The learner identity of adolescents with trajectories of resilience: the role of risk, academic experience, and gender

Vol.:(0123456789) European Journal of Psychology of Education https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-024-00839-0 1 3 The learner identity ofadolescents withtrajectories ofresilience: therole ofrisk, academic experience, andgender Jose AntonioMatías‑García1 · MercedesCubero1 · AndrésSantamaría1 · Miguel JesúsBascón1 Received: 5 October 2023 / Revised: 29 January 2024 / Accepted: 11 April 2024 © The Author(s) 2024 Abstract In at-risk areas of social exclusion, a higher number of adolescents drop out of school. Dropout from compulsory education and early school leaving are associated with unemployment, poverty, and greater health problems, posing a significant threat to the youth’s development and wellbeing. Nevertheless, some students manage to pursue formal education even in high-risk areas, exhibiting resilience. Interwoven between the processes of risk and resilience, the students’ identity development plays a vital role. The present study aimed to analyze the learner identity of students who exhibit a resilience trajectory in areas at risk of social exclusion, and its relation to the degree of risk they face, their academic experience, and their gender. The sample consisted of 132 students from at-risk neighborhoods in Spain who successfully completed compulsory secondary education and continued beyond that level. To measure their academic selves, a modified version of the Twenty Statement Test (TST) was used, which was analyzed using a category system that included four dimensions: organization of the self, emotional valence, plane of action, and thematic reference. The results indicate the participants primarily used personal, positive, evaluative self-descriptions related to the academic world, mostly based on effort. A higher degree of risk was associated to more self-descriptions referring good relationships with others and class attendance, while higher academic experience was associated to more independent selves. The study also found several gender differences. The implications of these findings for research and social intervention in at-risk contexts are discussed. Keywords Learner identity· Risk of social exclusion· Early school leaving· Resilience· Adolescent· Academic self-concept· Post-compulsory education * Jose Antonio Matías-García [email protected] 1 Department ofExperimental Psychology, Universidad de Sevilla, Camilo José Cela Street, 41018Seville, Spain J.A. Matías‑García et al. 1 3 Introduction In 2022, 12.3million people, which accounts for 26% of the Spanish population, were at risk of poverty and/or social exclusion, according to the European Anti-Poverty Network (EAPN, 2023). Social exclusion is a structural and multidimensional process that affects various spheres, including the economic, labor, educational, socio-health, residential, relational, and participatory (Contreras-Montero, 2020; Hernández, 2010). One of the most significant factors related to social exclusion is the lack of access to formal education. Individuals with limited formal education have reduced access to employment and participation, increased health problems, and are more likely to fall into poverty (Hernández, 2010; Moreno, 2015). Dropping out of the educational system is a significant issue in Spain. Early school leaving (ESL) is defined as the percentage of students between 18 and 24 years of age who have not completed and are not currently studying any type of post-compulsory education (Eurostat, 2022). In 2022, Spain had a percentage of 13.9%, which is one of the highest rates among European countries (X = 9.6%) (Eurostat, 2022). Students can also drop out without finishing compulsory studies. In the scientific literature, school dropout is attributed to a process of progressive disengagement of students from the educational system (Mena etal., 2010). Students who drop out generally refer to discourses of deficit, to a perceived lack of ability to complete their studies, and place a low value to formal education (Romero & Hernández, 2019). These students often encounter multiple risk factors that increase the likelihood of dropping out of formal schooling. Most of these factors are associated with social and economic inequalities, such as low levels of education and poverty in the family (Bayón-Calvo etal., 2021; EAPN, 2023; Huisman & Smits, 2015). Conflicting relationships with teachers and/or family members (Romero & Hernández, 2019) are also related. In addition, gender is considered a significant risk factor in the literature. Male students tend to drop out of school more frequently than their female counterparts (Eurostat, 2022). This trend may be attributed to gender roles, as men often face greater pressure to enter the labor market (Bayón-Calvo etal., 2021; Ruiz etal., 2013). Additionally, male gender socialization can make it challenging for adolescents to integrate into school, as it is sometimes incompatible with maintaining status within their group of friends (Reay, 2018). Males exhibit more behavioral problems than females, which can impede their integration into school and their relationship with teachers (Fortin etal., 2010). In institutional and organizational contexts, factors such as school segregation both between and within schools (Save the Children, 2019) and the higher rate of teacher turnover in areas at risk of social exclusion (Allen etal., 2018; Llorent-Bedmar etal., 2021) hinder students’ school attainment. The presence of more risk factors increases the likelihood of students dropping out of school (Rouse etal., 2020). Therefore, areas at risk of social exclusion are the most affected. We can consider that social class and inequalities are at the root of students’ school attainment and success (Save the Children, 2019). However, even in areas of higher risk, some students complete their compulsory studies and continue with further formal schooling. The concept of resilience helps define these situations for study. Resilience refers to the process of successfully coping or recovering in the face of adverse situations (Gartland etal., 2019; Toland & Carrigan, 2011). It comprises two elements: significant exposure to severe risk and evidence of positive adaptation despite such risk (Masten, 2007). In the educational context, positive adaptation refers to a student’s ability to perform adequately in school, achieving similar or better results than The learner identity ofadolescents withtrajectories of… 1 3 the normative population that does not face risk (Masten etal., 2006; Lessard etal., 2014; Longás etal., 2019). It is essential to emphasize that resilience should be understood as an interactive and dynamic process that involves individuals, families, schools, and communities (Gartland etal., 2019; Toland & Carrigan, 2011). It is not an ability or a characteristic of individuals, and does not make people invulnerable, even if achieved in a specific context under certain conditions. If the conditions are altered, individuals who exhibit resilience may no longer demonstrate it. In this sense, the concept of resilience constitutes a definition of situations of positive adaptation in the face of adversity, and not an explanation of such adaptation (Matías-García, 2022). Precisely, for resilience to occur, risk factors must be controlled by protective factors, defined as such because they allow or facilitate positive adaptation in individuals (Gartland etal., 2019). Protective factors against ESL insituations of social exclusion may include greater public spending on scholarships and grants (Alegre & Benito, 2010), opportunities for family participation in school (Borman & Overman, 2004), and the formation of supportive relationships with family, teachers, and/or other students (Lessard etal., 2014; Longás etal., 2019), among others (Matías-García, 2022; Matias-Garcia etal., 2024). Protective factors enable students to establish positive academic expectations for the future, engage more with school, and develop an internal locus of control (Lessard etal., 2014; Longás etal., 2019), which helps them better adapt to the school environment. Interwoven between the processes of academic risk and resilience, the development of students’ learner identity plays a vital role. According to Lawson (2014), learner identity is defined as “…how an individual feels about himself/herself as a learner and the extent to which he/she describes himself/herself as a ‘learner’” (p. 344). These identity constructs are known to mediate achievement, particularly in students with low socioeconomic status (Li etal., 2020; Hansen & Henderson, 2019). From a cultural psychology theoretical background, our approach to identity involves the study of self or self-construal, which refers to an individual’s sense of self in relation to others (self-description or self-view) (Sedikides & Brewer, 2001). From our perspective, cognition is situated in activity settings (Werstch, 1991). Thus, we understand the self as a dynamic, distributed, and dialogical entity, and not as stable and homogeneous. For instance, Bruner (1996) proposed the existence of a distributed self, which he described as a “swarm” of participations that arise from the situations in which an individual participates. While constructing their identity as an individual distinct from others in each sociocultural setting, the person maintains a close relationship with them. In this sense, the literature shows that students internalize the positive or negative academic discourses from their interpersonal relationships with teachers, peers, and family members, impacting their identity as learners (Matías-García, 2022; Matias-Garcia etal., 2024; McFarland etal., 2016). In the educational contexts, the influence of academic activities and discourses has a particularly high effect on its development. Characteristics such as the ability to learn or to be attentive during classes are constantly evaluated throughout formal schooling, explicitly and individually. These tasks and discourses shape students’ identity construction towards teachers’ demands, in a positive or negative way. Also, there is extensive evidence from cross-cultural research about the relationship between formal schooling and changes in cognitive processes (Cole, 1996; Rogoff, 1990; Scribner & Cole, 1981), such as the development of abstract, decontextualized verbal thinking. Due to the type of discourse employed in formal instructional contexts, the literature relates formal schooling to the development of more individual, autonomous, reflective, and agentive selves (De la Mata etal., 2015; 2019). Authors such as Kagitcibasi J.A. Matías‑García et al. 1 3 (2007), Greenfield (2009), and Keller (2007) claim that formal schooling is an important factor that fosters a cultural model of the self that is characterized by autonomy and agency. Through educational institutions and interactions with others, between risk and protective factors, students develop a unique understanding of themselves, others, and their environment. This understanding allows them to make the identitarian decision to continue with their studies. Thus, the aim of the present work is to describe and analyze the development of the learner identity of students who present a trajectory of resilience in contexts at risk of social exclusion. This will be done so through variables such as the degree of general risk to which they are exposed to, the educational level attained (academic year), or their gender. In line with Agenda 2030’s Sustainable Development Goals current concerns on No Poverty, Education, Inclusion, and Peace and Justice (SDG 1, 4, 11, and 16; United Nations, n.d.), this study will help us gain the necessary knowledge for the development of psychoeducational interventions that favor educational continuity in students facing social exclusion. Therefore, the present research presents the following exploratory objectives: 1. To analyze the characteristics of the learner identity of students with resilience trajectories in contexts at risk of social exclusion. 2. To compare the learner identity of students from two high schools that present different degrees of risk for dropping out. 3. To study the role of academic experience (in terms of participants’ academic year) in the development of learner identity. 4. To investigate the impact of gender on the development of learner identity. Methods Participants An a priori power analysis to estimate the sample size required for Mann-Whitney U tests, based on data from Santamaría etal. (2010), was conducted. This study employed the same instrument and similar analytical categories as the one used in the present work and reported moderate to large effect sizes, so a moderate effect size according to Cohen’s (1988) criteria was established for the estimation (d = 0.5). With an alpha of 0.05 (twotailed) and a statistical power of 0.80, the sample size required for detecting this effect size is approximately N = 134. Rates of social exclusion are higher in the southern half of Spain (Bayón-Calvo etal., 2021; EAPN, 2023), which constituted the focus of this research. The high schools from areas at risk of social exclusion in Seville (Andalusia) were sampled. These areas are labelled as Zones in Need of Social Transformation (ZNST) by local administrators. We used purposeful sampling and selected two high schools from different neighborhoods, which, although both were in ZNST, differed in the degree of risk they presented. According to their principals and teachers, High School A presented a higher proportion of migrant students and ethnic minorities (i.e. gypsy population), a higher rate of conflict, and greater deterioration of the school facilities and the neighborhood. Likewise, The learner identity ofadolescents withtrajectories of… 1 3 all the students in the High School A come from the same neighborhood in which the school is located, which according to City Hall of Seville (2017) has the highest rate of absenteeism in the city. According to the literature, these variables are associated to increased risk for dropping out (Cordero etal., 2014; Mena etal., 2010; Romero & Hernández, 2019). However, the students from High School B come both from the high school’s neighborhood and from other surrounding neighborhoods of lower risk, providing a different profile of school. More differences between both high schools can be seen in the “Results” section, where sociodemographic data is presented. All students from post-compulsory secondary education (Bachillerato, ISCED Level 3) from the aforementioned high schools were studied. In Spain, this academic course is comprised of 2 years and traditionally prepares the students for accessing university studies. Following Masten (2007)’s definition, we considered these students presented a resilience trajectory. They completed compulsory education and continue in the education system beyond that level, showing proper academic performance in the face of risk (Lessard etal., 2014; Longás etal., 2019). Students from vocational training (Grado Medio, ISCED Level 3) could also fall within this definition but were not the focus of the present research. The final sample was comprised of 132 Bachillerato students (statistical power = 0.795). The variables considered for the study were high school, academic year, and gender (Table1). The mean age of the participants was 17.43. Concerning the students’ educational gap, 21.4% of them were older than the age expected for their grade level, with a gap from 1 to 7 years. In the most extreme cases, these students had dropped out of school and returned several years later. Many of the students came from single-parent (21.9%), extended (15.1%), or reunited (3.8%) families. In general, they belonged to large families, with an average of 3.82 persons in the household. A mean of 1.37 people in the family had an income, which essentially came from low-skilled or temporary jobs. 44.7% were low-skilled or unskilled, unstable jobs; 25.2% were in medium-skilled jobs or which involved merit selection or passing an exam, while only 3.5% were in high-skilled jobs. Also, 24.8% were unemployed or housewives and 1.7% were retired or pensioned. Finally, parents’ formal education was predominantly low, with 11.8% of the parents having no formal education, 41.4% having basic education (primary or secondary school), 33.8% having intermediate education (post-compulsory secondary school or vocational training), and 12.9% having higher education (technical college or university). Table 1 Sociodemographic data f% High school High School A 44 33.3 High School B 88 66.7 Academic year First-year students 71 53.8 Second-year students 61 46.2 Gender Female students 59 44.7 Male students 73 55.3 J.A. Matías‑García et al. 1 3 Instruments A sociodemographic questionnaire and, as a self-report measure of learner identity, a modified version of the Twenty Statement Test (TST) (Kuhn & McPartland, 1954; Santamaría etal., 2010; Santamaría & Cubero, 2019, among others) was applied. The original version consisted of 20 sentences beginning with “I am.” The participants were asked to complete them with adjectives, nouns, or short phrases describing what they thought of themselves, or what others thought of them, whether positive or negative. The TST does not provide a priori information like other questionnaires or Likert-type scales, and therefore has the advantage of a more qualitative and flexible approach to the dimensions of meaning individuals construct about themselves. Based on previous research from the literature, some modifications to the instrument were made in order to adapt it to the goals and the context of assessment: a) Reducing the 20 items to 10. Previous studies have shown participants have difficulty in completing all 20 sentences (Santamaría etal., 2010). b) To specifically ask their characteristics as a student to study their learner identity. c) Changing the “I am” (“Yo soy”) item structure for only “I” (“Yo”). The English “I am” may be translated by two different verbs in Spanish, either “ser” or “estar,” which offers a richer range of possible answers than its direct translation in Spanish, “Yo soy.” This change enabled a similar range of answers for the Spanish population. d) The instructions specified that answers could also include membership to groups or personal relationships with others. The reason was to avoid the individualistic bias shown by previous studies (Santamaría etal., 2010), since these elements tend to be underrepresented. G*power ver. 3.1 and SPSS ver. 25 were used for calculating the a priori estimation of the sample and analyzing the data, respectively. Procedure Approval was obtained from the local ethics committee (Granting Body: Portal de Ética de la Investigación Biomédica de Andalucía; Protocol Number: 0191-N-18). For the selection of participants, we obtained research approval and the support of the local education administration. Then, the high schools were contacted. Informed consent was obtained from parents and students over 18 years old. The dates for the data gathering sessions were agreed with the teachers from each high school. A pilot study was carried out in the same high schools and classrooms to ensure that the instructions were understood and that there were no problems with the TST and sociodemographic questionnaire. Some modifications were done to the latter to facilitate its completion and avoid missing data. The definitive data were collected by researchers from the research group over 2 years, applying the TST to all post-compulsory students at both high schools. The instruments were completed in writing and during class time, after a brief explanation of the research and the procedure to be followed. The students took approximately 15 to 20min to complete them. The students did not receive financial compensation for their participation. Data analysis A category system was applied to analyze the self-descriptions that students provided in the TST. Each statement was categorized under four different dimensions. These were The learner identity ofadolescents withtrajectories of… 1 3 organization of the self, emotional valence, plane of action, and thematic reference (Table2). For the reliability analysis of each dimension, 20% of participants were randomly selected from the total sample and their self-descriptions as students were independently coded by two researchers, authors of the present work. Subsequently, the kappa index was calculated as a measure of inter-rater reliability (Cohen, 1960). The first three dimensions were conformed a priori and have already been used in the literature. The organization of the self dimension is based on the distinction of Triandis (1989) between the private, public, and collective self (Santamaría etal., 2010; Yuste etal., 2021). A second dimension focuses on the emotional valence of the participants’ description of the self, distinguishing between positive, negative, and ambivalent (Santamaría & Cubero, 2019). The third dimension analyzes the plane of actions of self-descriptions. It moves in relation to the trichotomy descriptions, actions, and evaluations (Yuste etal., 2021). These dimensions showed good reliability (Table2) according to Cohen (1960). Finally, an inductive thematic analysis of the self-descriptions was developed, based on the participants’ answers (Clarke etal., 2015). Seventy-six different categories were iteratively elaborated a posteriori, which were very similar to the descriptions that the participants themselves filled out in the TST. Subsequently, they were recategorized into hierarchically higher categories, until five final general categories were created: academic world, social relations, ways of being, work, and finally, leisure and other activities (Matías-García etal., 2023). Given the interest in academics, data are also presented for the five subcategories that form Academic World at its previous level (Table3). For reasons of space, microlevel categories will be presented only if they show statistical differences. The kappa index was calculated from the micro level, from 76 different categories, giving a value of 0.866, considered a very good value (Cohen, 1960). Chi-squared (X2), Fishers’ exact, and Mann-WhitneyU tests were used depending on data type. Percentage of appearance of TST categories was used for analysis. Cramer’s V and Rosenthal’s r were calculated as effect size measures and interpreted according to Cohen (1988). Results First, the descriptive data obtained from the TST will be shown. Subsequently, data referring to the comparison between the different explanatory variables, school, academic year, and gender will be presented. Descriptive data The participants’ self-descriptions were mainly personal, positive, evaluative, and referred to the academic world (Table4). The organization of the self shows a small percentage of relational categories and minimal group categories, while in the emotional valence, negative valence is found in one-third of the responses and ambivalent in one-tenth. In the plane of action, very few actions and even fewer descriptions were categorized. Finally, in the thematic reference dimension, in addition to the high percentage referring to the academic world, we found some categories related to social relations and ways of being, and very few referring to work or leisure. Within the academic world, the highest percentage of self-descriptions are those referring to the abilities and activities of the students. The next most numerous category would J.A. Matías‑García et al. 1 3 Table 2 Organization of the self, emotional valence, and plane of action dimensions category system Dimensions and categories Definition Examples K Organization of the self 0.825  Personal Descriptions that refer exclusively to the individual “I am lazy” “I like to learn about everything”  Unspecific relational Descriptions that implicitly involve undetermined others “I am friendly” “I help others”  Specific relational Descriptions involving close and specific others “I want my family to be proud of me” “I study with my best friend”  Group Descriptions that refer to groups “I am a student” “I am otaku” Emotional valence 0.824  Positive Descriptions that are valued positively “I study every day” “I am a good student”  Negative Descriptions that are valued negatively “I am overwhelmed by exams” “I never study”  Ambivalent Positive or negative descriptions which are somehow nuanced “I am only interested in what I like” “I’m a hardworking person sometimes” Plane of action 0.747  Descriptions Descriptions that refer to physical appearance, sociodemographic characteristics, or possessions “I have brown hair” “I am in the first row of the class”  Actions Activities performed by the participants. It usually involves the use of verbs others than “to be” or “to have” “I pay attention” “I participate in class”  Evaluations Descriptions that refer to evaluations of themselves or their actions “I become completely overwhelmed during exams” “I could work harder” The learner identity ofadolescents withtrajectories of… 1 3 Table 3 Thematic reference dimension category system Thematic reference Definition Examples Academic world Descriptions related to education (See subcategories)  Overall conception Overall evaluations as a student “I am not an A student, but I am not a bad student either” “I am a good student”  Academic relations Descriptions that refer to academic support or competition between students “I like to help my classmates” “I am very competitive”  Abilities and activities Descriptions referring abilities and performance of academic activities “I study when I have to” “I make an effort in my studies”  Academic goals Descriptions related to the importance of education or future plans for study “I study for a better life” “I want to study physiotherapy”  Academic emotions Explicit emotions or motivational aspects of school “I am satisfied with my studies” “I always want to improve” Social relations Descriptions referring to social relations not directly related to schoolwork “I am usually truthful” “I don’t have many friends” Ways of being Personal characteristics not related with education nor social characteristic “I act maturely” “I am an independent person” Work Current jobs or future professions “I am a waiter” “I see myself as an attorney in the future” Leisure and other activities Related to free time and family activities, such as travel, hobbies, possessions or getting a driver’s license “I like to travel” “I want to get my driving licence” J.A. Matías‑García et al. 1 3 According to the data provided by the TST, the students from High School A had the most interdependent selves, based on supportive relationships among peers and friends. On the other hand, the High School B students’ selves were more personal and associated with education. They also presented a more ambivalent and less positive emotional valence, showing a certain greater degree of reflection on their own self-descriptions (De la Mata etal., 2015). These differences are coherent with cross-cultural research. The literature on self-con- struals advocates a broad distinction between independent and interdependent selves (De la Mata etal., 2015; 2019; Greenfield, 2009; Kitayama etal., 2007). People with an independent self-construal view the self as unique, private, and autonomous, whereas people with an interdependent self-construal view the self as related to others, incorporating and referencing the views of other people and groups in their identity. Interdependent selves are related to rural societies and low levels of schooling, whereas independent selves are associated with urban societies which has a greater role for school (De la Mata etal., 2015; 2019; Greenfield, 2009; Kitayama et al., 2007). In our sample, the parents from High School A had a lower level of formal education than those from High School B families. The idea that educational experience fosters the development of independent selves is supported by the significant differences observed between first- and second-year students (Matías-García etal. 2023). Second-year students, who are more acclimated to the school environment (Mena et al., 2010) and have more educational experience than first-year students, also exhibited more personal self-descriptions and greater association with the academic world (effort, organization, participation, emotions) than first-year students. In contrast, first-year students referenced their social relationships and behavior in class more frequently than second-year students. The educational discourse in class interaction influenced the development of students’ identities, leading to increasingly independent selves associated with school characteristics (De la Mata etal., 2015; 2019). Matías-García etal. (2023) show how this process takes place in the development of future selves as well. However, it is important to note that both profiles of learner identities in the sample, independent or interdependent, demonstrate a trajectory of resilience in their respective high schools and are strongly associated with academic selves. Therefore, it is important to emphasize the relevance of interdependent academic identities in the especially disadvantaged schools and neighborhoods, such as High School A. Cultivating such identities, as well as building good relationships among students and with teachers, could be effective ways to achieve good school integration of students at risk of social exclusion (Longás etal., 2019). In fact, the results of High School A show that fostering an autonomous self does not necessarily imply the undermining of relational selves (Santamaría etal., 2010). In contrast to the consideration of two major models of the self, the independent and the interdependent self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), there are authors such as Kagitcibasi (2007) who reject the traditional consideration of autonomy as opposed to relatedness, which has been predominantly assumed in psychology and in Western thought in general. It is precisely in the specific field of education that this idea has been reinforced in recent years, pointing out that formal education should not only promote aspects of rationality, but also relationality. Regarding gender, research shows that dropout rates are higher in males than in females (Eurostat, 2022). In the present study’s data, female students presented more school-associ- ated identities than male students, indicating greater adaptation and integration in the educational system. Qualitative research suggests that working-class male students may face challenges in maintaining their status within their peer group while integrating into school due to male gender roles (Reay, 2018). As a result, they may be more reticent than female students to identify with academic selves. Although female students have more academic The learner identity ofadolescents withtrajectories of… 1 3 success (Eurostat, 2022) and display positive self-descriptions regarding their school performance (such as high capacity for effort and organization), they also exhibited more categories of academic pessimism and about obtaining poor grades. In this sense, the literature demonstrates that female students experience greater pressure in school, particularly in certain areas (Kim etal., 2018). In turn, male students presented fewer academic categories and more categories of calm behavior in class, while male students traditionally manifest more behavioral problems (Moreno etal., 2012). As mentioned, students who exhibit resilience and do not experience such issues, or at least experience them to a lesser extent, tend to identify these characteristics of themselves as relevant to their identity as a student. Limitations Regarding limitations, this research understood resilience as the completion of secondary education and its maintenance in the educational system as a goal in itself. However, the students from this research are still at risk of ESL. Economic needs and other factors may still force them out of the educational system (Mena etal., 2010, Romero & Hernández, 2019). Therefore, measuring other academic adaptation indices, such as the number of passed subjects or the completion of post-compulsory studies, could complement the results. In addition to academic achievement, mental health indicators could be further analyzed in this population. Some students might progress with high levels of stress, discomfort, or “suffering great pressure,” which could also be a problem to address. Also, it would be worthwhile to analyze the relationship between the students’ learner identity and other non-academic characteristics, such as emotional and affective development, or the social relationships they have. These students face a multitude of difficulties, both in the school context and in the family or peer context, which are interrelated (Toland & Carrigan, 2011). Finally, our results have explanatory value only for students from the post-compulsory bachillerato, a course that traditionally prepares them for university studies. Our sample did not include students from different academically resilient trajectories, such as students from vocational training Grado Medio. These students might develop different types of learner identities, which should be further explored in future research. Conclusions This study examined the characteristics of the learner identity of students who exhibit a resilient trajectory. These characteristics align with the healthy learner identity construct found in the literature (Rosales & Cubero, 2016). Through their participation in class and interaction with teachers and other students, they elaborated their learner identity in a positive way, while being connected to others. They rejected deficit discourses about the self, common in areas at risk of social exclusion, and built an agentic learner identity mostly based on effort. The identities constructed by the participants are influenced by the degree of risk present in their high school (and neighborhood), gender, and educational experience. These identities may be more independent or interdependent, more focused on behavior and attendance or on capabilities as learners. In one way or another, all of these students remain resiliently in the educational system beyond the compulsory. J.A. Matías‑García et al. 1 3 The identification of these characteristics adds necessary information for intervening in ZNST, aligned with national, European, and international goals (Agenda 2030’s Sustainable Development Goals;United Nations, n.d.). The school, in conjunction with families, should promote the construction of positive learner identities attending to the emotional needs that students face when navigating the various challenges presented by their school and context. Identifying and reinforcing characteristics such as effort, attendance, behaving calmly during lessons, being supportive to other students, or the overall conception of being a good student can help build identities consistent with remaining in the educational system. This is especially important for ZNST students, as it can reduce feelings of disengagement and promote adaptive behaviors and persistence. Funding Funding for open access publishing: Universidad de Sevilla/CBUA. This research was carried out within the framework of the research project funded by the Spanish Government, Ministry of Science and Innovation, State Research Agency and European Regional Development Fund-ERDF, entitled “Challenges of the self: Identity reconstruction in situations of inequality and social exclusion” (reference: PSI2016– 80112–P). It was also funded by the VI-PPITUS (University of Seville). Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. References Alegre, M. Á., & Benito, R. (2010). Los factores del abandono educativo temprano. 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Department of Experimental Psychology, Universidad de Sevilla, Camilo José Cela Street, 41018 Seville, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] Current themes of research: Educational resilience. Learner identity. Conceptions of intelligence. Early school leaving. Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education: Matías-García, J. A., Santamaría, A., Cubero, M., Cubero-Pérez, R. (2023). From current to possible selves: Self-descriptions of resilient post-compulsory secondary education Spanish students at risk of social exclusion. Children and Youth Services Review, 155, 1-10. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. child youth. 2023. 107257 Cubero-Pérez, R., Cubero, M., Matías-García, J. A., & Bascón, M. J. (2023). Learner identity in secondary post-compulsory education students from areas in need of social transformation: An example of resilience. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 0(0), 1-22, https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10212- 023- 00704-6 Matías-García, J. A. (2022). 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Teachers negotiating discourses of gender (in)equality: The case of equal opportunities reform in Andalusia. Gender & Education, 27(6), 635–653. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 09540 253. 2015. 10839 47 Andrés Santamaría. Department of Experimental Psychology, Universidad de Sevilla, Camilo José Cela Street, 41018 Seville, Spain. Current themes of research: Identity. Narrative. Cultural psychology. Formal schooling. Gender and self. Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education: De la Mata, M.L., Santamaría, A., Trigo, E., Cubero, M., Arias, S., Antaliková, R., Hansen, T.G.B., & Ruiz, M. (2019). The relationship between sociocultural factors and autobiographical memories from childhood: The role of formal schooling. Memory, 27(1), 103-114. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 09658 211. 2018. 15153 16 Cubero, M., Santamaría, A., Prados, M. M., & Arias, S. (2019). Concepciones del aprendizaje de estudiantes en proceso de formación como docentes. [Conceptions on learning of students in the process of training as teachers]. Profesorado. Revista de Curriculum y Formación del Profesorado, 23(3), 453–471. De la Mata, M.L., Santamaría, A., y Ruiz, M.L. (2016). Toward the model of independence: The influence of formal schooling experience on earliest autobiographical memories and self-construals: A preliminary study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47(5), 670–679. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 00220 22116 635745 The learner identity ofadolescents withtrajectories of… 1 3 Cubero, M., Santamaría, A., Rebollo, M.A., Cubero, R., García, R., y Vega, L. (2015). Teachers negotiating discourses of gender (in)equality: The case of equal opportunities reform in Andalusia. Gender & Education, 27(6), 635-653. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 09540 253. 2015. 10839 47 De la Mata, M.L., Santamaría, A., Hansen, T.G., & Ruiz, L. (2015). Earliest autobiographical memories in college students from three countries: Towards a situated view. 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J., & Cubero-Pérez, R. (2020). “My tutor doesn’t say that”: The legitimized voices in dialogic refection on teaching practices. Dialogic Pedagogy, 8, 26–44. https:// doi. org/ 10. 5195/ dpj. 2020. 311 Cubero-Pérez, R., Cubero, M., & Bascón, M. J. (2019). The reflective practicum in the process of becoming a teacher: The tutor’s discursive support. Education Sciences, 9(96), 1–21. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ educs ci902 0096 Saavedra. F. J., Bascón, M. J., Prados. M. M., & Sabuco, A. (2013). Indicadores y criterios de calidad de buenas prácticas coeducativas. Una propuesta innovadora. [Indicators and quality criteria of good coeducational practices. An innovative proposal]. Profesorado. Revista de curriculum y formación del profesorado, 17(1), 201–220. Rebollo, M. A., Piedra, J., Sala, A., Sabuco, A., Saavedra, F. J., & Bascón, M. J. (2012). La equidad de género en educación: Análisis y descripción de buenas prácticas en educación. 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