Re is a de Lingüís ica y Lenguas Aplicadas
Vol. 12 año 2017, 1-12
EISSN 1886-6298
h ps://doi.o g/10.4995/ lyla.2017.7074
EVIDENTIALS IN ADVERTISING: A SAMPLE STUDY
Lau a C uz Ga cía
Uni e sidad de Las Palmas de G an Cana ia
Abs ac : This pape explo es he use o e iden ial de ices in p ess ad e s in English in a compila ion o o iginal ad e isemen s.
Due o he appella i e na u e o ad e ising discou se, I hink ha hese ex s a e likely o con ey sou ce o knowledge h ough
e iden ials as an ad e ising s a egy in o de o p agma ically mani es a highe le el o c edibili y and eliabili y o he in o ma ion
p esen ed conce ning he p oduc s and he b ands. The selec ed co pus o ad e s will allow us o ocus special a en ion on
his pa icula gen e and on how e iden ials a e used, in he ashion o o he wo ks ca ied ou in o he ex ual gen es (c . Fox,
2001; Kaplan, 2007; Ma ín-A ese, 2004, 2007; O ega-Ba e a and To es-Ramí ez, 2010). E iden ials a e s udied as pa o a
se o pe suasion s a egies used by di e en linguis ic communi ies in he discou se o ad e ising (Block de Beha , 1992; Cook,
1992; Co és de los Ríos, 2001; Pa i , 2000; Rein, 1982). Conclusions will epo on how e iden ials a e used in p in ad e s,
and whe he a ype o e iden ial de ice p e ails o e he es .
Keywo ds: e iden iali y, e iden ial de ices, epis emic modali y, ad e ising, ad e isemen , pe suasion.
1. INTRODUCTION
This pape seeks o s udy e iden ials (c . Cha e, 1986:48 ) –i.e. he seman ic domain ela ed o he exp ession
o he in o ma ion sou ce in a speech ac – in p ess ad e s in English. To his end, a compila ion o o iginal p in
ad e s will allow us o de ec cases o e iden ial de ices. Due o he appella i e na u e o ad e ising discou se,
hese ex s a e expec ed o con ey sou ce o knowledge h ough e iden ials as an ad e ising s a egy in o de
o p agma ically mani es a highe le el o c edibili y and eliabili y o he in o ma ion p esen ed conce ning he
p oduc s and he b ands. As O’Shaugnessy and O’Shaugnessy (2004:8) pu i , he success o ad e ising “ ela es
o sou ce isibili y, c edibili y and a ac i eness”. Acco ding o hese au ho s, c edibili y has o do wi h p ojec ed
expe ise and us wo hiness. We shall see how he concep s o c edibili y and sou ce eliabili y ela e o he
concep o e iden iali y in due cou se in Sec ion 3 wi h speci ic e e ence o ad e ising.
The selec ed co pus o ad e s will allow special ocus on his pa icula gen e and on how e iden ials a e used,
in he ashion o o he wo ks ca ied ou in o he ex ual gen es (c . Fox, 2001; Kaplan, 2007; Ma ín-A ese, 2004,
2007; O ega-Ba e a and To es-Ramí ez, 2010). E iden ials a e s udied as pa o a se o pe suasion s a egies
used by di e en linguis ic communi ies in he discou se o ad e ising (Block de Beha , 1992; Cook, 1992; Co és
de los Ríos, 2001; Pa i , 2000; Rein, 1982). Speci ic s udies conce ning ad e s and e iden ials include Bedna ek
(2014), and Fue es-Oli e a e al. (2001). The la e ep esen s he ea lies in which e iden ials in ad e ising a e
exclusi ely ouched upon.
This pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2 p esen s a desc ip ion o he no ion o e iden iali y, and he way in
which I unde s and i wi hin cu en app oaches. Sec ion 3 desc ibes he way in which ad e ising and e iden iali y
may be ela ed. Sec ion 4 includes he ca ego iza ion and desc ip ion o e iden ial de ices in he selec ed co pus
o p in ad e s. Sec ion 5 o e s he conclusions d awn om he p esen s udy.
To ci e his a icle: C uz Ga cía, L. (2017). “E iden ials in ad e ising: a sample s udy”. Re is a de Lingüís ica y Lenguas Aplicadas, 12, 1-12.
h ps://doi.o g/10.4995/ lyla.2017.7074
| 1
Recei ed: 2016/12/03 Accep ed: 2017/02/16
Lau a C uz Ga cía
E iden ials in ad e ising: a sample s udy
2. EVIDENTIALITY
E iden iali y is de ined as he coding o he au ho ’s sou ce o mode o knowledge. I is commonly accep ed
ha in e ac an s end o app aise sou ce o knowledge in e ms o u h, and his leads speake s o u he e alua e
he p oposi ion amed by he e iden ial om high o low deg ees o au ho ial commi men . This iew o e iden iali y
emains wi hin he scope o epis emic modali y a leas om a unc ional pe spec i e. Epis emic modali y e e s o
“ he e alua ion o chances ha a ce ain hypo he ical s a e o a ai s unde conside a ion (o some aspec o i ) will
occu , is occu ing o has occu ed in a possible wo ld” (Nuy s, 2001:21). As poin ed ou , he appa en connec ion
be ween he e alua ion o he p oposi ional u h and he ype o e idence a hand (S ukke e al., 2009) may
p o oke he same e ec s as epis emic de ices can. The na u e o he e iden ial sou ce, namely i s hand ( isual
and o he senso y means), hea say in o ma ion, and in e ence (Wille , 1988), may be pe cei ed as an indica o
o he eliabili y o he p oposi ion gi en. In his con ex , i is no di icul o see he s ong ies ha exis be ween
e iden iali y and epis emic modali y.
Th ee dis inc app oaches esul om his ela ionship be ween e iden iali y and epis emic modali y, namely
(a) inclusion, (b) in e sec ion, and (c) disjunc ion. The inclusi e ypes conside e iden iali y as a subdomain
o epis emic modali y; one in which deg ees o u h and commi men a e e alua ed in e ms o he sou ce o
in o ma ion p esen ed. Howe e , i seems ob ious ha he e a e ce ain di e ences when we say
(1) I hink his is he cheapes ligh o Moscow.
(2) This may be he cheapes ligh o Moscow.
The use o he epis emic modal may in (2) clea ly indica es ha he e is he possibili y o inding a cheape ligh
han he one in mind. I seems ha , in his ins ance, he speake wan s o con ey he idea ha he e migh be mo e
op ions hey canno an icipa e a he ime o speaking. None heless, he use o I hink in (1) does no appea o
indica e his same indexical unc ion. The ma ix I hink sugges s he au ho ’s conclusions conce ning he a ailable
op ions and he in o ma ion he/she has access o, wi hou conside ing possible u u e possibili ies, e en i hese
may also con adic his p e ious assump ion.
Ano he app oach o e iden iali y in ela ion o epis emic modali y is in e sec ion. In e sec ion desc ibes
e iden iali y as a ca ego y s ongly ela ed o epis emic modali y wi hou me ging in o a single ca ego y. This
me hod ies o econcile he wo concep s, al hough i ails o desc ibe why all e iden ials can ha e an epis emic
meaning while all epis emic modals canno ha e an e iden ial meaning. In addi ion, his me hod does no explain
su icien ly he eason why he wo concep s do no me ge i bo h a e in e p e ed unde he same seman ic
dimension o u h. Going back o examples (1) and (2), an in e sec i e app oach would iden i y di e ing deg ees
o au ho ial commi men in he use o I hink and may, and bo h can be di e en ly alloca ed somewhe e in he
con inuum be ween low commi men and high commi men , as shown in Ca e e o (2004).
Van de Auwe a and Plungian (1998) iden i y epis emic necessi y as one case o unc ional o e lapping, as
in The ligh is on. She mus be in, whe e mus con eys he idea o bo h likelihood and in e en ial easoning. We
could wonde , none heless, whe he he in en ion o he w i e is o indica e some deg ee o likelihood by using
his modal. Wha emains clea is ha he e iden ial unc ion o mus esul s as a conclusion om he speake ’s
own assump ions and knowledge o he wo ld. In his sense, he e iden ia y unc ion in he use o mus is mo e
impo an han he alleged epis emic meaning. In o he wo ds, i s he speake wan s o say I conclude she is in
gi en he ac ha he ligh is on wi hou eally con eying indecision o doub , and second, ha he chances ha
he ligh s could ha e been swi ched on by someone else is highly hypo he ical o e en unaccep able. A simila
case is he use o may employed o show e iden ia y in e en iali y in medical academic pape s, as desc ibed in
Alonso-Almeida and C uz-Ga cía (2011). The use o may in his con ex is bo h o gi e a conclusion om in e ences
and o lea e a doo open o accommoda e academic epu a ion and u u e c i icism.
Disjunc ion conside s e iden iali y and epis emic modali y as wo dis inc concep s, and so e iden iali y does
no en ail u h o he p oposi ional con en . Co nillie and Delbecque (2008) s a e ha he use o e iden ials shows
he in ol emen by, a he han he commi men o , he au ho , in he cons uc ion o in o ma ion. This means ha
he p ima y unc ion o e iden ials is o make mani es he ole o he speake as a concep ualize (Co nillie and
Delbecque, 2008).
F om a cogni i e pe spec i e, Co nillie and Delbecque’s app oach en i ely u nishes he ca ego y o e iden iali y
wi h a desc ip i e po en ial on i s own wi hou in ol ing he in e e ence o o he ca ego ies. In his same line o
hough , I a gue ha , while he use o epis emic may in She may s ay o a good while has a scope o e he
p oposi ion wi h a mi iga ing e ec , he ma ix I hink in I hink he esul is co ec does no beha e in he same
way. To suppo his iew, I would add ha may can be sa ely eplaced by p obably o mean likelihood, bu his
subs i u ion is no possible in he case o I hink wi hou a ec ing he comple e meaning o he sen ence in which
his ma ix is gi en.
| 2 RLyLA Vol. 12 (2017), 1-12
Lau a C uz Ga cía
E iden ials in ad e ising: a sample s udy
3. ADVERTISING, INFORMATION SOURCE AND PERSUASION
Ad e ising messages, based on social and cul u al alues, aim o pe suade he add essee o ac in a pa icula
way (De Mooij, 2009), and o do so hey appeal o he consume s’ emo ions and hopes: com o , good heal h and
physical appea ance, secu i y, p es ige, pleasu e, ad en u e, sensuali y, e c. Howe e , i is di icul o de e mine
wha esou ces ( e bal and non- e bal) help achie e he in ended pu pose in he making o he ad e , and much
consume esea ch is needed o his end. Fo example, al hough wo dplay is e y equen ly used in ad e ising
discou se, c i ics ha e ques ioned i s bene i o pe suasion since hey conside i oo indi ec in i s app oach
(McQua ie and Mick, 1992).
As o pe suasion s a egies, ad e ising uses a a ie y o linguis ic echniques a ge ed a a speci ic ype o
audience: weasel claims, un inished claims, claims s a ing ha a b and is di e en and unique, au ological claims,
ague claims, es imonials, s a is ical claims and he o ical ques ions, among o he s.
F om a syn ac ic pe spec i e, he language o ad e ising exhibi s simple, sho sen ences. Subo dina ion
is limi ed o he use o condi ional, compa a i e and esul clauses. Impe a i e sen ences a e commonly used,
oge he wi h in e oga i es, o es ablish a di ec link wi h he add essee, while exclama ions seem o sugges
pe sonal, ace- o- ace communica ion. F om a lexical and seman ic s andpoin , neologisms, hype bole, ambigui y,
euphemisms, wo dplay, among o he s, a e ai ly egula . Lexical ela ions ha e been shown o ein o ce good
and posi i e li e alues. In his espec , Kannan and Tyagi (2013) highligh his posi i e use o language de ices,
including bo h lexical and o he linguis ic s a egies, as in he ins ance I ge s clo hes whi e , in an ad e isemen
o a de e gen . This u e ance would ine i ably lead he lis ene o wonde Bu whi e han wha ?, which is an
inclusi e echnique in he sense ha he audience becomes somehow pa o he ad e .
F om he poin o iew o non- e bal elemen s, images a e used as s ong and e ec i e pe suasion de ices.
As Messa is (1997) poin s ou , he ole o images in ad e ising is wo old: d awing a en ion o he ad and e oking
emo ions on behal o he p oduc ad e ised. Thus, ad e s eso o appealing images such as people smiling,
luxu ious ca s and houses, and beau i ul landscapes ep esen ing he li es yles d eam o by he audience. The
use o he abo e-men ioned es imonials (whe e a celeb i y, an expe o a sa is ied use explains how o he s can
bene i om he p oduc o se ice ad e ised) migh a ec bo h he w i en ex and he image employed in an
ad e . Apa om ge ing a en ion and aising awa eness, celeb i ies, in pa icula , add c edibili y o he b and
image (E dogan and Bake , 1999), which implies ad e ising belie abili y1. Thus, pho og aphs o celeb i ies play
an impo an ole in ad e s and will coun owa ds he in e p e a ion o e iden ials om a u h- alue pe spec i e.
This in e p e a ion, we shall see, is somehow used as os ensi e s imuli (Spe be and Wilson, 1986) o o ce u h-
alue in e p e a ions o he e iden ials.
The language o ad e ising has equen ly been he objec o much esea ch (Adams, 2010; Block de Beha ,
1992; Cook, 1992; Dye , 2003; Fe az Ma ínez, 1993; López Ei e, 1998). Howe e , o my knowledge, he unc ion
o e iden iali y exclusi ely in ad e ising has been unde conside a ion only in Fue es-Oli e a e al. (2001) and
Bedna ek (2014). The de ini ion o e iden iali y by Fue es-Oli e a e al., ollows Hyland (1998), and i se es a
me a ex ual unc ion in discou se:
E iden ials indica e a sou ce o ex ual in o ma ion which o igina es ou side he cu en ex . They es ablish
in e ex uali y, hus helping copyw i e s o pe suade consume s by associa ing hei messages o o he cul u al
a i ac s. Since his in e ela ionship is no wo ded, copyw i e s mus eso o e y well-known ex s. (Fue es-Oli e a
e al., 2001:1303)
This de ini ion o e iden ials is in line wi h mine in he sense ha i indica es sou ce o in o ma ion. The au ho s
include an in e ex ual unc ion o e iden ials in he discou se o ad e ising. Ne e heless, none o hei ins ances
seems o be e iden ial, and in e ex uali y canno be sa ely demons a ed. In u h, I hink ha his me a ex ual
eading is o ced o comply wi h Hyland’s (1998) desc ip ion o e iden ials in academic discou se, which is in much
mo e ex ually in ica e gen es han ads. The ollowing examples om Fue es-Oli e a e al. (2001) a e illus a i e:
(3) Feels like a c eam/ Vanishes like a lo ion/ Wo ks/ Like a d eam (Do e Deodo an ).
(4) Roge and Ka e couldn’ a o d expensi e school ees. So hey pu o ha ing child en and a elled he
wo ld ins ead (Na wes ).
(5) How o make up o ge ing home la e han him (Classic ood o ca s).
(6) The one and only Wonde b a (Wonde b a).
(7) To Li / his spi i (Aubade linge ie).
1 This is a common belie al hough discussion on he impac o celeb i y endo semen s can be also seen in Modi (2007).
| 3 RLyLA Vol. 12 (2017), 1-12
Lau a C uz Ga cía
E iden ials in ad e ising: a sample s udy
My no ion o e iden iali y canno accoun o any o he examples abo e. The so o sou ce o in o ma ion
Fue es-Oli e a e al. (2001) mean e e s o an abs ac sou ce o knowledge (a) ha canno always be iden i ied,
and (b) in which a ibu ion canno be acknowledged. In he examples abo e, e en i we conside e iden ia y
in o ma ion o a pe cep ion ype in (3) and (7), he o he examples canno be nea ly ca ego ized as e iden ials
a leas om my wo king de ini ion o e iden iali y. In (6), o ins ance, a he han in e ex uali y he one and only
Wonde b a es ablishes a compa ison wi h o he simila b as in he ma ke . I could be a gued ha i e e s o
sha ed knowledge o comme cial akes in ela ion o his ype o b a, bu he idea o compa ison would p e ail,
a he han e iden ia y in e ex uali y. In his con ex , i is no possible o sa ely accommoda e he unc ion o
in e ex uali y wi hin he p esen amewo k o analysis, a leas in he way con eyed in hei analyses. Thei
e alua ion o e iden ials in ad e ising seems o obey a di e en app ecia ion o he e m, one in which sou ce o
knowledge can be co e ly mani es ed in almos any ac ion desc ibing a change in he cu en s a e o a ai s (e.g.
(4)), he objec o change (6), o a change in beha io (7). All hese changes clea ly aim o indica e he bene i s o
he p oduc .
In gene al, he analysis in Fue es-Oli e a e al. (2001) is no he ype o analysis in ended in he p esen s udy.
Thei examples do no e en ep esen he ype o esou ces desc ibed he e. I migh sha e some o he conclusions
conce ning he use o e iden ials wi h hem in e ms o hei pe suasi e unc ion bu ha is he only poin I migh
ha e in common along wi h he co e meaning o e iden ials as indica o s o sou ce o knowledge.
In my iew o e iden iali y, i s unc ion is o indica e he way meaning has been cons uc ed wi hou any
e e ence o ex e nal alues and in e p e a ions. Should we conside ex e nally mo i a ed e ec s o e iden iali y,
I hypo hesize ha e iden ials appea in ad e s o implica e di e en deg ees o eliabili y om a p agma ic
s andpoin . In his con ex , e iden ials s and as an excellen way o in ol e illuso y mani es a ions o eliabili y and
speake ’s commi men by pu pose ully o cing pa icula eadings o hese e iden ials.
In wha ollows, I p esen an analysis o samples exce p ed om a co pus o English ad e s ga he ed o he
occasion. I will ollow a disjunc i e ype o analysis, and so I will ca ego ize e iden ials as a sepa a e ca ego y e en
when hei communica i e po en ial in ads es s on ce ain con ex ual implica ions.
4. THE CORPUS AND METHOD
Fo he p esen pape , 442 ads ha e been analyzed om 19 B i ish and Ame ican magazines published be ween
May 2012 and Feb ua y 2013. Magazines include hese well-known i les: A chi ec u al Diges (25 ads), BBC
His o y (3 ads), Bon appé i (27 ads), B i ain (9 ads), Business T a elle (17 ads), Cosmopoli an (39 ads), Coun y
Li ing (34 ads), Do i You sel (9 ads), Elle (51 ads), Hello! (9 ads), House Beau i ul (17 ads), Men’s Fi ness (39 ads),
Mili a y His o y (17 ads), Na ional Geog aphic T a ele , 2 issues, (29 ads), OK! (20 ads), Simply C oche (6 ads),
S e eophile (67 ads), and Yach s and Yach ing (24 ads). As seen om hese i les, he opics, in e es s and a ge ed
audience o he magazines a e ce ainly dissimila , which gua an ees a good sample o di e en ad e s o jus i y
he analysis. Classi ied ads and hose ad e s appea ing in block o ma a he end o he publica ion ha e been
excluded since hey do no sha e he same se o linguis ic and pe suasi e ea u es wi h ad e s aided by he isual
suppo o pho og aphs, g aphs, d awings, and simila de ices.
A chi ec u al Diges (Condé Nas Publica ions) is an Ame ican mon hly magazine de o ed o in e io design
and aimed a a weal hy and s yle-conscious audience. BBC His o y (Immedia e Media Company) is a B i ish
mon hly publica ion owned by BBC Wo ldwide and de o ed o his o y a icles on bo h B i ish and wo ld his o y.
I is aimed a a eade ship o all le els o knowledge and in e es . Bon appé i (Condé Nas Publica ions) is a
mon hly Ame ican ood magazine aimed a people wi h a as e o cooking and ea ing. B i ain (Chelsea Magazine
Company) is a B i ish magazine published 6 imes a yea which includes a icles on he s o y o he B i ish Isles and
ea u es wi h ideas o whe e o go and wha o see he e. Business T a elle UK (Panacea Publishing) is published
en imes a yea and con ains he la es news abou ho els, ai lines and ai po s, echnology and des ina ions,
aimed a equen business a ele s. Cosmopoli an (Hea s Magazines) is an in e na ional mon hly magazine
including a icles on women’s issues, ashion, celeb i ies, sex and heal h, among o he s. Do I You sel (Me edi h
Co po a ion) is an Ame ican magazine published ou imes a yea , mainly aimed a women, ha p esen s s ylish
and a o dable ideas o home deco a ing, emodeling, and ga dening. Coun y Li ing UK (Hea s Magazines) is a
mon hly magazine de o ed o deco a ion, ood, heal h, na u e and u al a ai s and is aimed a a weal hy audience.
Elle (Hea s Magazines) is a women’s mon hly wo ldwide magazine ocused on ashion, en e ainmen and beau y.
Hello! (Hello L d.) is ano he women’s magazine, published weeklyand specializing in celeb i y news and human-
in e es s o ies, including beau y, ashion, a elling and heal h sec ions.House Beau i ul (Hea s Magazines) is
published en imes a yea and is de o ed o in e io deco a ion and domes ic a s. Men’s Fi ness (UK and I eland)
(Dennis Publishing) is a mon hly men’s magazine de o ed o heal h and i ness ( aining, nu i ion, spo s) ha
a ge s men o all ages. Mili a y His o y (Cu en Publishing) is a B i ish mon hly magazine de o ed o all aspec s o
mili a y his o y om ancien imes o cu en ime. Na ional Geog aphic T a ele (Absolu e Publishing) is a mon hly
| 4 RLyLA Vol. 12 (2017), 1-12
Lau a C uz Ga cía
E iden ials in ad e ising: a sample s udy
magazine ha o e s s o y elling om a el w i e s abou any pa o he wo ld, i s cul u es and people. OK!
(No he n and Shell) is a B i ish weekly magazine specialized in celeb i y news. Simply C oche (Fu u e Publishing)
is a B i ish mon hly magazine, mainly aimed a women, ea u ing c oche pa e ns and inspi a ions, oge he wi h
ins uc ions and ad ice. S e eophile (Sou ce In e link Media) is an Ame ican mon hly magazine ha ocuses on
audio equipmen , such as loudspeake s and ampli ie s, and audio- ela ed news. Yach s and Yach ing (The Chelsea
Magazine Company) is a B i ish mon hly magazine p esen ing expe ad ice abou sailing echniques and news
abou sailing and compe i i e ace s.
The co pus was analyzed manually, hence i s manageable size, because semio ic and o he p agma ic a iables
canno be sa ely egis e ed using so wa e co pus ools. No only in e p e a ion bu also ca ego iza ion o de ices
equi es ca e ul inspec ion o he con ex s in which e iden ials appea . This is he case o he semio ic componen
o ad e s, which has p o ed essen ial in he p agma ic in e p e a ion o e iden ial de ices in ad e ising, as I will
hope ully show in u u e esea ch.
5. EVIDENTIALITY IN ADVERTISING: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
I ha e collec ed 173 examples o e iden ial de ices ou o he 442 p in ad e s in he co pus. The opics
o hese ad e s a e a ied, including cosme ic p oduc s, ood, u ni u e, bank solu ions, compu e s, bags, and
ligh icke s, o men ion some o hem. Fo his esea ch, I had no in en ion o ca ego izing ex s acco ding o he
egis e a iable o opic and a ge ed audience in o de o a oid any kind o ini ial in ui ion, as his is one o he
i s app oxima ions o he s udy o e iden iali y in he gen e. The ocus was on he de ec ion and examina ion o
e iden ials in hese ex s, as well as hei linguis ic na u e, o see whe he he de ice is indeed a p oduc i e way
o communica e pe suasion.
In my analysis, I ha e g ouped indings acco ding o hei o mal ea u es in o (a) ma ices, (b) modals and
(c) lexical i ems. E iden ial ma ices e e o hose de ices which show ei he epo (X said / claimed / old us
ha p[ oposi ion]), expe ience (X has seen ha p), o knowledge, e en i i is he esul o an in e en ial p ocess
(Xknows ha p, X concludes ha p). As poin ed ou in Sec ion 2 abo e, modal e bs may indica e sou ce o mode
o knowledge, as in X mus p, whe e mus indica es e iden ia y in e en iali y, as in Pick up he phone! Tha mus be
Sa a. The las g oup, i.e. lexical i ems, includes ad e bials and o he exp essions ha show sou ce o in o ma ion.
In he case o e iden ial ad e bs, hese may in ol e i ems, such as e iden ly, clea ly, and ob iously, among o he s.
The dis ibu ion o he 173 e iden ial de ices iden i ied in his co pus a e shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Dis ibu ion o e iden ials pe magazine ( aw igu es)
Magazines Samples
A chi ec u al Diges 6
BBC His o y 1
Bon Appé i 6
B i ain 1
Business T a elle 3
Cosmopoli an 11
Coun y Li ing 20
Do i You sel 2
Elle 7
Hello! 6
House Beau i ul 4
Men’s Fi ness 6
Mili a y His o y 1
Na ional Geog aphic T a ele 7
OK! 6
S e ophile 83
Yach s and Yach ing 3
Table 1 e inces ha S e eophile p esen s he la ges numbe o ad e s wi h e iden ials in he co pus, ollowed
by Coun y Li ing, Cosmopoli an and o he li es yle magazines. Magazines on a els do no con ain many ad e s
wi h e iden ials, and magazines o a specialized communi y o e e y ew cases o ad e s including e iden ial
de ices. These p elimina y esul s would allow us o en a i ely e alua e he unc ion o e iden ials and o es he
hypo hesis conce ning au ho ial eliance on he p agma ic e ec s a he han on he seman ic side o e iden iali y.
The o ms o he e iden ial de ices ound in he co pus a e isually gi en in Figu e 1.
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Figu e 1. E iden ial de ices in co pus (occu ences).
As can be deduced om Figu e 1, quo a ions, such as
(8) “Wha ’s all he uss abou BB c eams? I’ e had ha box icked o yea s wi h o al e ec s” (Cosmopoli an,
Feb ua y 2013:24),
a e coun ed sepa a ely, al hough hey ac ually belong o he g oup o e iden ial ma ices, since hey epo on
p e ious expe iences and p esen he syn ac ic s uc u e o a main clause. The e iden ial ma ix would p esen a
epo a i e e b o he ell- ype (Dixon, 2005). This g ouping shows a clea pic u e o he o ms e iden ial de ices
ake in he p esen co pus. Mo eo e , I ha e gi en he esul s o ma ices and omi ed ma ices sepa a ely, since
hese ma ices a e only con ex ually implica ed and hey a e no in oducing quo ed ma e ial ei he . Bo h ypes
will be discussed unde he same heading in Sec ion 5.2, below. This g aph also shows ha ma ices exceed he
numbe o lexical and modal de ices gi en in he ex s.
My desc ip ion o e iden ial cons uc ions will be pe o med by o de o equency: quo a ions, ma ices and
omi ed ma ices, lexical exp essions, and modal e bs.
5.1. Quo a ions
Quo ed ma e ial is he mos ecu en means o show e idence. The au ho s o he ad e s elabo a e meaning
by using exac wo ding om in o ma ion sou ce making clea hei in ol emen in he cons ual o in o ma ion, as
exempli ied in he ollowing examples:
(9) “De ea he hea .” Che yl (Elle, Feb ua y 2013:162).
(10) “I ha e been aking Wellman o many yea s now and I jus don’ eel he same when I’m no using i .
Anyone compe ing o li ing a heal hy li es yle needs Wellman in hei li e. I’m a champion and I ecommend
i .” Ashley Theophane (Men’s Fi ness, Decembe 2012:82).
(11) “...Sleepe is he golden chain ha ies heal h and ou bodies oge he .” Thomas Dekke (1609)
“P ope die , exe cise and ue sleep, a e he iad o a heal hy li e. Sleep is he ounda ion o he iad,
o a be e li e and is he Wo ld’s wonde d ug ha people o ge o ake e e y nigh .” D Neil S anley,
Wo ld’s leading sleep expe .
“In li e I belie e he e a e ce ain hings ha a e essen ial in es men s. The Vi-Sp ing ma ess o me
is one o hose. The sleep expe ience is simply li e changing” Ma yn Law ence-Bulla d, mul i awa d
winning, op 100 Designe . (A chi ec u al Diges , Feb ua y 2013:162).
In all hese ins ances, he use o es imonials calls o a e y low in ol emen o he ad e designe s in he
cons ual o in o ma ion. The p agma ic e ec s o es imonials e e o he usabili y and he e aci y o he p oduc
as desc ibed by use s. These use s migh also encou age o he s o bene i om he e ec i eness o he p oduc ,
as in he case o all he examples abo e. In (9), he eade is compelled o use L’O èal’s Elne ’s Sa in, which is
a s yling sp ay o p o ec he hai om hea , izz and humidi y, as explained in he ad e . The use o he ba e
command de ea ( he hea ) ep esen s a command gi en in he o m o an ex e nal opinion. In a way, he eade
does no expe ience his command as agg essi e language because hese wo ds come om a use , Che yl, who
is also a celeb i y. She appea s in he ad e showing beau i ul hai . Ano he case o celeb i y endo semen is gi en
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in (10). This ime he quo ed ma e ial desc ibes he success ul li e o Ashley Theophane, a Wo ld Champion boxe ,
hanks o he Wellman p o ein supplemen s. The in e p e a ion o his e iden ial in e ms o u h indica es ha
he bene i s p omised in he desc ip ion o he p oduc a e genuine: “Wellman is an ad anced ange o nu i ional
p oduc s... I has helped op a hle es... S ay ahead o he game and, whe he compe ing o no , i could do he
same o you” (Men’s Fi ness, Decembe 2012:82).
The example in (11) co esponds o an ad e o a ma ess and p esen s a es imonial and opinions om wo
expe s. The in en ion o he ad e is o pe suade h ough he ideas o expe ience and quali y so ha he eade
migh eel his b and, i.e. Vi-Sp ing, is he igh op ion o hem. Semio ically his in e p e a ion o e iden ials is
gea ed by he use o se e al pic u es con aining images om p oduc ion o ac ual use o he ma ess. These
images po ay he delica e manu ac u e o he p oduc ollowing adi ional echniques, and he esul is shown
in he las pic u e o a gi l sleeping com o ably. In his line, he i s es imonial is aken om Thomas Dekke , an
English w i e and playw igh , 1572-1632. The quo a ion has become highly idioma ic, and so e e ence o sou ce
is omi ed in he ad e . I is exce p ed om Dekke ’s The Guls Ho ne-Booke and he passage in which i appea s
deals wi h he bene i s o sleeping, which is pai ed wi h he godly amb osia: “Fo sleepe is ha golden chaine ha
ies heal h and ou bodies oge he ... Begge s in hei beds ake as much pleasu e as Kings: can we he e o e
su e on his delica e Amb osia?” (Dekke , 1609:10). The es imonial con ibu es o he eeling o adi ion pu sued
in his ad e , and he u h o he in o ma ion p esen ed is backed wi h knowledge as ea lie as he se en een h
cen u y. The opinion o a mode n expe , D . S anley, ollows Dekke ’s wo ds, and his ecommenda ions a e also
based on he adi ional Sale ni an p ecep s o good die , exe cise and sleep o s ay heal hy. The las quo a ion
in (11) e e s o he es imonial o a use a he han o he opinion o an expe . The use es i ies ha sleeping
on Vi-Sp ing ma ess has ce ainly changed his li e. His es imonial ep esen s he alidi y o he expe s in ha
sleeping is essen ial o good li ing, and his has an e ec on success in li e. In ac , he Vi-Sp ing ma ess is
p esen ed as an in es men . In sho , i is in e es ing o no e ha hese quo es in (11) show he copyw i e ’s
cons uc ion o meaning. In his case, hey ha e de eloped a gumen a ion om gene al belie , as ep esen ed in
Dekke ’s amous wo ds, o an expe opinion, which is also based on e y old medical p ecep s, o he s and o a
mode n and success ul use . This combina ion o quo ed sou ces and he use o pic u es, including a ull pic u e
o a magni icen bed su ounded by na u e, leads eade s o in e p e he ad e in e ms o he eliabili y o he
in o ma ion p esen ed. Unsu p isingly, he pic u es o a handmade ma ess show a ma u e man, while he las
pic u e shows a young and sa is ied use secu ed benea h he blanke s. These pic u es a e isual os ensi e s imuli,
and hey moni o he in e p e a ion o he quo ed ma e ial since hey maximize ele an selec ion o con ex ual
p emises in he eade s’ in e p e a i e p ocess leading o he in e p e a ion o messages in u h-condi ional e ms.
5.2. Ma ices and omi ed ma ices
Ma ices a e he second mos equen ly used e iden ial esou ces in he ex s. They ha e been g ouped
acco ding o a seman ic classi ica ion. This classi ica ion conside s cogni i e, expe ien ial and communica i e
ma ices (Ma ín-A ese, 2009) acco ding o he seman ic classi ica ion o hei main e bs. Cogni i e e iden ial
ma ices include e bs o he know- ype, while expe ien ial de ices in ol e he use o senso y and pe cep ion e bs
and, in gene al, e e o in o ma ion which may be app ehended by obse a ion. Figu e 2 shows he occu ences
o hese ma ices.
Figu e 2. Seman ic classi ica ion o ma ices in co pus in o cogni i e, expe ien ial and communica i e.
The g aph in Figu e 2 e inces ha ma ices in ol ing cogni i e e bs a e p e e ed in he co pus o indica e
bo h he way meaning has been elabo a ed and aspec s ela ed o some kind o app op ia ion o knowledge. One
ep esen a i e example is he ollowing:
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(12) Did you know ha 88% o women belie e na u al beau y is abou making he mos o wha you’ e go ?
(Cosmopoli an, Feb ua y 2013:144).
In example (12) he e iden ial combines wi h o he common ad e ising s a egies: (a) di ec add ess o he
eade and (b) he use o he o ical ques ions. The eade s a e boldly appealed o h ough he use o he second
pe son singula you. By doing his, he eade ine i ably becomes pa o he message, and his sho ens he
in e pe sonal dis ance be ween he add esse and he add essee. The unc ion o he he o ical ques ion pu sues
he simila unc ion o in ol ing he eade . The add esse seeks ac i e pa icipa ion h ough he o mula ion o
hese ques ions conce ning he add essee’s ac ual knowledge o s a e o a ai s. Ano he in e es ing simila case
is gi en in (13):
(13) Who says beau y is only skin deep? A Magne we belie e a ki chen should ha e a combina ion o bo h
s yle and subs ance (Coun y Li ing, Feb ua y 2012:51).
This example is aken om an ad e isemen o new ki chen d awe s and ma e ials. The page layou gi es
he ex Who says beau y is only skin deep? o e ed in he la ges on size in he middle below he pic u e, which
occupies hal he page showing an elegan , mode n and a ac i e woman in he ki chen. She appea s s anding
in he o eg ound o he pic u e, hands ucked behind he , legs c ossed, looking absolu ely sa is ied wi h li e. The
pe ec o de o gadge s in he ki chen and he use o whi e and yellow colou s ein o ce his idea o happiness and
emo ional s abili y. Behind he ex , he e a e h ee pic u es showing de ails o he ki chen ha help o make li e
a li le easie . A e his, he e is ex in a e y small size. The b and name and he slogan a e gi en in he bo om
igh hand co ne .
The o mula ion o he he o ical ques ion does no con ain he second pe son singula you because he
subjec o he e iden ial communica i e ma ix is delibe a ely le unspeci ied wi h he p onoun who. In his line,
he add esse is showing ha he/she has cons ued hei in o ma ion basing hei unde s anding on knowledge
ha canno appa en ly be a ibu ed. Howe e , he comple e mise-en-page and he isual echnicali ies s and as a
so o s imuli in oking he eade o wonde no only who says beau y is only skin deep, bu also who he woman
in he pho og aph is. In he ashion o scholas ic didac ic dialogues, he eade s a e compelled o ead he ex in
he smalles size in he ad e i hey wan o ind ou he answe . This combina ion o on sizes is no i ial, since
he answe is e ealed as a so o sec e be ween he add esse and he add essee. The answe con ains ano he
e iden ial cogni i e ma ix, A Magne we belie e, showing he high in ol emen o he speake s in he in o ma ion
gi en. Au ho i y is also p esen in he use o deon ic should in he subo dina e clause and his modal e b poin s
o he idea o necessi y, which is p ecisely he main mo o o ad e ising: we ha e wha you need. In his con ex ,
a u h- alue analysis o who says... and A Magne we belie e conce ns aspec s o eliabili y and commi men .
This s a egic use o hese wo aspec s allows he add esse o achie e his/he pe suasi e goal. In o he wo ds,
he s a egic combina ion o he communica i e e iden ial and he cogni i e e iden ial makes he eade eel sa e
because he/she can us he ad.
In (14) below, he subjec i ize we is also used in he cogni i e ma ix we know:
(14) And we know you will lo e he sound quali y (S e ophile, Feb ua y 2013:86).
He e, he use o we in combina ion wi h he cogni i e e b know makes mani es he high in ol emen o he
add esse s in he cons uc ion o in o ma ion gi en in he subo dina e clause ollowing he e iden ial de ice. The
use o you in his clause seeks a educ ion o in e pe sonal dis ance since he e is a di ec appeal o he po en ial
buye . F om a p agma ic pe spec i e, he add essee may in e p e and we know in e ms o us wo hiness and
likelihood ha he in o ma ion in he subo dina e clause is ue. Howe e , his in e p e a ion also poin s o ano he
scena io: one in which he in e pe sonal dis ance is no so close, as he use o we and you in combina ion wi h he
modal will sugges s. The use o he deon ic modal will in he subo dina e clause emphasizes he idea o au ho i y
since he add esse depic s himsel /he sel as an expe who has and con ols in o ma ion. In many espec s,
he p agma ic analysis comes o acknowledge he uling powe o knowledge. Since he ad e is included in
a highly specialized magazine, he e ec o his in e p e a ion is minimized. Reade s a e also expe s, and his
is conside ed as communica ion among equals. The p inciple behind his is ha one specialis knows wha
ano he specialis would like. In addi ion, he pic u es o he p oduc s ad e ised, namely he VPI T a ele and he
Audioques D agon ly, sugges he idea o expe ise and, also, on he same page he e a e quo a ions p esen ing
good epo s om membe s o he same communi y o connoisseu s in ma e s o sound quali y.
Communica i e ma ices a e second in equency a e he cogni i e ones, and hey play an impo an ole
in ad e s, as shown abo e in he desc ip ion o example (13). The ollowing example con ains a communica i e
ma ix wi h he pe cep ion e b o hea :
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E iden ials in ad e ising: a sample s udy
(15) Ha e you hea d... “I canno speak highly enough o he Nep une eam, you ce ainly wen he ex a mile”.
Josephine, Richmond - Decembe 2012 (Coun y Li ing, Feb ua y:75).
This ins ance seems o be indica i e o he impo ance o o he s’ e alua ion o he p oduc s as a means o
quali y hei e icacy o ele ance o he buye ’s li e. The communica i e ma ix is exp essed in he o m o a
he o ical ques ion, which can also be ein e p e ed as he cogni i e ma ix: ‘didn’ you know...?’ This s uc u e
igge s he in e es o he eade o ind ou wha i is ha he/she should know. The answe , i.e. he signed
es imonial, cons i u es he pe suasi e elemen o he ad e . In he e iden ial ma ix, he eade is again add essed
di ec ly by means o he second pe son you, which esul s in a sho ening o he in e pe sonal dis ance be ween
he add esse and he add essee. The combina ion o he ma ix and he quo ed ma e ial o ces an in e p e a ion
o he message in e ms o c edibili y. The p agma ic pe suasi e ole o hese de ices is ob ious. The use o he
in e nal possibili y modal canno and he ac ual ad e bial ce ainly in he quo a ion seeks o lead he add essees
owa ds he u h in e p e a ion, and so eade s may assume he eliabili y o he in o ma ion, al hough his meaning
is no o e ly exp essed in (15).
Finally, he ollowing examples p esen expe ien ial ma ices:
(16) To al P o ec ion Whi ening oo hpas e is p o en o be less ab asi e han some o he leading b ands o
bo h whi ening and egula oo hpas es (Men’s Fi ness, Decembe 2012:33).
(17) 90% o women el hei skin was soo hed and hyd a ed in jus one day (OK!, Janua y 2013:89).
Expe ien ial ma ices o he ype in hese examples o e in o ma ion ob ained h ough a es a ion by some
empi ical means, which, oge he wi h a compa ison wi h o he b ands, ei he explici ly o implici ly men ioned, is a
common pe suasi e de ice especially in ad e s o cosme ic and cleaning p oduc s. The a ibu ion o knowledge
is no gi en in (16) while (17) gi es a high pe cen age o women who can con i m he alidi y o he p oduc . The
use o his igu e has a angible pe suasi e unc ion since s a is ics a e no mally seen as i e u able suppo o
a gumen . Ob iously, hese ma ices seek o c ea e an e ec o he eliabili y o he p oduc p esen ed. Howe e , a
p omisso y ac is no eally in ended wi h any o he ma ices desc ibed, bu a he an illuso y p agma ic e ec which
he speake canno be blamed o , i he p oduc does no sa is y he po en ial buye ’s needs and expec a ions.
The exp essions indica ing omi ed ma ices p esen he same unc ion o o e ma ices, as he ollowing
examples show:
(18) *Su ey o 191 disco e e s, Oc obe 2010 (OK!, Janua y 2013:89).
(19) *Measu ed as smoo hness on medium ex u e bleached hai (Elle, Feb ua y 2013:164).
In hese examples, he as e isks indica e ha he in o ma ion gi en is he esul o claims in he body o he
ad e s. The no e in (18) comes a e he ex in (17), al eady discussed abo e. The no e in (19) co esponds o a
Pan ene ad e and comes a e he ex “Aqua Ligh . Nou ishmen ha b ands he p ice can’ bea 7x”. In bo h
cases, he no es appea in small on sizes in he ma gins, and he e is a lack o con as be ween he on colou
and he backg ound colou . The e iden ia y in o ma ion included in hese no es e e s o s a is ics o p ecise
indica ions as o he way in which he esea ch men ioned in he ad e has been ca ied ou . Al hough he exac
e iden ial ma ix he au ho s would use in each case o con ey hei in ol emen in he making o he in o ma ion
is di icul o de e mine, he use o a claim and he wo ds su ey, disco e e s and measu ed a e su icien o
cogni i ely ac i a e con ex s in which he add essee may unde s and di e ing deg ees o au ho ial commi men o
u h. This is p ecisely he p agma ic e ec he copyw i e s seek wi h he use o e iden ials in ad e ising, e en i
his is no he p ima y (seman ic) meaning o hese de ices.
5.3. Lexical exp essions
Lexical e iden ia y exp essions play a undamen al ole in he ad e s, and hese may appea in isola ion and
some imes also accompanied by o he wo ds ela ed o he concep o u h, eliabili y and commi men , as in he
ollowing examples:
(20) No wonde i ’s mums’ mos us ed lunchbox (Hello!, Decembe 2012:108).
(21) Regene is 3 poin ea men c eam, wi h i s highly concen a ed amino-pep ide complex, no iceably
es o es elas ici y and suppleness o a eas mos p one o sagging - he eyes, jaw line and neck (Elle,
Feb ua y 2013:65).
(22) In 4 weeks, all acial zones a e isibly igh ened and skin looks isibly younge (Bon Appé i , Feb ua y
2013:2).
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