala a ana, 2016; Ca ling e al., 2020; Bas ia & Skeldon, 2020; Paul &
Yeoh, 2021).
This connec ion be ween he mic o, mac o, and meso le els o his ca ego isa ion can deepen ou
unde s anding o in e na ional mig a ion by A ican mig an s.
Table 1 o e s an o e iew o mig a ion heo ies ac oss he le el dimensions and hei classi ica ion
as causes o pe pe a o s o mig a ion.
Table 1. The analysis le el and mig a ion ini ia ion o pe pe ua ion de ine mig a ion heo ies.
By e alua ing economic, sociocul u al, and poli ical aspec s, mig a ion heo ies enhance ou
unde s anding o he complex decision-making p ocesses ha d i e mig a ion. They shed ligh on
mig a ion's impac on mig an s and hos coun ies, aiding policymake s and esea che s in
add essing he a ious challenges and oppo uni ies ela ed o human mobili y (Bhaga , 2020; De
Haas, 2021; Kaushik, 2021). A key componen o mig a ion heo ies is he p incipal mig a ion
ansi ion heo ies p oposed by De Haas (2010), Skeldon (2012), and Zelinsky (1971). These
heo ies asse ha economic de elopmen and he accompanying social ans o ma ion ini ially
Theo y
Fea u es
Mic o le el
Mac o le el
Meso le el
Mig a ion
cause
/pe pe ua io
n
Indi idual alues/
desi es/expec ancies
e.g., imp o ing su i al, weal h, e c
Mac o le el oppo uni y s uc u e
e.g., economic s uc u e
(income and employmen
oppo uni ies di e en ials)
Collec i es/ social ne wo ks
e.g., social ies
Ini ia ion o mig a ion
Pe pe ua ion o mig a ion
Main heo ies
- Push and pull ac o s
- Neoclassical mic o-mig a ion heo y
- Beha iou al models
- Theo y o social sys ems
- Neoclassical mac o-mig a ion heo y
- Mig a ion as a sys ems heo y
- Dual labou ma ke heo y
- Wo ld sys ems heo y
- Mobili y T ansi ion heo y
- Social capi al heo y
- Ins i u ional heo y
- Ne wo k heo y
- Cumula i e causa ion
- New Economics o Labou Mig a ion
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coincide wi h inc easing le els and a b oade geog aphical scope o emig a ion. They we e
de eloped o ackle he issue o indi idual mig a ion decision-making.
3.2. Mic o-le el heo ies
Mic o-le el heo ies p ima ily examine he decision-making p ocesses and beha iou s o indi iduals,
amilies, and g oups abou he mac oeconomic condi ions and human secu i y indica o s o bo h
hei coun ies o o igin and des ina ion (Table 1). These heo ies cla i y mig a ion choices by
ocusing on indi idual-le el de e minan s, including mac o and meso-le el ac o s, demog aphic
a ibu es, pe sonali y ai s, and isk a e sion (Commey, 2021). Al hough hey di e in hei ocal
poin s, heo e ical assump ions, and uni s o analysis, hese heo ies con e ge on a undamen al
aspec : hey all unc ion as mic o-le el models ha emphasise he signi icance o he decision-
making en i y in mig a ion p ocesses.
3.2.1. Push and pull ac o s heo y
The heo y posi s ha se e al ac o s p e alen in less economically de eloped coun ies compel
indi iduals o mig a e o mo e a ou able egions. These ac o s encompass high po e y a es,
apid popula ion g ow h, insu icien labou demand, low wages, sh inking ag icul u al land, poli ical
ins abili y, low social s a us, and pe sis en mili a y con lic s. Con e sely, economically p ospe ous
na ions d aw mig an s due o g ea e labou demand and imp o ed wages, which sha ply con as
wi h he condi ions in hei home coun ies (Wadood, 2021; Bunduchi & Vasile, 2023).
Schola s like Wadood (2021) and Wadood e al. (2023) sugges ha ac o s o economic g ow h
may e en ually balance mig a ion pa e ns. They a gue ha an in lux o labou in o ecipien
coun ies could dec ease wages, while emig a ion migh aise wages in sou ce coun ies. O e ime,
his could esul in wage pa i y be ween egions and po en ially diminish in e na ional mig a ion.
Fu he mo e, global p ocesses such as globalisa ion, echnological ad ancemen , and he shi ing
economic o de a e essen ial d i e s o he accele a ed pace o in e na ional mig a ion (Vaculo schi,
2021).
55
3.2.2. Mic o neoclassical model
In con as o mos mig a ion heo ies, neoclassical mig a ion heo y is explici ly g ounded in a
model o indi idual decision-making a he mic o le el (Toda o, 1969; Toda o & Ma uszko, 1987).
Cen al o his heo y is he concep o he ' a ional' ac o , who makes mig a ion decisions based
on a cos -bene i analysis. Acco ding o his model, a mig an e alua es he cos s and bene i s o
eloca ing o a ious coun ies agains hose emaining in hei cu en loca ion, ul ima ely choosing
he mos signi ican ne ad an age.
The neoclassical mic o mig a ion model emphasises ha an indi idual's decision o mig a e is
in luenced by hei human capi al cha ac e is ics, including age, gende , educa ion, skills,
occupa ion, expe ience, ma i al s a us, en ep eneu ial abili y, and hei p opensi y o success and
isk- aking in s a ing a esh in an un amilia en i onmen (Sjaas ad, 1962; Ha is & Toda o, 1970;
Bo jas, 1980). Addi ionally, i posi s ha an icipa ed li e ime bene i s e sus expec ed li e ime cos s
a e c ucial de e minan s in mig a ion decision-making, pa icula ly o indi iduals om de eloping
economies.
In summa y, human capi al heo y sugges s ha a mig a ion decision a ises when an indi idual
ecognises he oppo uni y o enhance hei human capi al accumula ion and achie e g ea e
e u ns on his asse in he hos coun y han he sending coun y (Lewis, 1954). This concep may
lead o a signi ican loss o skilled p o essionals (such as physicians, enginee s, scien is s,
p o esso s, e c.) om he sending coun ies. Howe e , he neoclassical heo y o mig a ion
inadequa ely add esses why mig an wo ke s should send emi ances back home, as he
conside a ions o he well-being o hei amily membe s ha e no been su icien ly ecognised,
making he ac o sending emi ances seem i a ional wi hin he neoclassical economics
amewo k (Commey, 2021).
3.2.3. Beha iou al models
Beha iou al models concep ualise mig an s as a ional ac o s who e alua e he cos s and bene i s
o hei decisions. In con as , alue-expec ancy models mo e beyond he na ow ocus on
mone a y p o i maximisa ion o adop a b oade pe spec i e. These models sugges ha
56
indi iduals selec ac ions based on he expec ed alue o an icipa ed ou comes (de Jong & Fawce ,
1981). As a esul , he mo i a ion o mig a e is shaped by he pe cei ed alue o desi ed ou comes
and he belie ha mig a ion will ul il hese ou comes. While neoclassical heo y emphasises
mone a y cos s and bene i s, he alue-expec ancy model encompasses a b oade ange o ac o s
ha may in luence decision-making, including weal h, s a us, com o , s imula ion, and au onomy,
among o he a iables (Cou geau, 1995).
The alue-expec ancy model sugges s ha mig an s make a ional decisions ex-an e, choosing he
op ion whe e hei aspi a ions a e mos likely ul illed. Unlike models ha assume comple e
a ionali y, mo e psychologically o ien ed app oaches acknowledge he bounded a ionali y o
indi iduals (Fais , 2000), highligh ing ha people ha e limi a ions in hei p oblem-sol ing
capabili ies and in accessing and p ocessing in o ma ion (Simon, 1957). This implies ha
indi iduals u ilise a simpli ied model as he ounda ion o decision-making and ac a ionally by
his model (Cou geau, 1995).
The s ess- h eshold model de eloped by Wolpe (1965) iews mig a ion as an adap i e s a egy
in esponse o a pe son's immedia e en i onmen , encompassing economic, social, psychological,
and o he oppo uni ies and cos s. In his con ex , indi iduals assign a ying ‘place u ili ies’ o
di e en loca ions based on hei subjec i e pe cep ions o u ili y, ecognising ha in o ma ion
ega ding al e na i e ac ions is incomple e and subjec i e. In summa y, acco ding o he la e
model, indi iduals will choose o eloca e i he expec ed place u ili y in a po en ial al e na i e
des ina ion exceeds ha o he cu en loca ion.
3.3. Mac o le el heo ies
Mac o-le el heo ies sugges ha mig a ion is d i en by socioeconomic dispa i ies be ween
coun ies, whe e push ac o s compel indi iduals o depa om hei o igin, while pull ac o s
a ac hem o al e na i e des ina ions (Table 1). Kuhn (2019) iden i ies se e al signi ican mac o-
le el ac o s ha di e en ia e o ced and olun a y A ican mig an s, including economic
oppo uni ies, con lic s and iolence, human igh s abuses, weaknesses in ins i u ions and wel a e
s a es, agili y, and en i onmen al h ea s. These mac o-le el in luences seem o be pa icula ly
c ucial in shaping mig an s' aspi a ions. Fu he mo e, mac oeconomic indica o s such as wage
63
po en ial mig an s (G eenwood, 1969; Massey, 1988). P e ious mig an s can o e insigh s on job
sea ches, ea ning po en ial, cos o li ing, ma iage pa ne s, legal o mali ies, and al e na i e
mo emen channels. This can lead o an S-shaped di usion p ocess o cumula i e mig a ion s ocks,
akin o an in e ed-U mig a ion low pa h ha coincides wi h economic g ow h. Eps ein (2008)
de elops a o mal model illus a ing how in o ma ion asymme ies ac oss bo de s can gene a e
mig an he ding and a mobili y ansi ion, e en amid g ow h in he o igin coun y.
Besides, p io mig an s can lessen he in o ma ion bu den o po en ial mig an s by p o iding in-
kind insu ance agains isk—such as o e ing ood and housing du ing pe iods o unemploymen
(Ma in & Taylo , 1996). Gould (1980) and Baines (1994) add ess hese mechanisms o he
mobili y ansi ion less o mally.
The undamen al a gumen o he s uc u al change and wo ke disloca ion mechanism is ha
economic de elopmen can be linked o s uc u al change, which al e s he cos s and bene i s
associa ed wi h emig a ion. Du ing he de elopmen p ocess, new sec o s eme ge while old sec o s,
p edominan ly ag icul u e, decline. This can os e geog aphic mobili y as he oppo uni y cos o
lea ing declining sec o s dec eases, he eby changing domes ic and in e na ional mig a ion’s
ela i e cos s and bene i s. “The onse o mode nisa ion b ings a signi ican dispe sal o mig an s
om he coun yside” (Zelinsky, 1971). The de elopmen p ocess “displaces many indi iduals
om adi ional li elihoods and pas ways o li e. Mos become in e nal mig an s, bu some
consis en ly mig a e in e na ionally, seeking b oade oppo uni ies in mo e dynamic economies
ab oad” (Massey, 1988).
In addi ion, hese changes can encou age in e na ional labou mobili y wi hin he amewo k o
libe alising ade, ei he by educing policy ba ie s o lowe ing anspo a ion cos s. Venables
(1999) in es iga es how his can mani es in es ablished in e na ional ade heo ies. Fo example,
while basic ade heo y indica es ha libe alising goods ade ends o equalise he p ice o he
mos hea ily u ilised ac o be ween home and ab oad, sec o -speci ic ac o s may no equal he
p ices o less hea ily u ilised ac o s. A simple illus a ion is ha ade libe alisa ion in ag icul u e
be ween wo coun ies (speci ic ac o : land) can c ea e an impe us o labou mobili y om he
ag icul u e impo e o he expo e —i he expo e ’s ini ial labou endowmen is ela i ely low.

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Faini and Ven u ini (1994) and Ma in and Taylo (1996) discuss a ious mechanisms wi hin his
amewo k as heo ies o he mobili y ansi ion. Fo example, i he in as uc u e in he mig an -
o igin coun y is inadequa e, i diminishes hei p oduc i i y a home. Should ade be libe alised
be ween he mig an -o igin and mig an -des ina ion coun ies, i ms in he des ina ion coun y may
ou -compe e hose a he o igin by employing mig an s who a e made mo e p oduc i e due o
supe io in as uc u e. Addi ionally, coun y-speci ic di e ences in wo ke p oduc i i y could
eme ge om economies o scale in p oduc ion o ba ie s o echnology di usion, such as
in ellec ual p ope y laws. These ac o s would also gene a e mig a ion p essu e, e en as ade
s imula es economic g ow h a he o igin.
The inequali y mechanism assumes ha economic de elopmen co ela es wi h changes in income
dis ibu ion ha in luence mig a ion demand. Since ising incomes a e a ely dis ibu ed uni o mly,
“de elopmen ends o be cha ac e ised by a widening gap be ween expec a ions and
achie emen s, i.e., a g owing awa eness o inadequacy and a diminishing ole ance o po e y
and p i ilege” (Heilb one , 1963, p. 31). As a e age incomes inc ease, he e e ence le el o
sa is ac o y income o a g oup may ise mo e quickly han o some g oup membe s.
Thus, inc easing a e age incomes can be associa ed wi h a ise in he ela i ely dep i ed, who may
seek o adop a di e en e e ence ame by mo ing. Fu he mo e, e en i po en ial mig an s
p io i ise hei absolu e a he han ela i e gains, he Roy model, as de ailed by Bo jas (1987), can
s ill p oduce a mobili y ansi ion h ough inequali y dynamics: e ol ing inequali y as de elopmen
ad ances a he o igin can imply ha he bene i s om mig a ion ecei ed by wo ke s a a ious
poin s in he income dis ibu ion may luc ua e o e ime— aising and lowe ing mig a ion a es.
Va ious schola s ex ensi ely elabo a e on he economic heo y unde pinning hese o ces (S a k,
1984; S a k e al., 1986; S a k & Yi zhaki, 1988; S a k e al., 1988; S a k & Taylo , 1991; S a k,
2006). A b oad p edic ion o hese models sugges s ha emig a ion is posi i ely associa ed wi h
inequali y in he coun y o o igin. The e is subs an ial e idence o pa e ns in he le el o inequali y
a di e en s ages o de elopmen (e.g., Tho n on 2001; F aze , 2006), co obo a ing Kuzne s’
(1955) hypo hesis ha ea ly s ages o g ow h end o lead o ising inequali y— hough he e idence
conce ning alling inequali y a la e s ages o de elopmen is weake (Pike y, 2014).
65
The impac o g ow h ajec o ies on inequali y emains un esol ed; howe e , any such e ec could
in luence he mobili y ansi ion. Feedback mechanisms may u he ampli y o mi iga e he impac
o inequali y on emig a ion. Mig a ion can ei he inc ease o dec ease inequali y in he coun y o
o igin, depending on he income b acke om which mig an s come, he ex en o e u n mig a ion,
and he ea nings o mig an s (Massey, 1988). This mechanism is examined as a heo y o he
mobili y ansi ion by Ma in and Taylo (1996), wi h a discussion on he connec ions be ween
emig a ion and inequali y p ima ily ini ia ed by Gould (1980).
The mechanism o immig a ion ba ie s ab oad indica es ha , in addi ion o shi s in he demand
o mig a ion, a mobili y ansi ion can also be in luenced by al e a ions in he a ailabili y o legal
mig a ion oppo uni ies (Ha on & Williamson, 2005; Ha on & Williamson, 2010). Signi ican ly,
mig an des ina ion coun ies o e isa ca ego ies ha a e mo e accessible o high-income wo ke s
han o low-income wo ke s. These include ‘poin s’-based se le isas, skilled employmen -based
wo k isas, empo a y business isas, s uden isas, and in es o isas. Non- isa policies likewise
o m de ac o mig a ion ba ie s (Czaika & de Haas, 2013). These can simila ly impose cons ain s
on mig a ion om poo e coun ies, which may diminish as hese coun ies de elop. Fo example,
many o he poo es A ican na ions lack in e na ionally acc edi ed nu sing and medical schools,
making i challenging o heal h p o essionals om hese egions o secu e licenses o wo k ab oad,
e en i hey can ob ain a isa on o he g ounds. To he ex en ha in e na ional acc edi a ion o
aining acili ies ends o g ow wi h economic de elopmen , his could also con ibu e o a mobili y
ansi ion.
3.4. Meso-le el heo ies
The meso-le el mig a ion heo ies explo e he ne wo ks and sys ems ha acili a e mig a ion,
o e ing insigh s in o how hese s uc u es in luence mig an s' decisions o achie e hei mig a ion
goals (Table 1) (Commey, 2021). These heo ies add ess he sho comings o mac o-le el
app oaches by cla i ying he in e ac ion be ween meso-le el ac o s and b oade mac o-le el o ces.
They unde sco e he signi icance o in e media y ne wo ks and sys ems in shaping mig a ion
pa e ns and decisions. As de ined in meso-le el heo ies, mig a ion sys ems consis o indi iduals'
exchanges be ween coun ies o o igin and des ina ion h ough a ious channels, including
comme cial, educa ional, and cul u al ela ionships. Fo mig an s, hese meso-le el ac o s a e
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essen ial in de e mining hei mig a ion decisions and des ina ion choices, complemen ing and
in e ac ing wi h mac o-le el ac o s such as economic condi ions o poli ical ins abili y.
Mig a ion ne wo ks play a c ucial ole in shaping mig a o y lows by p o iding essen ial esou ces
such as in o ma ion, con ac s, and economic and social suppo . These ne wo ks encompass a
ange o ac o s, including amily membe s, iends, social and eligious g oups, people smuggle s,
ins i u ions, and echnology, bo h wi hin he coun y o o igin and in he hos coun y (Fais , 2000;
Lundquis & Massey, 2005). By o e ing such suppo , hese ne wo ks can lowe he isks and
cos s associa ed wi h mig a ion, making he p ocess mo e easible o p ospec i e and cu en
mig an s. A he meso le el, collec i e mig a ion decision-making wi hin households is i al.
Families may s a egically choose a membe o mig a e o di e si y income sou ces o he en i e
household should he mig an succeed in he hos coun y (Commey, 2021). This collec i e
app oach highligh s he impo ance o mig a ion ne wo ks in acili a ing mig a ion by le e aging
amilial and social connec ions o enhance economic oppo uni ies and mi iga e isks.
3.4.1. Social capi al heo y
Lou y (1977) in oduced he concep o social capi al o desc ibe he in angible esou ces wi hin
amilies and communi ies ha os e he social de elopmen o young people. Bou dieu (1986)
subsequen ly emphasised i s b oade signi icance o human socie y. Social capi al includes he
o al o ac ual o i ual esou ces ha accumula e o an indi idual o g oup by possessing a
du able ne wo k o mo e o less ins i u ionalised ela ionships based on mu ual acquain ance and
ecogni ion (Bou dieu & Wacquan , 1992).
The de ining cha ac e is ic o social capi al is i s con e ibili y, enabling i o ans o m in o o he
o ms o capi al, mainly inancial (Ha ke e al., 1990). Indi iduals access social capi al h ough
hei membe ship in in e pe sonal ne wo ks and ins i u ions, which hey hen con e in o o he
o ms o enhance o main ain hei social s anding (Bou dieu, 1986; Coleman, 1988). While social
capi al can yield nega i e and posi i e ou comes, i is essen ial o emphasise i s posi i e ole in
acqui ing and accumula ing a ious o ms o capi al (Po es & Sensenb enne , 1993).
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The undamen al hypo hesis o social capi al heo y is ha connec ions wi hin social ne wo ks
c ea e condi ions conduci e o he mig a ion o o he s (dec easing cos s, augmen ing po en ial
s eams o u u e income, educing isks, and ansmi ing in o ma ion). Consequen ly, indi iduals
ela ed o mig an s a e mo e likely o mig a e hemsel es, all else being equal. Subsequen ly, we
o en e e o he obse able co ela ion o mig a ion isks among social g oup membe s as he
appa en ne wo k e ec , as his co ela ion can also be obse ed wi hou any social capi al
embedded in ela ionships wi hin a ne wo k.
I s p ima y p edic ion is ha indi iduals socially connec ed o cu en o o me mig an s ha e
access o social capi al, signi ican ly enhancing hei mig a ion likelihood. This hypo hesis has been
p e iously in oduced. Indeed, i ca ies a espec able his o ical adi ion and con inues o be ci ed
o explain he magni ude o mig a ion lows and he concen a ion o ce ain ypes o mig an s in
speci ic loca ions. The logical and his o ical ounda ions o he hypo hesis and a summa y o se e al
newe o mula ions and applica ions wo ldwide a e ho oughly discussed elsewhe e (Massey e al.,
1998).
Al hough he hypo hesis has been suppo ed in nume ous s udies ac oss a ious social and
geog aphic se ings, no es has con i med i s alidi y compa ed o o he heo ies ha p edic
simila ou comes. The esul s o esea ch ha sough o sys ema ically e alua e he c edibili y o
social capi al heo y, using a less common model and s a is ical me hod, sugges ha di use social
capi al, sha ed among communi y and household membe s, signi ican ly a ec s he likelihood o
ou -mig a ion. This a i ms social capi al heo y and aises ques ions abou compe ing explana ions
(Palloni e al., 2001).
Mig an ne wo ks a e se s o in e pe sonal ies ha connec mig an s, o me mig an s, and non-
mig an s h ough ela ions o kinship, iendship, and sha ed communi y o o igin. These ne wo k
connec ions inc ease he likelihood o in e na ional mig a ion by educing he cos s and isks
associa ed wi h mo emen while enhancing he expec ed ne e u ns. Indi iduals connec ed o a
mig an ha e access o social capi al o le e age o a ain a i al o m o inancial capi al: high
o eign wages, which allow accumula ing sa ings ab oad and sending emi ances. As ea ly as he
1920s, sociologis s ecognised he signi icance o ne wo ks in acili a ing in e na ional mo emen s
(Thomas & Znaniecki, 1920; Gamio, 1930).
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3.4.2. Ins i u ional heo y
Ins i u ional heo y, as p esen ed in he wo ks o Massey e al. (1993), seeks o explain why
o ganisa ional s uc u es and p ac ices become en enched and how and why change occu s (de
Jonge, 2015). I ocuses less on beha iou al heo ies o o ganisa ions and mo e on en i onmen al
in luences, such as he di usion o new ins i u ionalised p ac ices among i ms. Mo eo e , i
examines he oles o social, poli ical, and economic sys ems in which companies ope a e and gain
legi imacy, sugges ing ha hese ac o s could impac he decision-making p ocess by indica ing
wha may be deemed accep able and by shaping he indi idual socialisa ion o no ms and
beha iou s wi hin a gi en socie y (Deb oux, 2010).
Simila ly, h ee ounda ional e sions o ‘Ins i u ionalism’ a e de i ed om dis inc disciplina y
app oaches. Sociological ins i u ionalism p ima ily ocuses on unde s anding how ins i u ions
shape and e lec socie al cul u e and no ms. Ra ional choice ins i u ionalis s adop he
assump ions and me hods o economics, applying deduc i e logic o s udying poli ics and his o y.
These schola s pe cei e ins i u ions as bo h incen i es and cons ain s wi hin indi idual u ili y-
maximising beha iou . His o ical ins i u ionalis s ypically iew ins i u ions as in e ening (o
s uc u ing) a iables h ough which con lic s o e in e es s, ideas, and powe a e con es ed. Fo
hese schola s, ins i u ions p o ide incen i es and cons ain s on indi idual choices and play a
c ucial ole in shaping he p e e ences o hose ac o s (S einmo, 2001).
Wi h he ise o in e na ional mig a ion, nume ous ins i u ions and o ganisa ions ha e been
es ablished o capi alise on he imbalance be ween employe s in labou - ecei ing coun ies and
po en ial mig an s om labou -sending coun ies. A signi ican misma ch exis s be ween he many
indi iduals seeking employmen oppo uni ies in indus ialised na ions and he limi ed immig an
isas a ailable in hese coun ies (Massey e al., 1993).
As a esul , nume ous p o i -seeking and no - o -p o i o ganisa ions ha e eme ged o ackle he
challenges encoun e ed by mig an s and employe s. I has been sugges ed ha he decisions made
by he ins i u ions esponsible o labou and o eign a ai s can in luence mig a ion and,
consequen ly, he a ailabili y o expa ia es in he labou ma ke o hos na ions. While p o i -seeking
o ganisa ions o en engage in illici ac i i ies, many no - o -p o i o ganisa ions o e suppo o

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a ec ed mig an s h ough counselling, social se ices, legal ad ice, and educa ion on immig a ion
laws, among o he se ices. In oday's con ex , Ins i u ional Theo y is c ucial o de eloping a mo e
a ou able and comp ehensi e policy amewo k o bo h labou -sending and ecei ing coun ies
(Wick amasinghe & Wimala a ana, 2016).
3.4.3. Ne wo k Theo y
Taylo 's social ne wo k heo y (1986) ep esen s a mode n app oach o heo ising mig a ion.
Ne wo k heo y posi s ha mig a ion as a social ou come is oo ed in he complex in e play o
decisions made by indi idual ac o s, amily and iends, mig an o ganisa ions, and o he economic
and poli ical ac o s (Czaika & Reinp ech , 2022). Social ne wo ks now shape whe he and how
mig a ion occu s and whe e mig an s p edominan ly eloca e (Haug, 2008). Ri chey (1976) a gues
ha indi iduals wi h access o ele an social capi al incen i ise mig a ion by o e ing in o ma ion,
inancial assis ance, and p ac ical suppo .
Howe e , Hei muelle (2006) no es ha ne wo k e ec s can ope a e in bo h di ec ions; in o ma ion
sha ed h ough ne wo ks is no solely posi i e and can also de e mig a ion. Inc easing he numbe
o mig an s in a pa icula loca ion os e s a posi i e communi y and amily e ec , d awing in u he
mig an s o his des ina ion. Concu en ly, local labou ma ke s may become sa u a ed, po en ially
dec easing wages. Consequen ly, he e may come a poin whe e mig an s in des ina ion coun ies
ei he wi hhold in o ma ion o con ey nega i e messages o discou age addi ional mig a ion
(Hei muelle , 2006).
Ne wo k heo y o e s a aluable pe spec i e o unde s anding he con inua ion o mig a ion
(Massey e al., 1993) and des ina ion choice once mig an ne wo ks a e es ablished. Howe e , i
does no elucida e mig a ion in he absence o hese ne wo ks o how hey may dissol e (de Haas,
2010). Eps ein (2008) di e en ia es be ween ne wo k and he d e ec s. He d beha iou in ol es
igno ing p i a e in o ma ion in a ou o ollowing he ac ions o o he s. This beha iou is conside ed
a ional because o he s make decisions based on supe io in o ma ion (Eps ein, 2002).
Consequen ly, he d beha iou leads mig an s o align wi h he low a he han he s ock ( ha is,
es ablished ne wo k) o p io mig an s. While he d e ec s canno accoun o new, pionee ing
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mig a ion, hey can elucida e he clus e ing o mig an s in des ina ions, mainly when ne wo k
e ec s a e likely o be minimal.
As emig a ion may pe sis o e ime, a “cul u e o mig a ion” migh de elop ha al e s a socie y’s
alues and pe cep ions ega ding mig a ion (Massey e al., 1993). The cul u e o mig a ion
mani es s a he indi idual le el; hose who ha e mig a ed in he pas a e mo e likely o mig a e in
he u u e. I also appea s a he communi y le el when mig a ion becomes a no ma i e beha iou —
a “ i e o passage"— wi hin he communi y (Kandel & Massey, 2002, p. 981). When in o ma ion
abou mig a ion op ions sp eads widely wi hin he communi y, i can encou age u he mig a ion.
In a cul u e o mig a ion, his in o ma ion can also each indi iduals wi hou di ec access o mig an
ne wo ks. Unlike ne wo k heo y, he cul u e o mig a ion can elucida e why indi iduals may mig a e
e en wi hou ne wo ks (Ali, 2007).
While he heo ies discussed hus a ha e p ima ily ocused on indi iduals o households as he
decision-making uni , mo e s uc u al heo ies concep ualise mig a ion as an in insic pa o
his o ical p ocesses and socie al de elopmen s. Zelinsky (1971, pp. 219–249) a gues ha
demog aphic ansi ions and mode nisa ion p ocesses explain he g ow h and changing pa e ns
o human mobili y in Eu ope o e he las 200 yea s. Based on neo-Ma xis in e p e a ions o
capi alism, his o ical-s uc u al models emphasise he impo ance o s uc u es and o ces
ope a ing a he mac o-s uc u al le el.
Mig a ion is d i en by he global demand and supply o cheap and lexible wo ke s in segmen ed
labou ma ke s, essen ial o sus aining con inued economic g ow h and de elopmen in capi alis
labou - ec ui ing coun ies (Pio e, 1979; Sassen, 1991). Simila ly, wo ld sys ems heo y posi s ha
capi alis sys ems unde mine adi ional inancial s uc u es and li elihoods, shaping domes ic and
in e na ional mig a ion pa e ns (Walle s ein, 1974). The wo ld capi alis sys em, masked by
colonialism, ins iga ed an ‘age o mig a ion’ du ing he nine een h and ea ly wen ie h cen u ies.
Cu en ly, in he pos colonial e a, wo ld sys ems heo y posi s ha pos colonial sys ems esemble
hose o colonialism due o neolibe alism and co po a e capi alism, which include ansna ional
links (such as in e na ional ade and o eign in es men ) be ween o me colonial powe s and
colonies, as well as sha ed his o y, cul u e, language, adminis a i e connec ions, and mig a ion
71
go e nance (Fawce , 1989). His o ical-s uc u al models ha e p ima ily aced c i icism o denying
mig an s' agency and po aying hem as passi e pa icipan s in luenced by he o e a ching o ces
o g ea powe s and global p ocesses go e ned by he logic o capi al accumula ion (A ango, 2004,
p. 27). Mo eo e , mig a ion lows do no always align wi h capi al lows, as e idenced by he ise
in Sou h-Sou h mig a ion. Social mig an ne wo ks a e c ucial o ongoing mig a ion (Bueno & P ie o-
Rosas, 2021).
Mig an ne wo ks a e i al in e pe sonal connec ions ha link mig an s o e u ned mig an s wi h
ela i es, iends, o pee s a home, acili a ing in o ma ion sha ing, p o iding inancial assis ance,
aiding in employmen and accommoda ion, and o e ing a ious o ms o suppo (A ango, 2000).
These ne wo ks a e social capi al acili a ing mig a ion (Coleman, 1990). Rega dless o whe he
hey a e pe sonal o diaspo a ne wo ks, hey educe he cos s and isks associa ed wi h mig a ion,
he eby inc easing he likelihood o u he mo emen (de Haas, 2014). Such ne wo ks supply
knowledge abou he mig a ion des ina ion and bols e labou ma ke pa icipa ion and social
in eg a ion.
When mig a ing in e na ionally, ne wo ks a e o en essen ial p e equisi es o ealising mig a ion
plans. They can p o ide inside knowledge on local li e, employmen oppo uni ies, and he cu en
legal si ua ion in he des ina ion. Ne wo ks a e i al as hey connec indi iduals o hose who can
assis wi h anspo a ion be o e, du ing, o a e c ossing a bo de . In addi ion, ne wo ks se e as
aluable esou ces in he hos coun y. Ne wo k membe s can o e a place o s ay o he ini ial
days a e a i al o e en longe ; hey can p o ide in o ma ion abou he labou ma ke and he
igh o eside and help ind employmen (C isp, 1999). This educes cos s incu ed om daily
expenses o accommoda ion and sus enance while wai ing o employmen .
Fu he mo e, ne wo ks educe mone a y cos s and dec ease psychosocial cos s (Pa n ei e , 2000).
Ne wo ks, pa icula ly hose o med by ellow ci izens, p o ide a sense o home in a o eign coun y.
Mig a ion is p esumed o hal once he exploi a ion o he ne wo k eaches sa u a ion. While
esea che s emphasise he bene i s o mig an ne wo ks, hey can also c ea e socio-economic
di isions in coun ies o o igin, sepa a ing g oups wi h access o in e na ional mig a ion ne wo ks
om hose wi hou . The social capi al linked o a ne wo k, he ad an ages o success ul mig a ion,
and he emi ances sen back o en emain con ined o speci ic lineages. Simul aneously, o he
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amilies o indi iduals o di e en eligious o e hnic backg ounds may be excluded (Toma, 2012).
Con e sely, s udies ha e also ound ha when suppo h ough ne wo ks is eques ed excessi ely,
mig an s end o limi ne wo k assis ance and a e eluc an o help po en ial u u e mig an s (Böcke ,
1994; Collye , 2005).
3.4.4. Cumula i e causa ion heo y
The cumula i e causa ion o My dal (1957), modi ied u he by Massey (1990), p incipally
emphasises he pe pe ua ion o mig a ion. Pos concep ion o he idea o mig a ing, mig a ion ends
o change he economic and social composi ion o he emig a ion coun y and i s alues and mo al
concep s once i is ini ia ed. The mo e people ha e mig a ed om a speci ic place, he mo e obus
he e ec s a e, seen p ima ily in changes o he income dis ibu ion o coun ies o o igin. Once
mig a ion has s a ed, he cumula i e causa ion heo y assumes mig a ion will ‘sus ain i sel in
ways ha make addi ional mo emen p og essi ely mo e likely’ (Massey e al., 1999). Besides
pe pe ua ion, i also a emp s o explain he inc ease in in e na ional mig a ion unde con empo a y
condi ions.
The concep o cumula i e causa ion encompasses six eedback mechanisms ha c ea e
mig a ion's accumula i e na u e (Massey e al., 1993). In i s ini ial phase, mig a ion gene a es
income inequali ies in sending communi ies, lea ing non-mig an amilies ela i ely dep i ed and
os e ing u he mig a ion aspi a ions.
Secondly, mig an s possess mo e signi ican inancial esou ces, equen ly in es ing in land wi hin
hei coun y o o igin. This diminishes he space a ailable o u al p oduc ion and he need o
ag icul u al wo ke s, in ensi ying he p essu e o mig a e.
Thi dly, mo e signi ican inancial esou ces allow mig an amilies o u ilise mode n machine y in
ag icul u e, he eby inc easing he ou pu pe labou uni . This, in u n, indi ec ly heigh ens he
mig a ion p essu e on non-mig an amilies.
Fou hly, a ‘cul u e o mig a ion’ de elops wi hin coun ies o o igin. Fi h, he in e na ional
dis ibu ion o human capi al shi s o a ou he des ina ion coun ies. Since ela i ely well-
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Regional ep esen a ion: The sample was di e si ied o ensu e ep esen a ion beyond
Po uguese-speaking A ican egions, inco po a ing a ange o social and cul u al expe iences.
Du a ion o esidence: Pa icipan s we e equi ed o ha e esided in Po ugal o a subs an ial
pe iod, enabling hem o accumula e pe inen mig a ion and in eg a ion expe iences.
These c i e ia we e conside ed o he s udy as hey p o ided a comp ehensi e and ep esen a i e
sample o A ican mig an s in Po ugal, e lec ing he di e si y o expe iences and con ibu ions
wi hin his communi y.
In o mal mee ings we e eques ed om he in e iewees ia email, LinkedIn message, o phone
call o explain he pu pose o he s udy, ob ain consen o pa icipa e, and schedule a con enien
ime and loca ion o he in e iew. Ini ially, eques s we e sen o indi iduals in he esea che 's
con ac lis , p edominan ly hose I came in con ac wi h while I se ed as he chaplain o A ican
Ca holics in he Pa ia cha e o Lisbon. Subsequen ly, in i a ions we e ex ended o o he willing
indi iduals om schools and a ious walks o li e in Po ugal.
The eques s clea ly ou lined he academic pu pose o he in e iew, assu ed con iden iali y and
anonymi y, p o ec ed all a ailable in o ma ion, and s ipula ed he non-disclosu e o da a wi hou
consen . Once accep ed, in e iews we e scheduled p ima ily acco ding o he in e iewees'
a ailabili y. Some imes, i was necessa y o a el se e al hund ed kilome es o conduc a single
in e iew.
Be o e conduc ing he in e iews, essen ial e hical conside a ions, including anonymi y,
con iden iali y, in o med consen , he esea che s’ po en ial impac on he pa icipan s, and hei
judgmen and analysis o he in o ma ion, we e aken in o accoun o all pa icipan s (Sanja i e
al., 2014; Man i & Lica i, 2018). Fo he easibili y o he s udy, as ou lined by he E hics Commi ee
o Resea ch in Social Sciences and Humani ies (CEICSH), da a p o ec ion and in e iewees’ igh s
we e ensu ed h oughou he p ocess (CEICSH, 2018).

80
4.3. Conduc ing he In e iew
A e ob aining ee and in o med consen om pa icipan s, he in e iews we e conduc ed using
a semi-s uc u ed app oach wi h open-ended ques ions o ga he in o ma ion abou he insecu i ies,
challenges, h ea s, and ulne abili ies o A ican mig an s li ing in Po ugal. To op imise in e iew
ime, he guides we e ou inely e e enced (DiCicco-Bloom & C ab ee, 2006). This enabled a mo e
sys ema ic and comp ehensi e explo a ion o esponden s, ensu ing ha he in e iew ocused on
he in ended objec i es.
Each in e iew session was audio- eco ded using mobile de ices and las ed an a e age o 45
minu es o one hou (Adams, 2015; Adeoye-Ola unde & Olenik, 2021). The eco ding o he
in e iews assis s he esea che in ocusing on he con en and acili a es ansc ip ion o examine
he poin s in ull de ail (Jamshed, 2014). The iming o he in e iews was a anged acco ding o
he a ailabili y o he in e iewees and he low o he con e sa ion.
When ace- o- ace in e iews canno be conduc ed, a i ual mee ing pla o m (such as Zoom)
main ains con iden iali y and p i acy (Tomás & Bide , 2023). In hese ci cums ances, e bal
consen is ob ained be o e he in e iew begins o eco d he pa icipan ’s consen ia audio. I he
in e iewee p e e s, hey may also sign a w i en in o med consen o m be o e he in e iew, ei he
ia email o a ha ime. Ensu ing smoo h in e iews equi es a cha ged ba e y, a s able ne wo k
connec ion, Wi-Fi, and minimal noise.
Thi y pa icipan s aged 20 o 65 we e in e iewed. The in e iewees we e ec ui ed h ough
pu posi e sampling. The semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e guided by a amewo k ha o e ed a
lexible s uc u e o explo ing he opics o in e es . The s udy guide in o med pa icipan s ha hey
could wi hd aw a any ime.
Mo e speci ically, he p incipal ques ions a e: “Wha challenges did you ace in you coun y be o e
deciding o lea e? Wha we e you easons o lea ing you coun y? We e you awa e o po en ial
mig a ion isks be o e depa ing om you coun y o o igin, such as obbe y, de en ion, o se ious
anspo a ion issues? Did you implemen any measu es o mi iga e hese signi ican isks du ing
you jou neys? How do you means o li elihood o li ing condi ions compa e wi h hose o he
81
ci izens o you hos coun y? Did you encoun e any challenges in e aining you cul u al iden i y
while ying o emb ace o iden i y wi h he cul u e o you hos coun y? How do you manage
secu i y challenges and ind oppo uni ies o make a li ing amid high ood p ices, accommoda ion
cos s, e c.? Is he e any hing you belie e can be done o ensu e he sa e y o mig an esiden s
he e in Po ugal?”
“How can go e nmen s add ess he millions o people displaced by clima e change? How do you
belie e go e nmen s can ackle he challenges posed by unau ho ised mig an s a bo de s, hose
a emp ing o en e , o hose cu en ly esiding in hei coun ies?” guided he in e iews. These
ques ions aimed o elici clea esponses om he in e iewees. The in e iewe encou aged
pa icipan s o elabo a e on ele an and engaging esponses when necessa y. Typically, sa u a ion
is achie ed a e 12–24 in e iews (Gues e al., 2006; Hennink e al., 2017). Consequen ly, da a
collec ion ceased a e 30 in e iews.
Sho ly a e all sessions had concluded, he eco ded in e iews we e anonymised and ansc ibed
e ba im in o analysable ex by he esea che , hen sa ed on a compu e ha s o ed all da a by
da a p o ec ion laws. This allowed he esea che o access he wo king da a om he semi-
s uc u ed in e iews (Aze edo e al., 2017). When he con e sa ion occu ed in o he languages,
he ansc ip s we e ansla ed in o English o mo e s aigh o wa d analysis (McG a h e al., 2019).
4.4. Da a analysis
We analysed he ansc ip s in ATLAS. i 8 o Windows o iden i y he hemes and pa e ns ha
equen ly eme ged om he esponden s who sha ed hei iews (Polese e al., 2021; Lindg en e
al., 2020). The app oach is lexible as i can be applied a indi idual, g oup, and ins i u ional le els
o in es iga e socie al issues such as mig a ion (Adams, 2015; Demu h & Mey, 2015).
The hema ic analysis app oach was selec ed based on he esea ch aims, he da a's na u e, and
he s udy's heo e ical assump ions unde pinning. Thema ic analysis is one o he mos p e alen
and adap able me hods o examining quali a i e da a collec ed in explo a o y, da a- ich,
in e p e i e, and c oss-cul u al esea ch a eas. I was ecommended as he p ima y quali a i e
82
me hod o da a esea ch because i p o ides essen ial skills o conduc ing a ious o he ypes o
analysis.
Again, i aligns wi h he in e iewee's di ec ion, allowing hem o meande on o angen s o explo e
eme ging hemes, hus p o iding insigh s in o communica ion ends (B aun & Cla ke, 2006, p.
78; Cla ke & B aun, 2013). I is also unob usi e, which enhances i s alidi y and aises ewe
e hical conce ns han o he analy ical me hods (Williamson e al., 2018; Bax e , 2020).
Conduc ing a hema ic analysis in ol es six phases and ypically begins wi h he esea che
amilia ising hemsel es wi h hei da a, gene a ing ini ial codes, sea ching o eme ging hemes,
e iewing he hemes, de ining and naming hem, and p oducing he epo (B aun & Cla ke, 2006).
The ini ial phase is among he mos signi ican in in e p e a i e quali a i e s udies, equi ing ac i e,
epea ed eading o become acquain ed wi h all aspec s o he en i e da a se be o e coding,
acili a ing an o e all unde s anding and he o ma ion o p elimina y pa e ns. In he second s ep,
he da a is o ganised in o signi ican g oups.
The ini ial codes a e assigned o he da a based on he ype o analysis, whe he induc i e o
heo e ical o acco ding o he speci ic ques ion in he esea che ’s mind. In he nex s ep, simila
codes a e meaning ully g ouped o c ea e hemes and sub hemes, conside ing how di e en codes
can be combined o o m an o e a ching heme. To e iew he hemes, a e e ence o he ex ac ed
codes o each heme is made o de e mine whe he hese codes o m a consis en pa e n.
Addi ionally, he alidi y o he hemes is assessed conce ning he en i e da a se , o e ing insigh s
in o wha dis inguishes he hemes, how hey co espond, and he o e all na a i e hey con ey
abou he da a.
The da a is de ined and e ined o align wi h he heme, indica ing i s ocus and he aspec s o he
da a i encompasses. I also highligh s he essen ial elemen s o he da a and hei signi icance. In
his p ocess, he scope and con en s o each heme a e summa ised in app oxima ely wo
sen ences. A e e inemen , hemes a e assigned clea , accu a e names ha con ey hei essence
o he eade . In he inal phase, ha ing es ablished a obus se o hemes, he inal analysis is
conduc ed h ough ho ough w i ing and epo ing, ensu ing he s o y o he hemes is con eyed
accu a ely, consis en ly, and logically, wi hou epe i ion, while main aining engagemen . This
ensu es ha he essence emains easily iden i iable (Naeem e al., 2023).
83
The e a e di e en ways o app oach hema ic analysis: induc i e (in which he ecognised hemes
a e s ongly de i ed om he da a and may ha e li le ela ionship wi h he ques ions posed o he
pa icipan s), heo e ical (which is based on he heo y o analysis p e e ed by he esea che and
is explici ly ex ac ed by he esea che in he o m o ha speci ic heo y, p esen ing a desc ip ion
o he da a wi h less ichness and whe e he de ails a e based on he ini ial heo y (Alhojailan, 2012;
Boya zis, 1998; Ja adi & Za ea, 2016).
Howe e , his a ie y also leads o con usion ega ding he na u e o hema ic analysis, including
how i di e s om quali a i e con en analysis and mos o he quali a i e analy ic app oaches, such
as g ounded heo y, discou se analysis, na a i e analysis, cons uc i is me hodologies, posi i is
me hodologies, and in e p e a i e phenomenological analysis. These can be desc ibed as
me hodologies o heo e ically in o med amewo ks o esea ch (Vaismo adi e al., 2013).
The e a e c i icisms o hema ic analysis ega ding i s ime-consuming na u e when handling la ge
olumes o da a, signi ican eliance on he esea che ’s in e p e a ions, and he po en ial o biases,
p econcep ions, and pe spec i es o in luence ou comes. This can impac he eliabili y and alidi y
o he indings, necessi a ing ha esea che s ecognise and add ess any po en ial biases in hei
analysis. The e is o en a lack o anspa ency in hema ic analysis, as esea che s may no p o ide
clea and de ailed explana ions o how hemes a e iden i ied; his can lead o o e simpli ying he
da a and esul in he loss o essen ial nuances and complexi ies. Despi e hese conce ns, his
me hod is mo e s aigh o wa d han o he quali a i e esea ch me hods. The high lexibili y,
simplici y, and angibili y o he analysis phase ha e ende ed i appealing o less expe ienced
quali a i e esea che s, dispelling any hopelessness hey may ha e el owa ds his app oach.
The esea che ead he ansc ip s and coded he da a be o e de eloping he analy ical amewo k
and eaching a consensus on he eme ging hemes. Once he da a we e p ocessed, he esul s
we e compiled and p esen ed, and he key disco e y issues we e discussed. This encompassed
da a on esponden s’ p o iles, analysed ex s wi h ecommenda ions o indi iduals, ci il socie ies,
and s a es ega ding imp o ed s a egies o add essing mig a ion- ela ed issues on a global scale,
and sugges ions o u he esea ch.
84
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
5.1. In e iewees’ p o ile
The ollowing sec ion p esen s he esul s o he analysis o he in e iew da a. Table 2 displays he
p o iles o he indi iduals who pa icipa ed in he in e iews. The da a e eals ha hi y A ican
mig an s (n = 21 male, n = 9 emale), aged be ween 20 and 65 yea s (M = 37.26), ook pa in
he in e iews. No ably, mo e (n = 24) we e ma ied, and wen y-se en had comple ed a leas a
Bachelo ’s deg ee om a highe educa ional ins i u ion. Among hem, hi een we e s uden s and
academic esea che s, se en we e p o essionals, six we e whi e-colla wo ke s, one held a
manage ial posi ion, wo we e blue-colla wo ke s, and one was unemployed (Table 2).
Fu he mo e, i indica es ha he in e iews we e conduc ed in he in e iewees' language o choice,
Po uguese and English, enabling hem o exp ess hemsel es mo e com o ably.

85
Table 2. In e iewees’ p o ile
Code id
Se
x
Ag
e
O igin
Occupa ion
Discipline
Des ina io
n
Language
o
in e iew
Wilson
M
20
Nige ia
S uden
Enginee ing
Lisbon
English
Geo ge
M
31
Nige ia
S uden
Nu sing
Lisbon
English
Paulo
M
45
São Tomé e P íncipe
Adminis a o
Managemen
Lisbon
Po uguese
Juliana
F
29
Angola
S uden
Sociology
Lisbon
Po uguese
John
M
40
Nige ia
Pha macis
Pha macy
Lisbon
English
Uzoamaka
F
37
Nige ia
Sec e a y
Managemen
Coimb a
English
S anley
M
45
Nige ia
P o esso /Cle gy
Theology
B aga
English
Leona do
M
47
Guinea Bissau
Che
Business
Lisbon
English
Daniela
F
39
Angola
S uden
In nl. Rela ions
Lisbon
Po uguese
Cidália
F
31
São Tomé e P íncipe
Wo ke
Employee
É o a
Po uguese
Bisola
F
40
Nige ia
Resea che
Medical Sciences
Po o
English
Albe o
M
30
Angola
P o esso
Li e a u a P
B aga
Po uguese
Tadeu
M
35
Angola
Public se ice
Economics
B aga
Po uguese
Xa ie
M
47
Cape Ve de
Secu i y agen
Secu i y
Lisbon
Po uguese
An ónio
M
41
Cape Ve de
Public se ice
Employee
Lisbon
Po uguese
Gab iela
F
31
São Tomé e P íncipe
S uden
Law
B aga
Po uguese
Omid
M
35
Mo occo
Public se ice
Nu sing
B aga
English
Hen y
M
42
Nige ia
A hle e
Business
Lisbon
English
Ami
M
39
Tunisia
Resea che
Enginee ing
B aga
English
Ana
F
28
Angola
Public se ice
Economics
B aga
Po uguese
William
M
41
Ghana
P o esso
Ma ke ing
B aga
English
Ra ael
M
36
São Tomé e P íncipe
Public se ice
Employee
Lisbon
Po uguese
João
M
44
Angola
S uden
Li e a u a P
Coimb a
Po uguese
A elino
M
32
Angola
S uden
Medicine
B aga
Po uguese
Rosa
F
65
Cape Ve de
House wi e
House wi e
Po o
Po uguese
Edmundo
M
37
Angola
S uden
Li e a u a P
B aga
Po uguese
Luís
M
40
Angola
S uden
Language Sc
B aga
Po uguese
Vi o
M
32
Angola
S uden
Music
B aga
Po uguese
O yeno
M
30
Mozambique
S uden
Enginee ing
B aga
Po uguese
Amélia
F
29
São Tomé e P íncipe
Public se ice
Domes ic wo ke
Lisbon
Po uguese
86
Figu e 4 illus a es he in e iewee p o iles g aphically. The igu e de ails he geog aphical
loca ions o he coun ies o o igin and indica es he des ina ions o A ican mig an s in Po ugal.
I was also indica ed ha all hose who pa icipa ed in he in e iews came om a ious A ican
coun ies, such as Angola, Nige ia, São Tomé and P íncipe, Cape Ve de, Ghana, Mo occo, Tunisia,
Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau, and esided in la ge ci ies o nea me opoli an a eas in Po ugal
(Table 2; Figu e 4). The da a sugges ha hese mig an s inhabi di e en egions, including Lisbon,
Po o, Coimb a, B aga, and É o a, which a e gene ally conside ed majo Po uguese ci ies.
87
Figu e 4. G aphic p o iles o in e iewees. The da a illus a es he geog aphical loca ions o he coun ies o o igin and des ina ion o A ican mig an s in
Po ugal who pa icipa ed in he s udy.
88
5.2. Mig a ion ea u es o in e iewees
Table 3 p esen s da a collec ed om he p elimina y in es iga ion ega ding he mobili y
cha ac e is ics o he in e iewees. I highligh s he easons o mo emen , de ails o depa u e and
a i al, whe he he mig an is lea ing hei home coun y o he i s ime, whe he Po ugal was
hei ini ial choice, and he p ospec s o ei he e u n mig a ion o eloca ion o ano he des ina ion
ou side hei home coun y.
Table 3. Mobili y Cha ac e is ics o In e iewees
Code id
Mo i es o mobili y
1s
Depa u e
om home
A i al
in
Po ug
al
1s Time
mig an
Po ugal was
1s choice
des ina ion
P ospec s
Ano he
des ina io
n
Re u n
mig a io
n
Wilson
Educa ion
2017
2017
-
+
+
+
Geo ge
Wa
2019
2022
-
- Uk aine
+
+
Paulo
Educa ion/Ma iage
1979
1985
+
- O he coun y
-
+
Juliana
Family euni ica ion
1999
2000
+
+
+
-
John
Pos -g adua e s udies
2015
2015
+
+
-
+
Uzoamaka
Job/Ma iage
2007
2007
+
+
+
-
S anley
Tou ism
2023
2023
-
+
+
+
Leona do
Job
2009
2018
-
-USA
-
+
Daniela
Pos -g adua e s udies
2009
2009
+
+
+
+
Cidália
Educa ion
2009
2009
+
+
-
+
Bisola
Pos -g adua e s udies
2013
2013
+
-Canada
+
-/+
Albe o
Pos -g adua e s udies
2022
2022
+
+
-
+
Tadeu
Pos -g adua e s udies
2018
2018
-
+
-
+
Xa ie
Job
1971
1975
+
- Angola
-
+
An ónio
Job
2004
2004
+
+
-
-
Gab iela
Pos -g adua e s udies
2022
2022
-
+
-
+
Omid
Ma iage
2019
2019
+
+
-
+
Hen y
Job/business
1994
1994
+
- Alge ia
+
+
Ami
Educa ion/job
2016
2016
-
+
-
-/+
Ana
Educa ion/Ma iage
2009
2009
+
+
-
-
William
Pos -g adua e s udies
2019
2019
-
+
-
+
Ra ael
Job
2013
2013
+
+
-
+
João
Educa ion/job
2016
2016
+
+
-
+
A elino
Pos -g adua e s udies
2022
2022
+
+
+
+
Rosa
Ma iage
1980
1980
+
+
-
-
Edmundo
Pos -g adua e s udies
2021
2023
-
+
-
+
Luís
Pos -g adua e s udies
2017
2017
+
+
-
+
Vi o
Pos -g adua e s udies
2020
2020
+
+
-
+
O yeno
Educa ion
2023
2023
+
+
+
+
Amélia
Quali y li e
1995
1995
+
+
-
+
95
One o he challenges in my home coun y is he lack o suppo o educa ion conce ning
he need o mo e equipmen , pa icula ly in he heal h sec o . In Nige ia, whe e I come
om, we ha e some b illian minds, ye we ha e minimal equipmen o s udy medicine o
heal hca e- ela ed cou ses. While we possess excep ional lec u e s and b igh s uden s, he
need o mo e esou ces pe sis s. Subsequen ly, mo ing om Nige ia o Uk aine and,
e en ually, o Po ugal exposed me o equipmen ha I migh no ha e been able o access
back in my home own du ing my s udies. Thus, his challenge wi hin ou educa ion sys em
was a signi ican ac o ha p omp ed my depa u e om Nige ia
.
Simila ly, Albe o (Angolan) no es ha he quali y o educa ion poses a signi ican challenge in his
coun y. He s a es:
My coun y needs o p o ide he condi ions o me o con inue my s udies o he doc o a e
le el. Fo example, I desi ed a di e en a ea o specialisa ion o my PhD s udies. Hence,
my PhD is cu en ly being ealised he e in Po ugal. Howe e , he go e nmen a home s ill
needs o be eady o conside imp o ing he educa ion sys em as equi ed. So, wi hou hese
condi ions, we a e emp ed o lea e.
Ano he sub- heme highligh ed was he elec ici y c isis. This is a c i ical issue conce ning he
impo ance o elec ici y in d i ing p oduc ion and o he ac i i ies ha os e a na ion's economic
g ow h. I is easonable o assume ha he economies o s a es wi h un eliable elec ici y ace
se backs, as is e iden in de eloping na ions. In he esponses, ano he s uden , Wilson ( om
Nige ia), associa ed elec ici y c ises wi h imp o ed economic p ospec s in bo h sending and
ecei ing coun ies, ci ing his as his mo i a ion o emba king on his Eu opean jou ney, as he
con i med:
I le when my coun y aced nume ous issues, such as he elec ici y c isis, which I obse ed
was lacking in Po ugal and o he Eu opean na ions. Po ugal now o e s signi ican ly mo e
economic p ospec s han Nige ia.

96
In o he in e ac ions, in e iewees also iden i ied low wages as a signi ican challenge in hei home
coun ies, leading o a subs an ial ou low o you h o mo e s able economies. When compa ing he
sala ies o public se an s in hei home coun ies wi h hose in Po ugal and o he Eu opean
na ions, Albe o ( om Angola) connec ed he pe cei ed wide gap in emune a ion be ween his
home coun y and Po ugal o injus ice in he Angolan labou ma ke . He also s a es ha he eason
he mo ed o Po ugal was o imp o ed wo king condi ions and be e pay:
Some o ou jobs can be challenging a imes. Fu he mo e, you may ha e o wo k la e hou s
o e en in p eca ious condi ions, ye i akes mo e han a sala y o compensa e. The e o e,
please ind a way o op -ou .
The quali y o heal hca e se ices was ano he ac o p omp ing emig a ion o de eloped na ions.
In he commen s, Rosa (Cape Ve dean), who su e s om a debili a ing illness, no ed ha she
emains ali e due o equen hospi al isi s and he special ca e and a en ion she ecei es while
in Po ugal:
When I was in ol ed in an acciden , I was down and admi ed o hospi al. I was no ea ed
like someone om ab oad. I ecei ed he excep ional ca e I needed o keep pushing h ough,
bu i may no ha e been easy o e en possible o me in my coun y. The heal hca e
pe sonnel we e iendly and kind o me as well
.
The esponses also e eal issues ela ed o bu eauc a ic bo lenecks, which some imes hinde
in eg a ion and access o essen ial se ices. In ce ain s a es, p ac ices such as s a sho ages,
absen eeism, laziness, o e en o ganisa ional negligence can lead o quali ied indi iduals s uggling
o ob ain quali y se ices o job oppo uni ies. In sha ing his hough s, Wilson (Nige ian) also
highligh ed he laziness o agency s a as a eason o he delays she aced while p ocessing he
a el documen s.
Because he p ocess ook so long, I may no ecei e he isa. A e being cap u ed and
collec ing my biome ic da a, I sough eedback om he agency s a ega ding he
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applica ion's p og ess, bu i has ye o a i e. I only ecei ed a message when my isa was
eady. Consequen ly, i was inc edibly uncom o able wai ing all his ime
.
In se e al A ican coun ies, he e a e epo ed cases o inadequacies in he s a e secu i y
appa a us, leading o he ailu e o egional au ho i ies o add ess issues o inc easing insecu i y,
such as obbe y and co up ion. In such ins ances, he populace eso s o aking he law in o hei
own hands while seeking means o sel -de ence, as hey appea o ha e los ai h in he s a e’s
secu i y o ensu e hei p o ec ion. As Ami (Tunisian) ecoun ed his emig a ion jou ney in
connec ion wi h insecu i y and a lack o us in he secu i y agency o his home coun y o
sa egua d his amily:
I le my coun y o Po ugal because I eel sa e he e. My amily emains in Tunisia, and I
isi hem only when necessa y. We keep in ouch egula ly. Li e was complica ed, bu I
unde s and ha . I came he e seeking s abili y, s eng hening my inances, and building a
be e li e. The people he e a e kind. My daugh e a ends nu se y, and he school ees a e
ee. I genuinely app ecia e ha aspec
.
In ano he in e ac ion, João (Angolan) ecoun s signi ican challenges, including poo in as uc u e,
inadequa e heal hca e, and bu eauc acy in ob aining essen ial se ices like isas.
In my coun y, ewe s uc u es on he g ound a e an icipa ed o a socie y o millions o
inhabi an s, and issues like hospi als, elec ici y, oads, and a eas in he hin e land emain
inaccessible. The people in hose egions consis en ly equi e assis ance anspo ing hei
p oduce o he ci y, whe e i is g ea ly needed. This si ua ion is de imen al o us. We a e
discussing indi iduals being unable o access heal hca e, pa icula ly in he subu bs. I also
expe ienced challenging momen s when I planned o come he e—w i ing o he embassy
and wai ing o a conside able ime. I was a ime o anxie y as I was unce ain whe he I
would ecei e he isa in ime o he school esump ion in Po ugal due o he delays.
The e o e, o p og ess as a na ion, we mus add ess hese ailu es in public se ices.
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Table 5. Sample in e iew esponses o he ques ion, ‘Wha challenges did you encoun e in you
coun y o o igin be o e deciding o mo e?'
Themes con ibu ing o
Challenges
Example o quo es om in e iews
Numbe o
esponses
Economic challenges
‘‘I le my coun y o o igin because, unlike he e in Po ugal, he e
was no a ailable my a ea o specialisa ion in medicine, p omp ing
me o lea e o he pos g adua e s udies ab oad.’’
24
Economic challenges
‘‘The e we e a lo o issues in my coun y pa icula ly, elec ici y
c isis ha I had seen ha is absen in Po ugal and o he Eu opean
na ions.’’
6
Communi y impac
‘‘I le my home coun y o uni e wi h my Po uguese amily. Tha is
because, a e my ma iage o a Po uguese, we decided o li e he e
oge he .’’
5
Poli ical con lic s
‘‘In my coun y he e we e no bes condi ions o s udying and,
mo eo e , he poli ical change o ced us o do so. So, I would say i
was socio-poli ical and economic issues.’’
1
Communi y Impac
The heme o communi y impac encompasses o he signi ican easons o mig a ion and
esponden s’ pe cep ions o i s ewa ds, including socie al bene i s, pe sonal de elopmen ,
ma iage, social ele ance, and isk mi iga ion. Da a om he in e iews e ealed ha mos
esponden s le wi h he belie ha hei mo emen would aid in hei pe sonal g ow h as well as
con ibu e o he ad ancemen o hei home and hos coun ies. A p ominen ecu ing aspec o
mig a ion is i s po en ial o subs an ially al e he demog aphic composi ion o communi ies,
esul ing in changes o popula ion dynamics, labou ma ke s, and social s uc u es.
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In nume ous des ina ion communi ies, mig an s can enhance wo k o ce di e si y, in oduce new
skills and alen s, add ess labou ma ke needs, and s imula e economic g ow h h ough
en ep eneu ship and consump ion. Simila ly, cul u al in eg a ion and social cohesion can be bo h
acili a ed and challenged by mig a ion, as newcome s b ing di e se adi ions, languages, and
alues ha may en ich communi y li e bu also pose challenges o social ha mony and iden i y. In
many cases, in e acial ma iages and amily euni ica ions p esen excellen oppo uni ies o sel -
de elopmen and he na ions in ol ed. Howe e , mig a ion can also s ain local esou ces and
se ices, heigh ening compe i ion o jobs, housing, and public ameni ies.
This is e iden in he mo i e o mo emen a icula ed by Juliana (Angolan):
I am con iden I ha e aced any signi ican challenges be o e lea ing. The e o e, I le my
home coun y o uni e wi h my Po uguese amily, as we decided o li e he e oge he a e
my ma iage o a Po uguese pe son
.
In ano he in e iew, Hen y (Nige ian) sugges s ha his mo i a ion o mo ing was his job, wi h
Po ugal being his second choice o des ina ion. Desc ibing his expe ience as a spo ing jou ney,
he ecalls being a alen ed a hle e who played o his coun y. Ye , he wished o en u e ou
op imis ically o u he his ca ee and business elsewhe e. In his own wo ds, Hen y explains:
Po ugal was my seconda y des ina ion because we ini ially wen o Alge ia o he a hle ics
games, he ‘All A ican Games’, and hen came o Po ugal o he Wo ld Junio
Championship. Tha was how my s ay in Po ugal began. I know I ha e alen bu could no
p og ess due o inancial cons ain s. Howe e , I am someone who always belie es in God.
I place my hope in Him and s ay op imis ic abou making i . The only oppo uni y o me o
lea e was an in i a ion o ep esen my coun y in he Wo ld You h Championship in a hle ics.
I was a signi ican oppo uni y, and I needed o seize i
.
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Poli ical con lic s
The heme e e s o a ious essen ial easons why people mig a e and he po en ial impac s o his
mo emen on mig an s' li es and socie y as a whole. The sub hemes illus a e hese, including
poli ical ins abili y, wa , you h exclusion om go e nance, and clima e change. Like human his o y,
bo h posi i e and nega i e ins ances ha e always been cha ac e ised; he na a i e o mig a ion
and i s e ec s each beyond des ina ion communi ies o include o igin communi ies, whe e he
loss o human capi al du ing mig a ion can lead o signi ican economic and social epe cussions.
One no able ou come o mig a ion is he emi ances ha mig an s send o hei amilies and
communi ies o o igin. These emi ances a e c ucial li elines, p o iding inancial suppo o
educa ion, heal hca e, and in as uc u e de elopmen . Fu he mo e, he e u n o mig an s who
b ing new ound skills, expe iences, and esou ces can os e local de elopmen and capaci y
building wi hin hei home communi ies.
Howe e , b ain d ain, pa icula ly p e alen in de eloping coun ies, can exace ba e skill sho ages,
hinde economic g ow h, and impede social p og ess in hese egions. The e o e, a comp ehensi e
unde s anding o mig a ion's human alue necessi a es conside ing i s complex in e play wi h
socio-economic ac o s, policy amewo ks, and cul u al dynamics in bo h des ina ion and o igin
con ex s.
In his esponse, Paulo (San omean) explici ly s a ed ha his emig a ion was p omp ed by poli ical
and economic ins abili y as well as wa in his egion a ha ime:
In my coun y, my a he was a poli ical p isone in São Tomé. A e independence, my a he
was a es ed and jailed, lea ing ou amily wi h no means o su i e, so we le . In my coun y,
he e we e also inadequa e condi ions o s udying, and poli ical changes o ced us o ake
his S ep. The e o e, i was a combina ion o socio-poli ical and economic issues.

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Table 5 p esen s da a collec ed om he hema ic analysis, highligh ing he hemes disce nible
om he condensed example o in e iew esponses o he ques ion, ‘Wha challenges we e you
acing in you coun y o o igin be o e you decided o mo e?’ I also indica es he numbe o
pa icipan s whose opinions align wi h an iden i ied esponse. In his ega d, hemes such as
economic in luences, communi y impac s, and human alues a e ecu en ac oss he a ious
in e ac ions ega ding mig an s’ in e pe sonal challenges and hei expe iences wi h he la ge
socie y. F om his da a, i was deduced ha while some young esponden s le hei coun y in
sea ch o a b igh e u u e, ci ing hei exclusion om go e nance and policy-making, none we e
compelled o mo e by clima e- ela ed condi ions.
5.5. Indi idual s a egies o mi iga e po en ial isks du ing he jou ney
In his sec ion, he sub hemes encompassing con idence in s a e secu i y (economic challenges),
delays in documen a ion/legal s a us ( ulne abili y), compliance wi h s a e ules, and
en i onmen al awa eness (adap a ion) we e ecu en in he esponses om many o hose
in e iewed (Table 6). I is commonly belie ed ha hose lea ing hei home coun ies may ace
se e e mig a ion isks, including oad o ai acciden s, scams, obbe y, de en ion, issues wi h legal
au ho isa ion o c ossing bo de s, o se ious anspo a ion challenges du ing he jou ney.
Awa eness o hese po en ial isks could be he i s s ep owa ds p epa ing onesel o e en ual
occu ences and eadiness o ackle hem as hey a ise.
Economic challenges/Vulne abili y/Adap a ion
Abou he measu es indi iduals implemen ed o mi iga e po en ial mig a ion isks du ing hei
jou ney, Luís (Angolan) sha es ha ca ying and a elling wi h a subs an ial amoun o money
made his mo emen less s ess ul. He s a es ha :
When one emba ks on a jou ney, one is likely o encoun e a ious secu i y challenges,
whe he posi i e o nega i e. The e o e, we mus always be as cau ious as possible o a oid
he la e . One o he hings I did when I le Angola was o ind ou how o na iga e a la ge
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ci y like Lisbon, asce ain he s ee s, and disco e he quickes ou es om one s ee o
ano he . Who a e he people in Lisbon ha I could ely on in an eme gency? Speaking o he
police whene e needed was also bene icial. Al hough I los my way a ew imes, I managed
o amilia ise mysel wi h he ci y a bi be o e heading o B aga. A ha ime, Lisbon was and
con inues o be he mos signi ican pa o Po ugal.
Ano he hing I did was come up wi h some money- a signi ican sum o money. Al hough I
came he e as an Angolan s uden on schola ship, I s ill needed o ecei e cash om he
s a e be o e my depa u e. So, I had o b ing some cash ha sus ained me he e ill he
bu eauc a ic issues su ounding he ac i a ion o he schola ship and und elease (like
ha ing NIF, ha ing a esidence, and ce ain documen s) we e esol ed. So, I was spending
he money I b ough wi h me. I na iga ed he bu eauc a ic challenges inhe en in he
schola ship ac i a ion wi hou anxie y, and e e y hing wo ked ou . This con as s wi h hose
who equi e mo e money and a e in a di icul si ua ion. This suppo enabled me o se le
in, secu e accommoda ion upon a i al, shop, and li e he e e yday li e o a PhD s uden .
Du ing his session, Geo ge (Nige ian) acknowledged ha he was awa e o he po en ial isks
associa ed wi h his mo emen s. He explained how, by adhe ing o legal equi emen s, he had
endea ou ed o secu e legal s a us as an immig an in Uk aine and Po ugal.
I know he po en ial isks we may ace i we need he necessa y documen s o eside in a
pa icula coun y. I gi es a much highe isk o being depo ed back o you coun y, and
you would be sanc ioned. So, I had o …... hmmm. To mi iga e his isk, I y o ollow he
necessa y legal s eps, like sea ching o a isa, looking o an essen ial isa appoin men ,
and ying o be legal in ha pa icula coun y in Uk aine. E en when I wen o Po ugal, I
ied o legally ge a esidency pe mi o a oid he possibili y o depo a ion.
In o he in e iews, Vi o (Angolan) sha es his ips:
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Ini ially, I ook legal s eps o ob ain a isa, p io i ising my physical sa e y by being cau ious
wi h in o ma ion, a oiding going ou a nigh and e aining om d inking alcohol. Be o e I
emba ked on my jou ney, I was admi ed o s udy a he uni e si y. Rega ding
accommoda ion, I main ained con ac wi h he Ação Social a my hos uni e si y, who kep
me upda ed on he p ocess while I was s ill home. The e o e, I would say hose measu es
helped me no eel los he e.
Vulne abili y/adap a ion
Tadeu (Angolan) acknowledged ha he was awa e o he isks associa ed wi h mo emen and
sha ed how he managed o na iga e h ough hem, as ollows:
Fi s ly, I needed he mo i a ion o mo e despi e wha awai ed me. Mo i a ion is essen ial o
A icans eloca ing o ano he con inen whe e li e may di e . I ecall he saying, “I one does
no ake isks, one may no achie e g ea hings.” I se ou o choose he p ope mode o
anspo , op ing o an ai line. I also disco e ed in o ma ion ha was i al o my sa e a i al.
I ini ially analysed how li e unc ions he e and how hings a e done. I knew I needed o lea e
my home well-p epa ed o ace wha e e came my way. Mo eo e , I had iends who we e
al eady he e. I consul ed hem on how o ind easonable accommoda ion, s o es wi h be e
deals, and so on, and hese iends we e in aluable o me.
In ano he discussion, Wilson (Nige ian), while sha ing his pe sonal expe ience, also ad ised o he
young A ican mig an s on how he belie es hey can mi iga e ulne abili y and mig a ion- ela ed
isks be o e, du ing, and a e ansi :
Fi s ly, one o he key asks is o secu e my bags h ough SCM w apping o by pu chasing
books o hem while ensu ing ha I ha e he app op ia e documen s eady a he igh ime.
Ha ing he co ec documen a ion is i al; always ac a he igh momen , know p ecisely
wha you in end o do in Po ugal, and y o g asp he a ea's layou o a oid ge ing los
quickly. Addi ionally, endea ou o imme se you sel in Po uguese cul u e upon a i al while
104
main aining you own cul u al iden i y, and seek o unde s and how hings a e done he e,
as i may di e signi ican ly om p ac ices in my coun y o o igin.
In he same con ex , John (Nige ian) spoke abou engaging wi h and main aining con ac wi h his
hos , which p o ed e y help ul in secu ing a smoo h landing:
Be o e lea ing Nige ia, I had al eady es ablished an excellen appo wi h he pe son
supe ising my PhD. We communica ed cons an ly, and e e y hing was a anged o me,
including he axi om he ai po o my accommoda ion. Consequen ly, i el like a s uden
en i onmen , mo e akin o a s uden hos el, a leas o he i s ew mon hs, and i was
ega ded as one o he bes and sa es places.
Gab iela (San omean) discusses he e o s o a oid p oblems wi h a ic o ice s and indi iduals
in gene al du ing he ip:
While s ill a home, I sough in o ma ion abou whe e I was o a el. I b owsed he in e ne
and con ac ed iends, inqui ing abou li e in Po ugal o mig an s. Addi ionally, I ecei ed
pe inen eedback ha alle ia ed my anxie y du ing he wai . The secu i y pe sonnel we e
help ul a he San omean ai po , and I always consul hem when I need cla i ica ion. I also
ensu ed he sa e y o my luggage. Upon a i ing in Po ugal, I called my iend, who helped
me anspo my luggage o my des ina ion. He e, he au ho i ies had pu measu es in place
o mi iga e po en ial isks. O e all, i was a ma e o pe sonal secu i y awa eness.
Table 6 p esen s da a collec ed om he hema ic analysis, illus a ing he iden i iable hemes
de i ed om he condensed examples o in e iew esponses ega ding indi idual measu es o
mi iga e po en ial isks du ing he jou ney. I also displays he numbe o pa icipan s whose
opinions align wi h he iden i ied esponses. Economic in luence, ulne abili y, and adap a ion a e
ecu en hemes om mig an s’ in e pe sonal challenges and in e ac ions wi h b oade socie y.
111
school, i was also men ioned ha he ee s uc u e may change in any academic session.
Knowing ha I am no wo king ye , such a si ua ion is a sou ce o conce n o me as an
in e na ional s uden .
Also sha ing his expe ience, Leona do (Guinea-Bissauan) e eals ha disc imina ion in he
wo kplace impeded his ca ee de elopmen despi e his quali ica ions. In his in e ac ion:
I is mo e han eeling helpless; i eels as hough I am los among people, and I conside
ha a h ea o my well-being as an immig an . I expe ience his in ce ain si ua ions, o
ins ance, in my cu en job. I is he only job I ha e held o i e yea s since I a i ed he e.
Mo eo e , I can ell people and show hem how o wo k. I p o ided hem wi h aining in he
ield, ye hey go p omo ed and became manage s while I emained in he same posi ion.
Mo eo e , I o en wish o mo e o a di e en s a ion, o ins ance, no wo king as a che . I
ep esen s a di e en kind o ole whe e we engage in a ious Tasks. Howe e , whene e I
exp ess a desi e o ansi ion o ano he ype o s a ion, hey send me back o my cu en
one, p e en ing me om explo ing new oppo uni ies. I s i e o push mysel , and despi e
lea ning many new hings, I s ill canno achie e a p omo ion. One day, hey ecognised his
and admi ed, ‘The way we ea his guy is Un ai .’ I ne e complain and con inue o do
wha I do, as I do no doub my desi e no o do his o li e.
Ne e heless, I ind sa is ac ion in i since i helps me esol e my issues. E en so, I can eel
my us a ion; he ime I spen s udying a uni e si y now seems was ed as I wo k in he
ki chen. I do no mean o unde es ima e hose wo king in ki chens.
Howe e , my expe iences wi h he people in he ki chen show ha I ha e mo e quali ica ions
han hey do, ye hey ha e ad anced and a e abo e you. You demons a e you skills and
each hem how o pe o m speci ic asks, bu due o you di e en skin colou , backg ound,
and cul u e, as well as coming om a di e en coun y, hey a e p omo ed ins ead o you.
In my wo kplace, some indi iduals ea you poo ly wi hou unde s anding why; o ins ance,
once hey lea ned abou my backg ound as a g adua e, hei a i ude changed, and hey
began o espec me a wo k. Consequen ly, hey ques ion me, asking, ‘Why a e you in he
ki chen? Why a e you wo king as a che ? Why don’ you seek employmen in you ield?’ I

112
used o espond, ‘I am wo king he e. I know why I am he e; I need o lea e his job o pu sue
oppo uni ies in my ield.'
I need o wo k b ie ly, w i e ano he a icle, and ind some hing. Du ing his pe iod, when I
plan o s op, i will pose a signi ican p oblem o my amily and me because I al eady ha e
one challenge: I suppo my b o he , who depends on me. I I s op wo king o e en a day
o a week, i will cause signi ican issues. My daily challenge is no o eel a lack o any hing
while he elies on me as always. He is a s uden ocused on his s udies, which adds o my
challenge, bu I emain hope ul o be e days.
Simila ly, Amélia (San omean) iden i ies he h ea as he signi ican challenge she aced in he
neighbou hoods, linking i o acial disc imina ion by bo h he misguided au ho i ies and esiden s.
In he wo ds:
The challenges a e nume ous. The i s is disc imina ion, which is a se ious issue. Al hough
i is o en s a ed ha acial disc imina ion does no exis in Po ugal, A ican mig an s he e
encoun e daily challenges ela ed o acial concep s. This ep esen s a signi ican hu dle o
mig an s, mainly A ican mig an s. I ha e wi nessed ins ances whe e indi iduals o black
e hnici y we e denied isas o a el o Wes e n coun ies, possibly because, in mos cases,
he decision-make s a e whi e, and he e is a limi o wha can be done in such si ua ions.
This pe cep ion s ems om hei being iewed as a mino i y popula ion. Despi e being
a ional and indus ious indi iduals, hey a e o en unjus ly seen as he wo s based on his
backd op. Secondly, job- ela ed disc imina ion is no he only issue; when one is on he bus,
i becomes appa en ha one can be a a ge o disc imina ion. I ha e no pe sonally aced
i , bu I am awa e o nume ous cases o xenophobia ha exis in a ious ins i u ions. Fo
ins ance, his occu s du ing con lic s be ween mig an s and Po uguese indi iduals.
Au ho i ies, such as he police, end o side wi h he Po uguese, e en when bo h A icans
and Po uguese a e in he igh . Ul ima ely, we a e he ones who end up shoulde ing he
blame. I belie e his app oach will no lead o posi i e change.
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A elino (Angolan) also asse s ha :
I belie e he e a e nume ous challenges associa ed wi h lea ing one’s homeland. My p ima y
challenge was applying o admission, secu ing a isa, and adjus ing o a new en i onmen .
I el almos like es a ing a compu e . I a i ed in Po ugal in he pos -COVID e a, and
ob aining a isa was di icul hen. The e o e, I conside mysel o una e o be he e. The
li es yle di e s signi ican ly om wha I am accus omed o—pa icula ly conce ning cul u al
and eligious issues. In my cul u e, we uphold amily ies ha , I hink, a e g adually losing
hei signi icance.
Rega ding eligion, I knew om home ha he Po uguese a e known as a eligious people.
Howe e , compa ing my coun y wi h Po ugal, I no ice educed adolescen s’ and child en's
access o spi i ual ac i i ies. This came as a shock o me. I do no know i ha is no mal,
bu I ha e accep ed i . The en p ice could be mo e iendly, and we mus make he jou ney,
bea ing all his in mind. The challenges I ha e a e pe sonal because I am no om he e. As
a clinician, I ace mos o he di icul ies, in ac , he pe sonal con lic o ha ing o abandon
my coun y, which ga e me aining un il he mas e ’s deg ee, because I eel ha I owe he
a lo .
Insecu i y
Secu i y and sa e y conce ns a e signi ican aspec s o he mig an expe ience, as highligh ed by
he pa icipan s. They aised issues ega ding acism and po en ial isks associa ed wi h mig a ion,
emphasising he necessi y o mig an s o emain cau ious and awa e o he challenges hey may
encoun e , such as disc imina ion and exploi a ion. Simila ly, pa icipan s discussed he di icul ies
su ounding legal s a us, access o igh s, and na iga ing secu i y issues wi hin he hos coun y.
This heme, he e o e, unde sco es he impo ance o add essing secu i y conce ns and ensu ing
he well-being and sa e y o mig an s in hei new en i onmen s.
Many in e iewees exp essed conce ns abou insecu i y ela ed o cul u al adap a ion and
in eg a ion in Po ugal, highligh ing he cul u e shock hey encoun e ed upon a i al, pa icula ly
ega ding di e ences in social in e ac ions and hospi ali y no ms be ween hei coun ies and
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Po ugal. This in e iew sec ion illus a es hei s uggles o o m meaning ul social connec ions
and he loneliness s emming om cul u al di e ences. Among hese challenges a e issues
conce ning secu ing s able employmen , enhancing hei quali y o li e, and pu suing p o essional
de elopmen . The insecu i y su ounding he sa e y and well-being o mig an s in o eign coun ies
unde sco es he u gen need o comp ehensi e measu es and in e en ions ha p io i ise social
inclusion, access o igh s-based se ices, and equi able oppo uni ies o economic and social
in eg a ion.
As an icipa ed, Geo ge’s (Nige ian) insecu i y p edominan ly s emmed om he language ba ie .
He associa ed his insecu i y wi h his inabili y o communica e e ec i ely in Po uguese, which
limi ed his oppo uni ies o engage wi h o he s and in eg a e in o socie y:
Okay. To add ess you ques ion, I belie e i is …, ... I aced ea ly language ba ie challenges
as I a i ed in a di e en coun y wi h a dis inc language and cul u e. Howe e , I had o
adap and lea n he language, which is one o he challenges I ypically encoun e in non-
English-speaking coun ies.
In his con ex , Uzoamaka, a Nige ian, sha es he expe ience as ollows:
As a mig an , he challenges I ace in Po ugal p ima ily e ol e a ound he lack o amily
and iends; one o en eels isola ed due o ou di e ing cul u es. I ecall he cul u e shock I
expe ienced upon a i ing he e. Being bo n and aised in Nige ia, we ha e a dis inc way o
li e. E en when encoun e ing a s ange , i ’s common o say, “Oh, come in.” Du ing
Ch is mas, you welcome e e yone, and i ’s cus oma y o all o ga he a you home o a
meal, e en i you don’ know he indi idual. Howe e , when I a i ed he e, li e was ma kedly
di e en .
On ano he le el, Rosa (Cape Ve dean) highligh ed challenges associa ed wi h main aining
connec ions wi h he amily in Cape Ve de, mainly due o isa es ic ions, he expense o a el,
and dis ance. Fu he mo e, na iga ing bu eauc a ic p ocesses o amily isi s and he cons ain s
115
o a elling wi h hi d-wo ld passpo s p esen ed signi ican obs acles. She p ima ily a ibu ed he
inabili y o be wi h amily membe s o he lack o inancial means o a el:
I ha e been he e o almos o y yea s. I eg e ha I canno be wi h my amily a his ime.
Some imes, I c y because I canno see my joy-gi e s, especially my g andchild en, nephews,
and nieces. A e my e i emen , his has been my p esen heal h condi ion. The pension
needs o be highe . You also know ha when you ha e alid passpo s and wan o go on
holiday, hings can u n ou qui e di e en ly a he bo de s. I is ha d o me, bu I hope o
be e days.
In his esponse, Luís (Angolan) connec s his challenges o labou ma ke issues.
My s ay in his coun y will bene i my coun y bu , o a high deg ee, Po ugal. I s udy he e
and pay my ees, en , and axes. E en in he bank, he e a e cha ges o be paid mon hly o
main ain accoun s, which is no mal. Howe e , I no ice speci ic unce ain y in ecognising
ce i ica es o skills in he ins i u ions he e, pa icula ly om he de eloping wo ld. Fo
ins ance, in my coun y, i I we e o each o conduc esea ch o a ce ain numbe o yea s,
I would be p omo ed o ull p o esso ship, bu ha canno occu o me i I con inue my li e
he e.
In he same ein, Omid (Mo occan) sha es ha his challenges in Po ugal a e in eg a ion, linking
i o he language ba ie , high en , and inabili y o socialise when a he wo kplace:
I ha e encoun e ed nume ous p oblems he e. The i s challenge I aced was he language.
Po uguese equi es a lo o wo k o lea n, and i isn' easy. My second language is F ench,
so I speak a li le F ench, bu now I know he basics. I can go o he supe ma ke s and lea n
he g amma necessa y o b ie con e sa ions he e. Ano he issue is he cos o en , which
is exo bi an . Some imes, hey ail o sign he con ac , which means we ha e nea ly been
penalised by he IRS due o he axes. This can be p e y dis essing. A imes, he Po uguese
en i onmen is somewha closed o .
116
I isn' easy o be social and make iends in Po ugal. Ph ases like ‘you can be my colleague
bu no my iend’ a e challenging o comp ehend. I’m unce ain i his is no mal in he
cul u e. Al hough his is conce ning, I am awa e o i . These a e some o he challenges I
ace in Po ugal.
Ne e heless, Po ugal is one o he coun ies I iew as a ou is des ina ion because issues
such as acism and o he dispa i ies a e p e y a e. When such inciden s do occu , hey a e
in equen . We ecei ed signi ican suppo , which we needed as newly a i ed mig an s.
The e o e, I do no pe cei e i as a subs an ial di e ence.
Tadeu (Angolan) also con eyed ha one o his mos signi ican challenges was disc imina ion in
he wo kplace. In his wo ds:
When you a i e a a Po uguese es ablishmen , o ins ance, i you a e employed o wo k
alongside o he s, you may no ice ha some colleagues doub you abili y o pe o m he
asks ou lined in you CV, belie ing you a e no he pe son you claim o be. These indi iduals
end o iew hose o us om A ica o Sou h Ame ica as a luen indi iduals who canno
manage wha hey possess and p esen hemsel es as helpless. I ha e also obse ed ha
en p ices a e highe o mig an s han na i es, and some landlo ds inhe i ed hei
p ope ies om hei pa en s. They may need o g asp he deg ee o exploi a ion, as hey
ha e no expe ienced i and may ne e do so. These ac o s highligh disc imina ion ha
should no be p e alen in his wen y- i s cen u y.
In he hough s, Gab iela (San omean) places i in ano he dimension:
He e in Po ugal, I had di icul y inding a house o en . When I a i ed, I s a ed looking o
accommoda ion. I was a e wo mon hs ha I go one. Mo eo e , he en needed o be
mo e enan - iendly when I go i . I did no eel so com o able. I ook i as one o he
condi ions a mig an could ace. Ano he momen I go sca ed was when I was looking o
jobs in au umn, and i was no jus coming o h. In one encoun e , I was old by one

117
employe ha as I came o s udy in Po ugal, I would go o school, no o wo k. Howe e ,
gene ally, I el sa e he e. Howe e , wha is he a e o many o he s who, unlike me, may no
be a ing ei he ?
Table 7 p esen s da a collec ed om he hema ic analysis, showing he hemes iden i iable om
he condensed example o in e iew esponses o he ques ion, ‘Wha challenges a e you cu en ly
acing in you hos coun y?’ I also indica es he numbe o pa icipan s whose opinions align wi h
a gi en esponse. In his ega d, hemes such as ulne abili y, h ea , insecu i y, and economic
in luence we e ecognised as ecu ing om he a ious in e ac ions conce ning he mig an s’
in e pe sonal challenges and hei expe iences in e ac ing wi h he la ge socie y.
118
Table 7. An example o in e iew esponses o he ques ion: Wha challenges a e you acing in you
hos coun y?
Themes
con ibu ing o
Challenges
Example o quo es om in e iews
Numbe o
esponses
Vulne abili y
‘‘P incipally, I would say i is sepa a ion om amily and ela i es. I canno
ge o e he eeling o being away om my amily. I go ma ied las yea ,
so, I canno pass he day wi hou conce n o my wi e and daugh e .’’
10
‘‘I emembe ha ing los many con ac hou s due o COVID-19, he
Uni e si y, jus like he o he es ablishmen s, was closed. You can imagine
whe e classes we e held online wi h no p ac ical sessions. Tha was a big
minus o me as a science schola .’’
3
Th ea
‘‘I ba ely a i ed s aigh away and wen o school, a he ime, I was being
bullied. Because we ha e a di e en accen , some e minologies o mo e
di e en egional ways o speaking. Fo example, Lisbon and Po o, i is
no ed. In ac , i can be seen in Sou h and no h o Po ugal. So, imagine
om Angola o Po ugal.’’
12
‘‘I is jus us ying o be ou sel es in ano he coun y bu we a e being
seg ega ed. This is one o he challenges we ace. I wan ed o do my clinical
p ac ice in Po ugal. A e we applied o se e al hospi als, we we e old
di ec ly ha e en hei s uden s ha e no been accep ed so hey canno
accep us, we he mig an s. I is a bi s ange o us.’’
9
Insecu i y
‘‘Okay, so, I had hose ea ly challenges o language ba ie because when
I came i was a di e en coun y wi h a di e en language and a di e en
cul u e bu I had o adop and lea n he language which is ac ually one o
he challenges I usually aced in non-English-speaking coun ies.’’
1
‘‘As a mig an he challenges I ace in Po ugal i s is lack o amily and
iendship, you will jus be alone because we ha e di e en cul u es. I
emembe he cul u e shock when I came he e being a Nige ian bo n and
aised, we ha e a cul u e. E en when you see some s ange “Oh come
in”, you hos e e ybody du ing Ch is mas and e e ybody comes o you
2
119
house you ea , e en i you don’ know he pe son. Bu when I came he e
li e was o ally di e en .’’
Economic
challenges
“The i s expe ience was when he ood i ems I came wi h had inished.
So, I ha e o buy and he p ice o ood was conside ably highe han he
one in my coun y o o igin, Nige ia.”
2
5.7. Mig an s’ a emp s o add ess challenges: Adap a ion
In his sec ion, adap a ion eme ged as a ecu ing heme, de ined by he mig an s' abili y o adjus
o i in o a new en i onmen (Table 8). This is likely in luenced by a ying ideas and beha iou al
changes, which make hem sui able o hei new ci cums ances. E idence om he ansc ip
suppo s he signi icance o hei adap a ion s a egy o hei li elihood and success in he hos
coun y.
Many o he in e iewees exp essed hei abili y o make speci ic adjus men s o imp o e hei
quali y o li e, p ima ily by becoming awa e o hei su oundings in he new en i onmen , acqui ing
educa ion and new skills, main aining a g ow h mindse , elying on humani a ian aid, and adhe ing
o hos s a e egula ions (Table 4).
En i onmen al awa eness is a key ac o in how people adap o a new en i onmen (Table 4).
Knowledge o he ci y layou , dange zones, and escape ou es is c ucial o eaching a new
des ina ion. In he in e iews, A elino (Angolan) a ibu ed his sa e y and in eg a ion in his new
home o being secu i y conscious and ha ing a s ong unde s anding o any en i onmen he inds
himsel in:
Upon my a i al, I ealised I was in a o eign coun y, so I sough o a oid ouble. I ocused
on lea ning and ollowing he main ou es in he a ea, s ee ing clea o mo emen a nigh
unless I ook a axi.
120
In ano he ins ance, Geo ge (Nige ian) connec s his p og ess in Po ugal wi h humani a ianism and
emb acing a mo e social li es yle:
I socialise mo e hese days. My cu en job, which I ob ained h ough my in e ac ions wi h
o he s he e in Po ugal, is a di ec esul o my e o s o make iends and adjus o hei
en i onmen .
Ano he Angolan, Daniela, a ibu es he success ul in eg a ion in Po ugal o he acquisi ion o
educa ion and skills in his way:
Being awa e o my limi a ions in e ms o knowledge and backg ound, I en olled in a cou se
a a highe educa ion ins i u ion o imp o e mysel and enhance my employabili y. I assu e
you i was bene icial and ha e elied on his e e since. O he wise, I migh ha e been ou o
wo k long ago.
In addi ion, João (Angolan) says ha he was able o li e a sa e li e in Po ugal by leading a modes
li e:
When I a i ed in Eu ope, I eminded mysel ha in he wo ld, he e a e laws ha people
ha e o obey o hei li e and ha o o he s. Po ugal, as a na ion being Ch is ian, I, oo,
ollowed he Ch is ian laws o no smoking, d unkenness, killing, s ealing, d ugs, e c, no
doing ha m o o he s and gene ally espec ing he igh s o o he s. I boldly say ha , based
on my amily upb inging, I ha e ollowed mos o hese laws since childhood.
Fu he mo e, in his esponse, Geo ge (Nige ian) a ibu es his success in Po ugal o possessing a
g ow h mindse ha made him keen o emb ace challenges as pa o he jou ney:
127
You know ha Po ugal gua an ees mo e accessible documen a ion o CPLP ecipien s.
Po ugal is pe o ming well in his ega d. I would be bene icial i such a ges u e we e
ex ended o all mig an s, ega dless o hei o igin. This would secu e he li es o legal
mig an s and minimise he issue o illegal mig an s.
Tadeu, an Angolan, ad oca es o a s ong connec ion be ween s a e au ho i ies and ci izens
esiding ab oad, pa icula ly du ing eme gencies. He asse s ha :
Wha Po ugal can do o ensu e he sa e y o people wi hin i s bo de s is no e y di e en
om wha my coun y should do o i s ci izens. The consula es sign con ac s and o he
ag eemen s o p omo e ade and in es men wi h di e en coun ies. Each coun y should
pay a en ion o i s ci izens li ing ab oad, whe he o eigne s o mig an s in a ious loca ions.
This eminds me o he wa m h and iendliness o he Ame ican go e nmen owa ds i s
ci izens. Whene e an eme gency a ises, such as wa , a c isis, o a disas e , hey send
messages and ep esen a i es o connec wi h and suppo hei ci izens in whiche e
coun y i may be, ollowed by ac ions o hei escue. Un o una ely, he same canno be
said o A ican leade s in mos cases. Looking a his si ua ion, one can see ha we lack
his aspec .
In his ema ks, Omid (Mo occan) also sugges s ha :
I am com o able doing my job. Fo me, he e is li le ha needs o be done. So, i is wha i
is. The only hing hey could change is… The only issue ha does no assis , e en o he
Po uguese, is he ax p oblem. Fo ins ance, mos es ablishmen s do no accep ca d
paymen s whe e e you go. They only accep cash. Mo eo e , he mo e people can ansac
easily, and he mo e he go e nmen coope a es by being asse i e wi h axes, he mo e I
belie e ha he coun y will ha e mo e signi ican oppo uni ies o imp o e li e o e e yone,
including an inc ease in sala ies and many o he aspec s.

128
In suppo o his, du ing he in e iew wi h João (Angolan), he s igma su ounding mig a ion as
me ely an escape om po e y is con es ed. João emphasises ha many mig an s, including highly
quali ied indi iduals, pu sue mig a ion o a ious easons beyond economic necessi y.
Ne e heless, misconcep ions pe sis , impeding he in eg a ion p ocess, as some mig an s may
encoun e p ejudice and limi ed oppo uni ies despi e hei quali ica ions and abili ies. Simila ly, he
ad oca es o he mode a ion o sala ies and he expansion o he labou ma ke in a way ha
accommoda es all hose wishing o li e and wo k in Po ugal:
I belie e ha mig an communi ies a e inc easingly g owing on a global scale. This could be
a posi i e de elopmen as i keeps hose looking o mig a e well-in o med and boos s he
e enues o many in ol ed coun ies. Howe e , he p ima y mis ake nea ly all hose
depa ing made is a lack o su icien in o ma ion abou he p ocess. Many A icans wish o
mig a e o Eu ope, ye only 20-25% o hese indi iduals a e well-in o med be o ehand abou
li e he e. Had hey been, hey migh need o econside hei decision o a i e be e
p epa ed. Many indi iduals mo e o his coun y o a ious easons, such as educa ion,
employmen , heal hca e se ices, and, mos impo an ly, a be e quali y o li e. I ecall some
people who a i ed he e wi h li le o no hing and ended up secu ing minimum-wage jobs.
Mos wo ke s he e ecei e he na ional minimum wage, which is ela i ely low. Now, as hey
ha e amilies and he sala ies a e inadequa e o co e en , anspo , heal hca e, elec ici y,
wa e , gas, and o he essen ial needs, hey ind hemsel es apped in a cycle whe e hey
can only su i e.
Mo eo e , when unexpec ed ci cums ances a ise, hei li es may end. The e o e, I ega d
his as an un ealis ic li e o he li e we ini ially en isioned.
Mo eo e , Hen y (Nige ian) ad oca es o s ic con ols on unau ho ised en y in o he coun y.
To secu e he li es o mig an s and hei ci izens, he go e nmen o Po ugal mus i s
add ess he ma ias and o he s b inging illegal mig an s in o he coun y. People should en e
h ough he egula ou e. Nume ous unlaw ul mig an s wo king in challenging si ua ions
could ha m he coun y's image in he in e na ional communi y. The go e nmen should
129
endea ou o accep he mig an s and acili a e hei documen a ion so hey can ob ain
esidency. I will equi e e o , and i may ake ime, bu we will con on i .
The in eg a ion sub heme ( ulne abili y) also appea ed in Uzoamaka's submission (Nige ian), who
belie ed ha he au ho i ies esponsible o au hen ica ing ma iage and academic documen s
equi ed by mig an s should make his p ocess less ime-consuming o acili a e easie in eg a ion
in o socie y.
Rega ding documen a ion, he posi i e aspec is ha be o e au hen ica ing any hing hey a e
unce ain abou , hey always con ac he embassy o he applican 's coun y ega ding he
au hen ici y o he documen s. This unce ain y can be esol ed when he embassy p o ides
cla i ica ion on he ma e . While his is commendable, a leas an e o should be made o
expedi e he p ocess. Howe e , he Po uguese sys em could be implemen ed quickly in
many a eas. I you equi e some hing, i could ake yea s, and I ha e esigned mysel o ha
eali y. I ha e had o don my ga men o pa ience o ge hings done. The e o e, when I
men ion espec , hey should lis en mo e a en i ely.
On hei pa , he go e nmen may need o ec ui mo e indi iduals because hey o en end
o a ou hi ing hose om he CPLP, possibly due o language ac o s. Howe e , hey should
be mo e open o b inging in people o assis hem, as equen ly, when one isi s a loca ion,
hey migh be asked, “Oh, a e you Po uguese?”. Pe haps hey can use ha sys em o
exclude you, bu he o ices s a ed wi h olde women do no hink as quickly as younge
indi iduals.
Fu he mo e, many eenage s and young adul s a e mig a ing away due o he absence o
‘d eam jobs’ in Po ugal. This has an impac on he egion's demog aphics. I is e iden ha
olde adul s a e o en seen as unp oduc i e and should es a home.
In a subsequen in e ac ion, Gab iela (San omean) o e s he ollowing sugges ion:
The go e nmen may now e o m i s policy ega ding he police's p oximi y o immig an s.
One mus be nea someone o obse e hei li e o asce ain whe he hey ha e any needs.
130
Con e sely, in line wi h he ac s men ioned ea lie in he heo e ical sec ion, which asse ha
mig a ion is a ansna ional p ocess, Amélia (San omean) belie es ha policy changes by A ican
leade s could boos human de elopmen and imp o e he unc ionali y o sys ems a home:
Each A ican go e nmen mus implemen measu es o modi y na ional policies ha
encou age young people o mig a e less, allowing hem o emain in hei home coun ies
and con ibu e o hei g ow h. Many A ican indi iduals mig a e o loca ions whe e hey can
pu sue highe educa ion, ind employmen , play oo ball o engage in a ious spo s,
ep esen di e en na ions, conduc business, and con ibu e o he de elopmen o hose
na ions a he han hei coun ies o o igin. Thus, we mus conside bo h local and global
pe spec i es.
Table 9 p esen s da a collec ed om he hema ic analysis showing he hemes iden i iable om
he condensed example o in e iew esponses o he ques ion ‘‘wha measu es do you hink
go e nmen s should pu in place o add ess he insecu i ies o mig an s?’’ I u he shows he
numbe o pa icipan s whose opinions align wi h an iden i ied esponse. In his ega d, he
sub hemes ela ing o go e nmen and socie y and ulne abili y, such as hose o human
de elopmen (communi y impac and adap a ion), in eg a ion ( ulne abili y and adap a ion), and
he labou ma ke (go e nmen and socie y)—we e ecognised as ecu en hemes e lec ing
mig an s’ expec a ions o go e nmen ac ion o ackle hese challenges. This is based on a ious
in e ac ions and he in e pe sonal challenges mig an s ace conce ning hei engagemen wi h he
b oade socie y.
131
Table 9. Example o in e iew esponses o he ques ion, “Wha measu es do you hink
go e nmen s should implemen o add ess he insecu i ies mig an s ace?"
Themes con ibu ing o
challenges
Example o quo es om in e iews
Numbe o
esponses
Human de elopmen
“I hink ha go e nmen s o sending coun ies need o
do mo e o p o ec and assis i s ci izens li ing ab oad.”
19
In eg a ion
“The ecei ing coun y can p o ide social suppo and
adequa e condi ions o suppo li e.”
21
Labou ma ke
“In my opinion, go e nmen s needing se ices can call
o skilled labou , wi h o ices es ablished o guide
mig an s.”
1
In eg a ion
“The e need o be a gene al change o policies ha
gua an ee he igh s o mig an s”.
26
In eg a ion/labou ma ke
“Go e nmen s can do well i hey can en o ce policies o
he police being close o people. And maybe
mode a ion o axes and inc ease sala y o wo ke s.”
7
5.9. Go e nmen policy on add essing he issue o clima e change
Go e nmen and socie y
As in he p eceding sec ion, go e nmen , socie y, and adap a ion we e ecu ing hemes in he
in e iew esponses (Table 10). While o e ing di e se opinions on go e nmen esponses o
clima e-induced mig a ion, he in e iewees commonly ad oca e o mo e accommoda ing isa
policies, imp o ed bo de con ol measu es, and collabo a ion among go e nmen s a all le els o
achie e be e ou comes. They also emphasize balancing humani a ian conce ns wi h na ional
secu i y in e es s, calling o a p agma ic app oach o ackling he complex challenges o clima e
displacemen .
132
In his ega d, Paulo (San omean) belie es ha imp o ed managemen o na u al esou ces could
help mi iga e he e ec s o clima e change, connec ing he wa e sca ci y in his coun y o poo
go e nmen managemen and hei ailu e o ha ness and dis ibu e ainwa e o public
consump ion e ec i ely:
Clima e change impac s he whole wo ld, and imp o ed managemen is essen ial. In A ica,
o ins ance, Angola is expe iencing a d ough . The e a e a eas whe e people ea babo, bu
in São Tomé and P íncipe, i ains daily, ye he wa e supply does no each he en i e
popula ion. The e o e, esou ce managemen is ano he app oach o add essing such a
p oblem.
Regula ion o gas emission
Fu he mo e, Gab iela (San omean) connec s he success in managing en i onmen al pollu ion o
he enac men and he deg ee o compliance wi h go e nmen policy:
Go e nmen s can do much o add ess his issue. Measu es a e in place in Eu ope o emedy
en i onmen al conce ns. Howe e , gene ally speaking, each go e nmen should enac laws
o educe he numbe o ca s and o he modes o anspo ha bu n ossil uels and ene gy,
as hese can signi ican ly ha m he en i onmen . I is c ucial o implemen laws ha
discou age ac ions ha wo sen he si ua ion. Addi ionally, i would be bene icial i he public
adhe ed o hese laws.
Collabo a ion and human de elopmen
In a di e en dimension, ye in ag eemen wi h he submission as men ioned ea lie , João ( om
Angola) has he ollowing o say:

133
Fo clima e change, esol ing his issue p ima ily depends on educa ing people. Al e na i ely,
p o iding p ope o ien a ion is he i s s ep in add essing his menace. The p oblem o
en i onmen al sus ainabili y is an u gen conce n wo ldwide. Howe e , his can only be
achie able i indi iduals and hose o whom his esponsibili y alls possess he necessa y
awa eness o he issue's scope. The e o e, as you poin ed ou , people mus be displaced.
None heless, possessing basic knowledge o na u al e en s and hei en i onmen al impac s
can enable almos e e yone o become a p o ec o o hei su oundings. Consequen ly, ou
leade s in Luanda, Lisbon, and elsewhe e should begin by os e ing such awa eness be o e
pu suing p o essional solu ions. Thus, while clima e change is no a na u al phenomenon, i
p o okes mig a ion; i managed p ope ly, i should be o hose wi h he means.
Table 10 p esen s da a collec ed om he hema ic analysis, illus a ing he hemes iden i ied om
he condensed examples o in e iew esponses o he ques ion, ‘Wha measu es do you hink
go e nmen s should implemen o add ess he issue o clima e change displacing people?’ I also
indica es he numbe o pa icipan s whose opinions align wi h each iden i ied esponse. In his
ega d, hemes such as go e nmen and socie y—encompassing communi y esilience and
collabo a ion—as well as adap a ion—co e ing d ough and he managemen o sca ce esou ces,
along wi h communi y impac , which includes human de elopmen —we e ecognised as ecu en
based on he expec a ions o mig an s ollowing a ious in e ac ions oo ed in hei in e pe sonal
challenges and hose aced abou he la ge socie y.
134
Table 10. Example o in e iew esponses o he ques ion, ‘Wha measu es do you belie e
go e nmen s should implemen o ackle he issue o clima e change displacing indi iduals?’
Themes con ibu ing o
challenges
Example o quo es om in e iews
Numbe o
esponses
Collabo a ion
‘‘In ha ega d, I hink i will be g ea i coun ies a ec ed
would collabo a e wi h EU, UN, e c o inc ease capaci y
o espond.’’
20
In eg a ion
‘‘The coun ies need o lea n o manage hei esou ces
well. Maybe hey should ain he ones displaced by
clima e change and p epa e hem o be employable.’’
28
Regula ion o gas emission
‘‘I sugges ha each go e nmen enac s laws o educe
he numbe o ca s and o he means o anspo bu ning
uels.’’
1
Human de elopmen
‘‘I will be good when o eign coun ies include o he
languages in hei school cu iculum.’’
17
D ough /managemen o
sca ce esou ces
‘‘Clima e change a ec s he en i e wo ld. Be e
managemen is needed. In A ica o example, ell me
Angola has a d ough , he e a e a eas whe e people ea
babo, bu in São Tomé and P íncipe, i ains e e y day,
ye he wa e supply does no each he en i e
popula ion. So, managemen o esou ce is ano he way
o sol e such p oblem.’’
1
135
5.10. Go e nmen policy on add essing he issue o unau ho ised mig a ion
Go e nmen and ins i u ions policies
In his pa , he ecu ing hemes we e go e nmen and socie y, communi y impac , and adap a ion
(Table 5.10). Rega ding he measu es ha go e nmen s could ake o add ess he issue o
unau ho ised mig an s a hei bo de s o hose en e ing hei coun ies, Ana (Angolan) ad oca es
e-e alua ing he in eg a ion p ocess, p ima ily h ough he lens o he skills and compe encies ha
mig an s b ing. She sugges s ha ins i u ions esponsible o mig an legalisa ion, such as SEF
(Se iço de Es angei os e F on ei as, now
AIMA - Agência pa a In eg ação, Mig ação e Asilo),
should play a p oac i e ole in assessing mig an s' skills and quali ica ions upon en y. She also
belie es collabo a ion be ween immig a ion au ho i ies, employmen cen es, and social se ices
is c ucial o e ec i ely ma ch mig an s' skills wi h exis ing job acancies and socie al needs.
Wha could be a s a ing poin is ha Po ugal has o know who is coming in, who is en e ing,
and wha can be bene i ed. The en y poin o me is legalisa ion because, in any pa o he
wo ld, you could only do some hing as an immig an wi h his documen a ion. Mo eo e ,
om he e, s a channelling e o s owa ds in eg a ing hem in o he labou ma ke and
socie y, channelling he illing o acancies sough a e and s ill needs o be aken. I is also
essen ial ha he Employmen and T aining Cen es and he Minis y o Social Secu i y and
Wo ks mus be wo king oge he wi h he SEF. Once his legalisa ion p ocess can be
e icien ly linked o egis a ion a he Job Cen e, i becomes easie o indi iduals o secu e
p o essional in eg a ion oppo uni ies and con inue pu suing hei goals.
In ano he in e iew, Ra ael (San omean) exp essed ha he Po uguese go e nmen e ec i ely
opened i s bo de s o o eigne s. Howe e , he hopes ha he go e nmen s o he hos coun ies
will welcome and emb ace he incoming mig an s and, i possible, employ hem o con ibu e
posi i ely o socie y. In his wo ds:
136
Fi s , we mus emembe ha hose lea ing hei coun ies o ano he a e also human
beings. Acknowledging his, go e nmen s, h ough a ious bodies like he CPLP (Communi y
o Po uguese Language Coun ies), should emb ace hese indi iduals and acili a e hei
legalisa ion. This will p o ide hem wi h a sense o belonging and may mo i a e hem o
epay hei loyal y and suppo he g ow h o he coun y’s economy. I canno say e e y hing
he e, such as ... I is no solely abou Po ugal, bu also conce ns go e nmen s wo ldwide
because any na ion, I belie e, can hos mig an s acco ding o i s capaci y.
Luís (Angolan) also ema ked:
I is necessa y ha go e nmen s, a he local le el, eanalyse he causes o mig a ion. The
phenomenon occu ing in any socie y o egion p o okes people o lea e. Mo eo e , hese
issues some imes need o be iden i ied and add essed, leading many indi iduals o seek
be e li ing condi ions o ealise hei d eams elsewhe e. This should be a signi ican
conce n o local au ho i ies. Consequen ly, he go e nmen mus explo e es ablishing a
leas he minimum condi ions o enable hese indi iduals o ealise hei d eams locally and
emain in hei home coun ies. Fo ins ance, i he Angolan go e nmen had been mo e
a en i e o imp o ing ou educa ional sys em and collabo a ed wi h o eign o local
ins i u ions o o e a e cou ses, such as language sciences a he doc o al le el in my
ins i u ion, pe haps I would no ha e had a eason o lea e. I would no ha e come he e a
any momen . I would ne e ha e conside ed applying o a schola ship in o he coun ies o
s udying ab oad. I was due o my coun y lacking such a angemen s; o he wise, you may
no ha e known me, and I would no be he e discussing his ma e wi h you i he
go e nmen s had implemen ed hese condi ions locally. Al hough i may no elimina e
mig a ion, i can app eciably educe he mig a ion low in many coun ies wo ldwide. I is
achie able. Howe e , de e mina ion mus be p esen . They possess esou ces, e enues,
and a budge , as ci izens pay axes and insu ance in e e y coun y and pa ake in businesses
ha con ibu e o he go e nmen easu y. Thus, i is no an impossibili y. They should ac
posi i ely, ensu ing no ha m comes o he ci izens.