Regula A icle
E ec i eness o he PElEO p og am o de elop he en ep eneu ial po en ial
o Spanish s uden s in Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining
´
Angela Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez
a,b,*
, Ca olina Fe n´
andez-Saline o Miguel
c
,
Ma ía Elena Ga cía-Mo a
b
, Ana Ma ía Mon e o-Ped e a
b
a
Depa men o Theo y o Educa ion, Uni e sidad In e nacional de La Rioja (UNIR), Facul y o Educa ion, A enida de la Paz 137, 26006, Log o˜
no, La Rioja, Spain
b
Depa men o Theo y and His o y o Educa ion and Social Pedagogy, Uni e sidad de Se illa (US), Facul y o Educa ion Sciences, S ee Pi o ecnia, s/n, 41013, Se ille,
Spain
c
Depa men o Educa ional S udies, Uni e sidad Complu ense de Mad id (UCM), Facul y o Educa ion, S ee Rec o Royo-Villano a, 1, Moncloa - A a aca, 28040,
Mad id, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
En ep eneu ial po en ial
En ep eneu ial educa ion
PElEO educa ional p og am
En ep eneu ship
Spanish en ep eneu ial educa ion
ABSTRACT
The gene al aim o he in es iga ion was o de e mine he e ec i eness o he PElEO p og am (educa ional
p og am o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial po en ial in adolescen s) in Spanish s uden s (males and e-
males). I was ca ied ou wi h a p e- es and pos - es design in a sample di ided in o a con ol g oup and an
expe imen al g oup o s uden s egis e ed in he educa ional s ages o Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional
T aining in o de o es he hypo heses ela ed o pa icipa ion in he PElEO p og am and i s e ec i eness in
o ma i e dimensions conside ed. The p og am was e ec i e and p omo ed he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial
po en ial and each o i s i e dimensions (C ea i i y, Pe sonal Con ol, Goal O ien a ion, Leade ship and In ui ion
o P oblem Sol ing) in he g oup o indi iduals who pa icipa ed. Howe e , i s impac was mo e p onounced
among men han women, e ealing po en ial en ep eneu ial dimensions al eady p esen in women, es ablishing
he bases o u u e en ep eneu ial educa ion p oposals, and building upon hose delinea ed in he Eu opean
model En ecomp. The o iginali y o his s udy lies in he combina ion o h ee elemen s: 1) he analysed concep
(en ep eneu ial po en ial) and he e ms associa ed wi h i ; 2) en ep eneu ship educa ion in Spain cu en ly
concei ed as he means o i s de elopmen ; and 3) he design, implemen a ion, and analysis o he esul s o an
en ep eneu ship educa ion p og am (PElEO), which p o ides ele an da a abou he di e ences be ween
women and men.
1. In oduc ion
The e m en ep eneu ship is a b oad and polysemic concep ha is
iden i ied as a way o hinking, easoning, and ac ing, p ima ily cen ed
on oppo uni ies, al hough also conside ing needs, app oached wi h a
global and mul idisciplina y ision (Azque a, 2019; Fe n´
andez-Saline o
& De la Ri a, 2014). I is a concep ha in eg a es knowledge, skills, and
a i udes, which we iden i y as en ep eneu ial compe ence, necessa y
o de elop en ep eneu ial p ojec s, whe he in e nal (in ap eneu ship)
o ex e nal (en ep eneu ial), and hus achie e “lea ning o unde ake”
enhancing en ep eneu ial alen . I also encompasses en ep eneu ial
ac i i y (change managemen and s a egic enewal) and a i ude,
concei ed as he pe sonal disposi ion o ac p oac i ely and gene a e
inno a i e ideas. Wi hin he amewo k o he Eu opean Union, i is a
key compe ence (Recommenda ion 2006/962/EC o he Eu opean
Pa liamen and o he Council and Recommenda ion 2018/C189/01 o
he Council), which is c oss-cu ing, dynamic, comp ehensi e, consid-
e ed gene ic, and common o all p o essional p o iles.
I is cu en ly in eg a ed in o a concep ual model o compe encies
called En eComp (Bacigalupo, 2019; Bacigalupo e al., 2016), which is
s uc u ed in o h ee in e ela ed a eas o compe ence encompassing a
se o compe ency uni s, wi h some en ep eneu ial elemen s conside ed
pa icula ly ele an o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial compe-
ence media ing be ween hem. The model is s uc u ed as ollows
(Fe n´
andez-Saline o, Ga cía-Mo a, e al., 2023): ideas and oppo u-
ni ies, whose objec i e is o de ec oppo uni ies and gene a e business
* Co esponding au ho . Uni e sidad In e nacional de La Rioja, Facul y o Educa ion, A enida de la Paz 137, 26006, Log o˜
no, La Rioja, Spain.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed], [email p o ec ed] (´
A. Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez), [email p o ec ed] (C. Fe n´
andez-Saline o Miguel), [email p o ec ed]
(M.E. Ga cía-Mo a), [email p o ec ed] (A.M. Mon e o-Ped e a).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Social Sciences & Humani ies Open
jou nal homepage: www.sciencedi ec .com/jou nal/social-sciences-and-humani ies-open
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101365
Recei ed 1 May 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 25 Janua y 2025; Accep ed 18 Feb ua y 2025
Social Sciences & Humani ies Open 11 (2025) 101365
A ailable online 26 Feb ua y 2025
2590-2911/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
ideas; esou ces, whose objec i e is o acqui e he esou ces necessa y o
gene a e ideas; and ac ions, whose objec i e is o execu e he gene a ed
ideas while minimizing isks.
F om his pe spec i e, ollowing Shape o’s En ep eneu ial E en
Theo y (Shape o, 1985), in he ace o an en ep eneu ial e en , a
connec ion is es ablished be ween he desi abili y (in e nal and ex e nal
mo i a ion, i.e. in e es and po en ial bene i s) o s a ing an en ep e-
neu ial p ojec and he iabili y o he la e (pe sonal and socioeco-
nomic mo i a ion, i.e. ac ual willingness o ac and ma ke si ua ion),
whose posi i e co ela ion p omo es an en ep eneu ial a i ude ha
acili a es he in en ion o ac (K uege & B azeal, 1994). This in en ion
is concei ed as cogni ion ha guides he en ep eneu ’s ac ion owa d
he c ea ion o a company (Mo iano e al., 2007). This is a undamen al
componen o En ep eneu ial Po en ial (he eina e EP). Thus, he
in en ion eme ges as a p eceden o beha iou , and he s onge he
in en ion o implemen a beha iou , he g ea e he possibili y o ca -
ying i ou e ec i ely (Ajzen, 1991).
This s udy is con ex ualised in he Spanish educa ion sys em.
Fu he mo e, his esea ch akes in o accoun a b oad concep o
en ep eneu ial educa ion, concei ing i as an educa ion o en ep e-
neu ship, which esponds o he na u al aspi a ion o he pe son o
g ow h ha a ou s he de elopmen and imp o emen o bo h he in-
di idual and socie y. And no so much, al hough i is also an educa ion
o en ep eneu ship o en ep eneu ial educa ion, which e e s o an
ins umen al knowledge ha ocuses on he de elopmen o p ac ical
skills aimed a economic g ow h and p oduc i i y (Azque a, 2019) and
seeks o de elop en ep eneu ship (Be nal & C´
a denas, 2014). In he
ollowing, he aim is o cla i y he concep o EP, in o de o ocus he
analysis on he PEIEO En ep eneu ship P og am. This will allow us o
answe he ollowing esea ch ques ions: How do PEIEO p og am in-
luence he de elopmen o EP in he adolescen popula ion in Spain? Is
he PEIEO p og am e ec i e in de eloping he EP o Spanish s uden s
(male and emale) in Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining?
2. Theo e ical amewo k
This s udy’s heo e ical amewo k is di ided in o h ee sec ions.
Fi s , he p oposal is con ex ualised in he Spanish educa ion sys em.
Second, he concep ualisa ion o EP and ela ed concep s is explo ed in
dep h. Thi d, a speci ic educa ional p og am o en ep eneu ship,
PElEO, is p esen ed. Finally, his sec ion concludes wi h a concep ual
map ha g aphically illus a es he in e connec ion be ween he
di e en concep s analysed.
2.1. En ep eneu ial educa ion in he Spanish con ex
The ac i i y o Spanish legisla ion in e ms o en ep eneu ship has
been in ense and mo i a ed by he con ex o an economic c isis cha -
ac e ised by a low g ow h a e and a high a e o you h unemploymen .
Speci ically, du ing he second imes e o 2023, he Spanish Ins i u e o
S a is ics (INE-SIS - Spanish Ins i u e o S a is ics, 2023) epo ed a o al
na ional unemploymen a e o 11.60% (10.19% unemployed men and
13.16% unemployed women in he o al ac i e popula ion o Spain).
Sepa a ing hese da a by age g oup, he dis ance be ween sexes expands
om he age o 25 yea s onwa ds in a ou o men.
Rega ding he ac i e popula ion, in he i s imes e o 2023, he e
we e 2,020,919 sel -employed people (9.6% o he ac i e popula ion),
wi h men and women ep esen ing 63.5% and 36.5%, espec i ely
(Minis e io de T abajo y de Economía Social, 2023). In his ega d, he
de elopmen o en ep eneu ial educa ion in Spain has gene a ed sig-
ni ican in e es in he design o o ma i e p og ams aimed a po en i-
a ing EP, al hough he popula ion in eg a ed in le els o o mal
educa ion, speci ically in non-uni e si y le els, has no been ho oughly
analysed o da e (Be nal e al., 2021).
Gi en his si ua ion, he phenomena o en ep eneu ship, c ea i i y,
and inno a ion in he educa ion sys em will be habi ual elemen s in
p oposi ions o o e come he c isis. In his sense, cu en educa ional
legisla ion, which has a na ional cha ac e wi h a mo e speci ic de el-
opmen om he di e en Au onomous Communi ies o he Spanish
S a e ha ha e ans e ed educa ional compe encies, akes as a e e -
ence Recommenda ion 2006/962/CE o he Eu opean Pa liamen and
Recommenda ion 2018/C189/01 o he Eu opean Council on he key
compe encies o Pe manen Lea ning. The la e includes en ep e-
neu ship and is concei ed as hose ha e e y pe son equi es o hei
ealisa ion and pe sonal g ow h, as well as o ac i e ci izenship, social
inclusion, and employmen . The e a e cu en ly eigh key compe encies
in Spanish educa ional law, including “en ep eneu ial compe ency.” To
a ain his compe ency, i is necessa y o inco po a e, in he cu iculum
o he Spanish educa ional sys em, speci ic con en ela ed o ca ee
oppo uni ies and he wo ld o wo king, as well as no ions o economic
and inancial educa ion and knowledge o o ganisa ional and business
p ocesses. Th ee app oaches allow o he in eg a ion o en ep eneu -
ship educa ion in o he cu iculum (Eu ydice, 2016; Fe n´
andez-Sali-
ne o, 2021): indi ec inclusion in he cu iculum (ea ly childhood),
in eg a ion in ex an subjec s (P ima y Educa ion), and c ea ion o
speci ic subjec s (Second Educa ion, Baccalau ea e, and Voca ional
T aining).
In his sense, en ep eneu ship becomes mo e business-o ien ed wi h
ad ancemen along he educa ional s ages, wi h a ocus no only on he
de elopmen o skills and a i udes ela ed o en ep eneu ship, as is he
case o Basic Voca ional T aining, bu also on he a ainmen o aluable
knowledge ega ding p o essional, labou , economic, and business as-
pec s. In his espec , in Seconda y Educa ion, he e is a speci ic subjec
aimed a p o iding s uden s wi h p ecise knowledge o en ep eneu ship
wi hou dis ega ding he abo e-men ioned, which p e ails h oughou
he en i e span o compulso y educa ion. This app oach a ou s he
aining o in a- and in e pe sonal skills, as well as he de elopmen o
collec i e en ep eneu ship o e indi idual en ep eneu ship, wi h he
help o he adminis a ion, which p o ides suppo bo h legally and wi h
speci ic esou ces and wi h he in e es o he s uden s hemsel es o
hei p o essional u u e. Howe e , he e a e some incon eniences in
his s age, such as he lack o educa ional leade ship in e ms o en e-
p eneu ship, poo in es men in specialised eache aining on en e-
p eneu ial pedagogy, he absence o au onomy among many cen es o
adap subjec s and con en s, and he exis ence o some bu eauc a ic
obs acles (Nú˜
nez-Canal, 2017, pp. 122868–122953). The Baccalau ea e
s age has some subjec s ela ed o en ep eneu ial aining, in which he
speci ic eaching o en ep eneu ship acqui es pa icula ele ance;
likewise, he e is a c oss-sec ional de elopmen o skills and abili ies
linked o en ep eneu ship, as in p e ious s ages. Ne e heless, he
pa icula i y o a baccalau ea e as a b idge o uni e si y and he weigh
o p epa ing he exams o access i lea es li le oom o educa ional
eams o implemen new s a egies a om he con en s demanded by
cu en egula ions. I p o ides eache s wi h ew al e na i es o
me hodological inno a ion due o insu icien aining and he lack o
adequa e ma e ial and schedule esou ces (Ba is a e al., 2015, pp.
125–145). Las ly, in Voca ional T aining (Pos -Seconda y and
Ad anced), he cu iculum is a he o ien ed o business, since all
cou ses include aining aimed a acqui ing knowledge on he oppo -
uni ies o lea ning and employmen , pa icula ly add essing he c ea-
ion and managemen o companies and sel -employmen , as well as he
o ganisa ion o labou and ela ionships in he company. Depending on
he p o essional p o ile, his aining is inco po a ed in o one o se e al
speci ic p o essional cou ses wi hou jeopa dising hei c oss-sec ional
ea men . This is whe e en ep eneu ship educa ion acqui es g ea e
meaning, al hough no e e y hing is posi i e, since eache s ained in
en ep eneu ial opics a e s ill equi ed, as well as g ea e in ol emen
o he collabo a ing companies in he p ac icum in labou cen es
(Ba is a e al., 2015, pp. 125–145).
Speci ic en ep eneu ship p oposi ions in he case o Seconda y Ed-
uca ion and Voca ional T aining in Spain, hose educa ional le els in
which en ep eneu ship is mos p omo ed, a e designed o de elop he
´
A. Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez e al.
Social Sciences & Humani ies Open 11 (2025) 101365
2
c ea ion o collabo a i e and coope a i e business p ojec s. This is he
case o he ollowing p og ams (Donoso, 2017; Fe n´
andez-Saline o,
Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez, & Mon o o-Fe n´
andez, 2023):
•Business Simula ion P og am o Educa ional Pu poses: P omo es he
design o business p ojec s in Ca alu˜
na.
•Emba ka: Facili a es he launch o he egional en ep eneu ial
ecosys em in Mu cia.
•Emp ende-FP: P omo es en ep eneu ial ini ia i e o sel -
employmen in Ca alu˜
na.
•Eu opean Young En e p ise: P omo es he c ea ion o mini-
companies in he class oom in As u ias.
•Iemp ´
enjo e: Enables he ans o ma ion o en ep eneu ial ideas
in o ac ions in Islas Balea es.
•So zea en Aben u a: De elops eal en ep eneu ship p ojec s in
Bilbao.
•U a sba Business P ojec s: Accompanies he c ea ion o companies
in País Vasco.
•Young Social En ep eneu s: Fa ou s he design and implemen a ion
o social p ojec s a a na ional le el.
To hese na ional p og ams a e added, o he s p omo ed by he Eu-
opean Union in collabo a ion wi h i s Membe S a es. We highligh he
ollowing poin s (Fe n´
andez-Saline o, Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez, & Mon o -
o-Fe n´
andez, 2023):
•En ep eneu ial Coope a i e Expe ience (ECOOPE): P o ides coop-
e a i e en ep eneu ship expe ience.
•En ep eneu ship Educa ional P og am: P omo es So Skills o
p ac ical en ep eneu ship.
•E asmus o Young En ep eneu s: Facili a es he connec ion be-
ween young en ep eneu s and es ablished en ep eneu s o busi-
ness c ea ion.
•G een En ep eneu ship Eu ope (GEE): Fos e s ecosys emic and
sus ainable en ep eneu ship.
•Innicia En ep eneu ial Cul u e: Enhances pe sonal, social, and
p oduc i e en ep eneu ship.
•Inno a ion Clus e o En ep eneu ship Educa ion (ICEE): P o ides
p ac ical expe iences in business c ea ion.
•Scoopconss-Social Coope a i e Con es o Seconda y Schools: Fa-
ou s p ojec -based lea ning in solida i y.
•Young En ep eneu ship S a egies (YES): Compiles en ep eneu ial
educa ional bes p ac ices in a guide.
All hese p og ams a e p oposals ha combine social and sus ainable
en ep eneu ship wi h business en ep eneu ship. They aim o de elop
EP h ough in e ac ions wi h he en i onmen , wo king wi h o he s
(ex e nal ansac ions), and lea ning om one’s expe ience (in e nal
ansac ions). They ely on ac i e and agile me hodologies and a ge a
young audience s udying wi hin he o mal sys em, p ima ily in Sec-
onda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining, p omo ing ne wo king ha
a ies empo ally in each o he iden i ied p og ams
(Fe n´
andez-Saline o, Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez, & Mon o o-Fe n´
andez, 2023).
The p e ious analysis encou ages he p omo ion o aining o EP
om he scope o educa ion, essen ially in Seconda y Educa ion and
Voca ional T aining, whe e, as was p e iously indica ed, he e a e
speci ic subjec s ela ed o en ep eneu ship, such as he op ional sub-
jec o Economy and En ep eneu ship in Yea 11 (O ganic Law 3/2020,
o 29 Decembe which modi ies O ganic Law 2/2006, o 3 May on Ed-
uca ion), as well as P o essional En ep eneu ship Class ooms, and
P o essional Cou ses o Business and En ep eneu ial Ini ia i e (wi h he
cu en change in legisla ion, is now called Pe sonal I ine a y o
Employabili y II), P ojec s, and T aining in Labou Cen es in Voca ional
T aining. Simila ly, cu en educa ional legisla ion in Spain conside s
en ep eneu ship as a key compe ence, as was p e iously men ioned,
emphasizing he po en ia ion o c ea i i y, inno a ion, and ini ia i e,
which ag ees wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals o he 2030
Agenda. This is based on he ac ha inno a ion, c ea i i y, and
en ep eneu ship may boos he a ainmen o Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals, a ou ing economic g ow h and job c ea ion while expanding he
ange o oppo uni ies o e e yone, especially o women and young
people. Human c ea i i y and inno a ion, bo h a he indi idual and
g oup le els, ha e become ue alues o coun ies in he 21s cen u y
(Te zie a e al., 2022). This allows a aining a mo e signi ican ma gin
o ac ion in he ace o he u u e icissi udes o an unce ain u u e
wo ld o wo king, al hough ull o oppo uni ies o explo e (C´
a denas &
A hayde, 2022), which equi es he use o speci ic p og ams ocused on
conc e e ac ions ha con ibu e o wha is no mally es ablished.
The e o e, he in en ion o unde ake a new p ojec o he a ou able
and necessa y in e nal p ocess o ca y ou he ac ion ha is se in he
mind o he pe son will be enhanced (Oso io & Londo˜
no, 2015).
2.2. En ep eneu ial po en ial (EP)
EP, a undamen al elemen o en ep eneu ship, can be de ined as a
complex and dynamic eali y inhe en o indi iduals, a amewo k
encompassing he se o ap i udes and capaci ies ap o de elopmen
and educa ion, os e ing en ep eneu ial beha iou (Azque a e al.,
2024). I is linked o he ac o unde aking a new p ojec in ce ain
con ex s and cons i u es he combina ion o pe sonal and
socio-p oduc i e capaci ies ha an indi idual de elops h ough he /his
in e ac ion wi h he en i onmen , wo king wi h o he people (ex e nal
ansac ion), and building pe sonal na a i es om he /his own expe-
ience (in e nal ansac ion), which allows he indi idual o c ea e
he /his en ep eneu ial iden i y wi h sel -awa eness and sel -e icacy
h ough a dynamic and e olu iona y p ocess o leade ship, planning,
c ea ion, and de elopmen o meaning ul labou p ojec s (Be nal, 2021;
Be nal & C´
a denas, 2014, 2017; C´
a denas & A hayde, 2022). This e m
is based on a i udinal heo y (Allpo , 1935), which s a es ha a i ude
is a alid and eliable p edic o o en ep eneu ship (Ga cía-Rod íguez
e al., 2019) iden i ied wi h he lea ned p edisposi ion o espond
a ou ably o an objec in a mul idimensional manne (Ajzen, 1991;
Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975); ha is, om a cogni i e dimension based on
a ionalisa ion, an a ec i e dimension ounded on emo ions, and an
ac i e dimension based on beha iou .
The e o e, EP enables a clea line o ac ion ela ed o i s de elopmen
h ough en ep eneu ial educa ion (Luis-Rico e al., 2020), which can be
de ined as he connec ion wi h a humanising educa ion p ojec in which
s uden s a e ained on ini ia i e, au onomy, esponsibili y, and pe -
sonal ma u i y in o de o hem o e alua e, hink, imagine, and c ea e
speci ic p ojec s ha ace he b oad challenges o humani y, including
hose ela ed o he wo ld o wo k (Mayo -Za agoza, 2009). This
educa ional app oach allows po en ia ing EP in s uden s and con ibu es
o hei in eg al g ow h, undamen ally he in ellec ual, socie al, and
mo al dimensions o he pe son, going beyond me e socioeconomic and
labou aspec s (Azque a & Na al, 2019; Su´
a ez-O ega e al., 2020).
En ep eneu ial in en ion is a c i ical componen o EP, ep esen ing
an indi idual’s eadiness o ini ia e en ep eneu ial endea ou s. This
in en ion se es as a cogni i e d i e ha mo i a es indi iduals o
s a egically plan and make decisions in pu sui o hei en ep eneu ial
objec i es (Li˜
n´
an & Fayolle, 2015). Wi hou in en ion, en ep eneu ial
skills and compe encies may emain do man o unde u ilised. In en ion
se es as a ca alys o ans o ming EP in o ac ion. EP can ecip ocally
in luence in en ions. Indi iduals equipped wi h he necessa y skills,
knowledge, and access o esou ces ( inancial, social, and in ellec ual)
a e mo e likely o cul i a e s ong en ep eneu ial in en ion. The ela-
ionship be ween en ep eneu ial in en ion and po en ial is bes un-
de s ood as a dynamic and i e a i e p ocess in which in en ion ac i a es
po en ial, while he de elopmen o po en ial ein o ces and sus ains
in en ion. Consequen ly, he e is a po en ial uel in en ion. The e o e, i
is c ucial o enhance speci ic skills o ansla e in en ion in o e ec i e
en ep eneu ial ac ions.
´
A. Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez e al.
Social Sciences & Humani ies Open 11 (2025) 101365
3
In his sense, i seems con enien o p omo e he aining o EP om
he o mal scope o educa ion, undamen ally in Seconda y Educa ion
and Voca ional T aining in he Spanish educa ion sys em, whe e he e
a e speci ic subjec s ela ed o en ep eneu ship. This will a ou he
inc ease o s uden s’ pe sonal and social-p oduc i e capaci ies,
imp o ing hei p edisposi ion a he cogni i e, a ec i e, and beha -
iou al le els, i.e. hei en ep eneu ial a i ude, wi h he en ep eneu ial
in en ion o aluing oppo uni ies, concei ing p oposi ions, and c ea ing
p ojec s, especially in si ua ions o unce ain y (V´
azquez-Rod íguez
e al., 2023). Consequen ly, educa ion is i al o he aining o ac i e,
sel -con iden , cu ious, and inno a i e en ep eneu s, and i suppo s
he eaching o adequa e and c oss-sec ionally ansmi ed compe encies
as well as he de elopmen o EP and i s mos signi ican dimensions
(C ea i i y, Pe sonal Con ol, Goal O ien a ion, Leade ship, and In ui-
ion o P oblem Sol ing) a di e en educa ion le els, speci ically
Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining. Undoub edly, educa ion
is an adequa e means o he ansmission o new in o ma ion, especially
in coun ies such as Spain, whe e en ep eneu ial cul u e is no a
adi ion (Fe n´
andez-Saline o, 2021).
2.3. The PElEO p og am
In his con ex , we p opose he design o an en ep eneu ship edu-
ca ion p og am (PElEO) based on he A i ude Towa d En e p ise Tes
(ATE), which e alua es EP in young people (women and men in Sec-
onda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining). The ATE is inspi ed by he
heo y o a i ude (A hayde, 2009, 2012), which, in ou opinion, has
p o en e ec i e, as alida ed in se e al coun ies, including he UK,
I aly, Sou h A ica, and Spain (Be nal e al., 2021). The ob ained esul s
allow us o iden i y he ex en o which he PElEO p og am a ou s he
acquisi ion o speci ic dimensions ha a e conside ed essen ial
(A hayde, 2009, 2012) o he p omo ion o EP (C ea i i y, Pe sonal
Con ol, Goal O ien a ion, Leade ship, and In ui ion o P oblem Sol -
ing), iden i ying he possible di e ences be ween men and women a e
comple ing he en ep eneu ship p og am designed speci ically o he
de elopmen o hose en ep eneu ial dimensions. These esul s may
p o ide in e es ing da a ha will impac en ep eneu ship educa ion
p oposi ions di e en ia ed by gende .
The e o e, he PElEO p og am eme ged om hese conce ns and has
been es ablished as a p oposi ion ha aims o educa e he se o ca-
paci ies and disposi ions o unde aking a new business p ojec . To his
end, he p ojec aims o gene a e and p omo e an educa ional model
de eloped h ough ac i i ies ha con ibu e o con igu ing he EP o
s uden s’ pe sonal iden i y in Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional
T aining in he Spanish educa ion sys em.
This p og am aims o de elop di e en dimensions o EP ha a e
in eg a ed in he en ep eneu ial compe ence, which, om he ame-
wo k o he Eu opean Union (Recommenda ion 2006/962/CE and
2018/C189/01), is cu en ly included in a concep ual model o com-
pe ences known as En eComp (Bacigalupo, 2019; Bacigalupo e al.,
2016), o which we ha e p e iously e e ed, and is s uc u ed in h ee
a eas and i een dimensions (Fe n´
andez-Saline o, 2021): 1) ideas and
oppo uni ies, which include he dimensions o oppo uni y de ec ion,
c ea i i y, iew, idea assessmen , and e hical and sus ainable hinking;
2) esou ces, which in eg a e he dimensions o sel -con idence and
sel -e icacy (pe sonal con ol), mo i a ion and pe se e ance (goal
o ien a ion), esou ce and people mobilisa ion, and inancial and eco-
nomic li e acy; and 3) ac ions, which con ains he dimensions o ini ia-
i e and leade ship, planning and managemen , acing unce ain y,
ambigui y, and isk (in ui ion o p oblem sol ing), wo king wi h o he
people, and lea ning h ough expe ience.
O he abo emen ioned dimensions, he PElEO p og am is designed
o de elop C ea i i y (ideas and oppo uni ies), Pe sonal Con ol and
Goal O ien a ion ( esou ces), Leade ship and In ui ion o P oblem
Sol ing (ac ions). These dimensions we e selec ed o be conside ed in-
di idual a ibu es, linked o en ep eneu ship, and basic dimensions
wi hin he en ep eneu ial compe ence p omo ed by he Spanish edu-
ca ion sys em, ha can be lea n and de eloped h ough expe ience and
measu ed h ough he A i ude Towa d En e p ise Tes (ATE), which
e alua es EP in young people based on a i ude heo y (A hayde, 2009,
2012). ATE has been alida ed in se e al coun ies including he Uni ed
Kingdom, I aly, Sou h A ica, and Spain (Be nal e al., 2021).
The PEIEO s uc u e comp ises he dimensions o a i udinal in-
dica o s o EP: C ea i i y, Leade ship, Pe sonal Con ol, and Goal
O ien a ion. In u n, each o hese is made up o en ac i i ies, o a o al
o o y ac i i ies. The P oblem Sol ing dimension is wo ked on in a
c oss-cu ing manne in he ac i i ies p oposed o he p e ious di-
mensions o EP. The gene al objec i es o he p og am a e ela ed o
aining o gene a e ideas ha acili a e he inno a ion p ocess (C ea-
i i y), mo i a e and posi i ely in luence people o ca y ou a se ies o
ac ions and objec i es (Leade ship), manage and sel - egula e hei own
beha iou (Pe sonal Con ol), and acqui e a p oac i e a i ude o ach-
ie e goals (Goal O ien a ion). To ge hese pu pose, mo e han 130
speci ic objec i es ha e been p oposed. The iming is cha ac e ised by
i s lexibili y, being able o adop a qua e ly, hal -yea ly, o comple-
men a y cou se de elopmen , depending on he deg ee o in ensi y and
he ime a ailable in he educa ional cen es. In e nally, each ac i i y
has a minimum du a ion o 30 min, al hough i could be expanded o
con ac ed in ime depending on he con ex ual a iables wi hin he
class oom. The e alua ion o he p og am is di ided in o a con inuous
e alua ion by means o ub ics in each ac i i y, and a summa i e e al-
ua ion h ough he applica ion o s anda dised es s ha measu e a i-
udes, knowledge, and en ep eneu ial skills.
The a i udinal dimensions, which a e c ucial componen s o EP,
we e he co ne s ones o ou e alua ion. These dimensions, including
C ea i i y, Leade ship, Pe sonal Con ol, and Goal O ien a ion, a e no
jus heo e ical concep s, bu also p ac ical ools ha can be cul i a ed o
os e en ep eneu ial success (C´
a denas-Gu i´
e ez, Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez, &
Mon o o-Fe n´
andez, 2023).
•C ea i i y: a key a i udinal dimension, is closely linked o openness
o expe ience. I is an in ellec ual disposi ion ha enables indi iduals
o explo e, lea n, and unde s and hei en i onmen . A c ea i e
pe son is adep a iden i ying oppo uni ies ha o he s migh o e -
look, inding unique solu ions o p oblems, and gene a ing bene i s
o hemsel es and hei communi y (Jesson, 2012; Qua ini, 2023;
Wagne , 2014).
•Leade ship: Di e en meanings encompass se e al possibili ies. The
i s ela es o an indi idual’s abili y o ob ain ce ain people o
olun a ily ollow hem in pe o ming speci ic asks (E zioni, 1961).
The second e e s o he capaci y o sha e speci ic alues and build a
common goal (Hell iegel & Slocum, 2012). The hi d is he abili y o
in luence o he s, gain commi men , and os e achie emen o
common goals (Ende ica e al., 2018). Leade ship is no jus abou
achie ing objec i es bu also abou building human eams and
de eloping o guiding hem. I s imula es and sp eads en husiasm
among i s collabo a o s, p omo es a a ou able clima e, has excellen
communica ion and dialogue skills, is awa e o i s s eng hs and
weaknesses, knows how o adap i s managemen s yle acco ding o
he si ua ion and pe son, lis ens o o he s’ opinions and sugges ions,
is e lec i e, assumes esponsibili ies, p o ides con inuous eedback,
and con eys espec and us (Mayo ga e al., 2019; Tolen ino,
2020).
•Pe sonal Con ol: Re e s o he locus o con ol, ha is, he ex en o
which people pe cei e hemsel es as capable o in luencing he ac-
ions and ou comes o e en s in hei li es (Ro e , 1966). Depending
on a pe son’s pe cep ion o he sou ce o con ol, wo ypes a e
dis inguished: in e nal locus o con ol (success o ac ions depends
on he indi idual’s ac ions; hey con ol hem), and ex e nal locus o
con ol (uncon ollable ac ions dependen on chance) (To i e al.,
2021). En ep eneu ial educa ion s eng hens he in e nal locus o
con ol.
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4
•Goal O ien a ion is he abili y o conside wha success is and ca y
ou asks o achie e i . Suppose success is in e p e ed om an in-
e nal pe spec i e, whe e he acquisi ion o knowledge, skills, and
a i udes is necessa y o he pe son, in ol emen , and pe se e ance
o inc ease. In con as , i i is unde s ood as some hing ex e nal o
he indi idual, in ol emen and pe se e ance decline o a oid he
possibili y o ailu e (Ande man, 2020; We ne e al., 2019).
To conclude his sec ion, Fig. 1 g aphically illus a es he in e con-
nec ion be ween he di e en concep s analysed.
This igu e indica es ha EP ep esen s an indi idual’s willingness o
unde ake en ep eneu ial ini ia i es in ce ain con ex s and cons i u es
he combina ion o pe sonal and socio-p oduc i e capaci ies ha a
pe son de elops h ough in e ac ion wi h he en i onmen , wo king
wi h o he people (ex e nal ansac ion), and cons uc ing pe sonal
na a i es based on hei own expe ience (in e nal ansac ion). EP hus
unde s ood p omo es he in en ion o gene a e en ep eneu ial ini ia-
i es. Wi hou en ep eneu ial in en ion, en ep eneu ial compe ence
may emain la en o unde u ilised. The e o e, in en ion ac s as a ca a-
lys ha ans o ms EP in o ac ion. Educa ion is a undamen al way o
his p ocess o succeed, mainly h ough educa ional p og ams such as
he PEIEO, which a ou s he de elopmen o hose dimensions o
en ep eneu ial compe ence ha a e conside ed basic in he Spanish
educa ion sys em.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Resea ch and s udy design
This s udy was ca ied ou wi h a p e- es and pos - es design in a
sample di ided in o a con ol g oup and an expe imen al g oup o s u-
den s egis e ed in he educa ional s ages o Seconda y Educa ion,
Voca ional T aining, and Baccalau ea e ( he la e only pa icipa ed in
he con ol g oup), in o de o es he hypo heses ela ed o pa icipa-
ion in he PElEO p og am (educa ional p og am o he de elopmen o
EP in adolescen s) and i s e ec i eness in o ma i e dimensions
conside ed wi hin EP.
The gene al aim o he in es iga ion was o de e mine he e ec-
i eness o he en ep eneu ial educa ion p og am PElEO in de eloping
he en ep eneu ial dimensions o EP in adolescen s (women and men).
I should be emembe ed ha he Spanish educa ion sys em de elops
bo h en ep eneu ial compe ences o a business na u e and ans e sal
en ep eneu ial compe ences in i s subjec s on en ep eneu ship.
This quan i a i e, explana o y, c oss-sec ional s udy wi h la en
a iables (Cue as-Va gas e al., 2019) was conduc ed using SPSS .25.
Fi s , he EP a iable was designed as a second-o de cons uc , and
we e alua ed he impac o he PElEO p og am on each o he di-
mensions o EP and on he highe a iable. We also explo ed he exis-
ence o signi ican di e ences be ween he mean alues o each
dimension and he highe a iables be o e and a e he p og am’s
implemen a ion. This allowed us o e alua e he e ec i eness o PElEO.
Second, we analysed he possible changes in he weigh o each o he
dimensions ha made up he a iable a e he implemen a ion o he
educa ional p og am in men and women. Thi d, we assessed he di -
e ences be ween men and women in he dimensions ha comp ise EP
be o e and a e applying he p og am.
3.2. Hypo heses
The e o e, he ollowing hypo heses a e p oposed:
•H1
0
. The e a e no di e ences in he mean alues o he pos - es o
he con ol (s uden s pa icipa ing in he adi ional p og am) and
expe imen al g oups (s uden s pa icipa ing in he PElEO p og am).
•H1
1
. The e a e di e ences in he mean alues o he pos - es o he
con ol (s uden s pa icipa ing in he adi ional p og am) and
expe imen al g oups (s uden s pa icipa ing in he PElEO p og am).
•H2
0
. The e a e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences in he mean
alues o EP and each o i s dimensions be o e and a e he appli-
ca ion o he PElEO p og am in men and women.
H
21
. The e a e s a is ically signi ican di e ences in he mean alues
o EP and each o i s dimensions be o e and a e he applica ion o
he PElEO p og am in men and women.
3.3. Popula ion and sample
The sample was ec ui ed using s a i ied p obabilis ic sampling. The
ollowing selec ion c i e ia we e applied: a) e i o ial s a is ics by
Au onomous Communi y (NUTS): Andalucía (ES61), Mad id (ES30),
Cas illa y Le´
on (ES41), Valencia (ES52), Cas illa-La Mancha (ES42), La
Rioja (ES23), País Vasco (ES21), and Na a a (ES22); b) he numbe o
s uden s egis e ed in Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining; c)
Fig. 1. Concep ual map o EP
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion based on Be nal, 2022, p. 47.
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he na u e o he educa ional cen e (public and p i a e); and d) gende .
The numbe o cen es ha pa icipa ed in he s udy we e: Andalucía
(15), Mad id (4), Cas illa y Le´
on (5), Valencia (5), Cas illa-La Mancha
(1), La Rioja (5), País Vasco (5), and Na a a (1). I is wo h men ioning
ha a leas one expe imen al g oup and a con ol g oup we e selec ed in
each cen e.
The sample comp ised o 1036 indi iduals. Speci ically, 440 e-
sponden s pa icipa ed in he con ol g oup (223 women and 217 men),
ha is, s uden s who did no ecei e he p og am, and 596 esponden s
belonged o he expe imen al g oup (299 women and 297 men).
Ini ially we assume ha he popula ion ollows a no mal dis ibu-
ion. Acco ding o Hai e al. (1999), i we assume ha he a iables
ollow a No mal dis ibu ion and gi en ha he popula ion size is un-
known, he minimum sample size equi ed would be de e mined by he
ollowing equa ion:
n=z
α
/
2
(p.q)
e2,
whe e:
n =sample size,
z
α
/
2
=pe cen ile o he dis ibu ion
p =es ima ed a iabili y in he popula ion
q =(1-p)
e =sampling e o
Fo a con idence le el o 95%, aking p =q =0.5 and a maximum
e o o 5%, he minimum sample size we would need o ou s udy
would be:
n=1,96(0,5*0,5)
0,052=384 indi iduals.
A e pe o ming he es o check he no mali y o he da a, he
esul shows ha he dis ibu ion o he a iables is no no mal. This
does no p e en us om pe o ming ANOVA analyses since his ype o
analysis is obus ( alid) when he sample size is la ge as in ou case.
This s a emen is suppo ed by esea ch by Blanca-Mena e al. (2017).
The p o iles o he su eyed s uden s a e lis ed in Table 1.
3.4. Ins umen s
The a iables we e measu ed using a scale p e iously de ined and
e i ied in he scien i ic li e a u e on his opic. Speci ically, he business
a i udes we e measu ed using he A i ude Towa d En e p ise Tes (ATE),
p oposed by A hayde (2009, 2012) and adap ed o he Spanish con ex
(ATE-S) by Be nal e al. (2021).
ATE is s uc u ed in o ou subscales ela ed o he dimensions o EP:
1) Leade ship o build wo k eams, make decisions, nego ia e, and plan.
2) C ea i i y o gene a e ideas ha acili a e he inno a ion p ocess; 3)
Goal O ien a ion wi h pe se e ance, p oac i i y, and goal achie emen ;
and 4) Pe sonal Con ol o manage and sel - egula e one’s beha iou s.
This is se in 30 i ems based on a Like scale, wi h esponses anging
om 0 ( o ally disag ee) o 7 ( o ally ag ee). The alidi y and eliabili y
o he ATE ha e been p e iously demons a ed in i s o iginal e sion,
wi h a C onbach’s alpha o 0.809, 0.752, 0.750, 0.725, and 0.829 o
Leade ship, C ea i i y, Goal O ien a ion, Pe sonal Con ol, and gene al
es , espec i ely (A hayde, 2009).
The Spanish e sion o he ATE-S allows he applica ion o his EP
measu emen ins umen o adolescen s. The ATE-S es (Be nal e al.,
2021) consis s o i e dimensions ha in eg a e and measu e EP: Lead-
e ship, C ea i i y, Goal O ien a ion, Pe sonal Con ol, and In ui ion o
P oblem Sol ing ( ou ini ial dimensions o he o iginal e sion o ATE
plus he dimension In ui ion o P oblem Sol ing). The la e e e s o
unce ain and in ense ci cums ances. These dimensions we e measu ed
using a i e-poin Like scale anging om o ally disag ee (0) o o ally
ag ee (5). The same ins umen was dis ibu ed o he con ol and
expe imen al g oups in he p e- es and pos - es .
3.5. P ocedu e
Fi s ly, we con ac ed he head o ices o he educa ional cen es ha
augh Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining, as well as he
eaching s a in ol ed in he subjec s “In oduc ion o En ep eneu ial
and Business Ac i i y” (subjec o Yea 11, which, wi h he cu en
change in legisla ion, is now called “Economy and En ep eneu ship”)
Table 1
Cha ac e is ics o he sample o s uden s in he con ol and expe imen al g oups.
Demog aphic ac o s Con ol g oup Expe imen al g oup To al
Nº(%) Nº(%) Nº(%)
Sex Man 223 50.68 299 50.17 522 50.39
Woman 217 49.32 297 49.83 514 49.61
To al 440 100.00 596 100.00 1036 100.00
Age (yea s) 12–16 173 39.32 282 47.32 455 43.92
17–20 169 38.41 212 35.57 381 36.78
21–25 69 15.68 62 10.40 131 12.64
O e 25 29 6.59 40 6.71 69 6.66
To al 440 100.00 596 100.00 1036 100.00
Educa ional s age Seconda y Educa ion 175 39.77 253 42.45 428 41.31
Baccalau ea e 6 1.36 25 4.19 31 2.99
Voca ional aining (Pos -Seconda y) 102 23.18 128 21.48 230 22.20
Voca ional aining (Ad anced) 157 35.68 190 31.88 347 33.49
To al 440 100.00 596 100.00 1036 100.00
Na u e o he educa ional cen e Public 344 78.18 427 71.64 771 74.42
Cha e 91 20.68 112 18.79 203 19.59
P i a e 5 1.14 57 9.56 62 5.98
To al 440 100.00 596 100.00 1036 100.00
Au onomous Communi y Andalucía 187 42.50 311 52.18 498 48.07
Mad id 68 15.45 105 17.62 173 16.70
Cas illa y Le´
on 37 8.41 50 8.39 87 8.40
Valencia 35 7.95 35 5.87 70 6.76
Cas illa La Mancha 0 0.00 21 3.52 21 2.03
La Rioja 16 3.64 63 10.57 79 7.63
País Vasco 97 22.05 11 1.85 108 10.42
To al 440 100.00 596 100.00 1036 100.00
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
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and “Business and En ep eneu ial Ini ia i e” (subjec o Voca ional
T aining, wi h he cu en change in legisla ion, is now called Pe sonal
I ine a y o Employabili y II). A e ag eeing o pa icipa e in he s udy,
an in o ma i e session was held on he applica ion o he ATE-S es and
implemen a ion o he p og am. The esea ch eam ad ised he eache s
o apply o he PElEO p og am in educa ional cen es.
P io o da a collec ion, he s uden g oups (o each eache
in ol ed) we e andomised o one condi ion o ano he (expe imen al o
con ol). The con ol and expe imen al g oups we e selec ed om
educa ional cen es. Pa icipan s in he con ol g oup had hei EP
measu ed in he p e- es and pos - es a ime poin s simila o hose o
he expe imen al g oup. The p e- es was conduc ed du ing he las week
o Janua y 2022, and he pos - es was pe o med in he second week o
June 2022. The p e- es and pos - es we e comple ed using Google
Fo ms. The s uden s ag eed o pa icipa e olun a ily in he s udy and
we e no in o med abou which g oup hey belonged o (con ol o
expe imen al) o p e en any o m o psychological eac i i y (Haw-
ho ne e ec ) ha could a ec hei spon aneous beha iou (McCa ney
e al., 2007).
Be ween he p e- es and pos - es , he expe imen al g oups imple-
men ed he PElEO p ojec , whe eas he con ol g oups conduc ed hei
classes ollowing a adi ional me hodology. The educa ional p og am
o he de elopmen o EP in adolescen s (PElEO) was designed o he
esea ch eam “XXXX, wi hin he p ojec en i led “XXXXX” XXXXX
(Code. XXXX). This p og am was de eloped in he expe imen al g oups
o his s udy, be ween he p e- es and pos - es measu es and du ing
school hou s.
PEIEO is o ganised ollowing he sequen ial s uc u e o a aining
p og am in o mal educa ion. I begins wi h a heo e ical ounda ion,
op ing o a pedagogy o en ep eneu ial educa ion as a holis ic concep ,
a ou ing he concilia ion be ween ‘en ep eneu ship educa ion’ and
‘en ep eneu ial educa ion’, which a e conside ed concep ual and
in e p e a i e amewo ks ha guide he meaning o ‘en ep eneu ial
educa ion’. This concep ual adop ion leads o an unde s anding o
en ep eneu ship ha goes beyond he c ea ion, managemen , and
de elopmen o business p ojec s, ex ending owa ds he con igu a ion
o signi ican pe sonal p ojec s in di e en en i onmen s o human ac-
ion. Nex , he cu icula in eg a ion o en ep eneu ial compe ence is
desc ibed as an educa ional subjec ha cu s ac oss di e en a eas o
knowledge and as speci ic con en in ce ain subjec s and modules.
The applica ion o he PElEO p og am equi ed p io aining o he
pa icipa ing eache s in cha ge o implemen ing he p og am in he
expe imen al g oups. The in e en ion was in eg a ed in o he didac ic
schedule o he p e iously men ioned subjec s and adap ed o he
cha ac e is ics o he class g oup. The du a ion o he in e en ion was
ou and a hal mon hs, and he session comp ised ac i i ies o 30–60
min. EP was add essed h ough p og am ac i i ies ela ed o he en e-
p eneu ial dimensions. Speci ically, en ac i i ies we e ca ied ou o
each o he dimensions, s essing ac i i ies linked o pe sonal, social, and
labou scopes. The se o ac i i ies ha make up he PEIEO p og am can
be ound in C´
a denas-Gu i´
e ez e al. (2023).
3.6. Da a analysis
A e ga he ing he da a, hey we e egis e ed, abula ed, and p e-
pa ed o ea men using SPSS s a is ical package .25. The in o ma ion
was analysed using desc ip i e and pa ame ic in e en ial s a is ics a e
mee ing he necessa y condi ions (Siegel, 1991). Because he sample size
was su icien ly la ge and he dis ibu ion o he da a was no mal, i was
possible o apply pa ame ic echniques o es he hypo heses.
Fi s , each dimension was modelled as a second-o de cons uc . This
modelling allowed o he agg ega ed alues o each o he dimensions
and highe a iables. To his end, Sma Pls .3.4 so wa e was used o
his pu pose.
Second, wi h he aim o e alua ing he impac o he educa ional
p og am on he dimensions conside ed, we analysed he exis ence o
signi ican di e ences be ween he mean alues o he scale (ATE-S) and
each o i s dimensions, conside ing he subsamples aken be o e and
a e he applica ion o he educa ional p og am, and compa ing he
alues o he con ol and expe imen al g oups. This did no allow us o
e i y ha all he s uden s (con ol and expe imen al g oups) s a ed
om he same ini ial le el, al hough i allowed us o s udy he e ec-
i eness o he educa ional p og am in imp o ing he le el o he s u-
den s in each dimension.
Thi d, we analysed whe he he e ec o he educa ional p og am on
EP di e ed be ween male and emale s uden s. To achie e his, we
explo ed he exis ence o s a is ically signi ican di e ences in he mean
alues o each dimension, compa ing he g oups o men and women
be o e and a e he applica ion o he PElEO p og am.
S uden ’s - es was pe o med (independen and pai ed samples). In
all cases, he s a is ical signi icance was se a
α
=0.05.
4. Findings
4.1. E ec i eness o he PElEO educa ional p og am
Table 2 p esen s he mean alues o each dimension be o e and a e
implemen ing he PElEO p og am o bo h he con ol and expe imen al
g oups. As can be obse ed, bo h he adi ional me hodology and he
PElEO p og am de eloped EP and all i s dimensions, wi h C ea i i y
(con ol =2.89; expe imen al =3.24) and In ui ion o P oblem Sol ing
(con ol =2.22; expe imen al =2.87) being he mos enhanced ai s in
bo h cases. Howe e , he e was g ea e a ia ion in he ob ained esul s
(p e-/pos - es ) when he educa ional p og am was applied a he gen-
e al le el and by dimension. Fo ins ance, he EP in he expe imen al
g oups inc eased by almos wo poin s mo e han ha in he con ol
g oups. This was also obse ed in he es o he dimensions, wi h he
di e ence being g ea e in some o hem (0.65 in In ui ion o P oblem
Sol ing) han in o he s (0.13 in Goal O ien a ion).
Wi h espec o he esul s ob ained in he expe imen al g oups
(Table 2), he analysis pe o med o he en i e sample e eals ha , a e
he applica ion o he PElEO p og am, he gene al mean alue eached in
EP (ATE) inc eased by 9.82 poin s (mean =95.49) o e he ini ial mean
eco ded (mean =85.67), ob aining a signi icance o p =0.000.
The mean EP alue is highe in he pos - es sco es han in he p e-
es sco es p io o he de elopmen o he PElEO p og am. In addi-
ion, i is ound ha he e a e s a is ically signi ican di e ences be-
ween he mean le el o he ini ial EP (ATE) sco e and he alue eached
a e he applica ion o he PElEO p og am, whe e he mean ob ained is
posi i ely skewed, as he p- alue is less han 0.05.
This si ua ion is epea ed in he speci ic dimensions ha make up he
Table 2
P opo ion o he ATE a iable and each dimension o he ATE-S scale (C ea-
i i y, Pe sonal Con ol, Goal O ien a ion, Leade ship, and In ui ion o P oblem
Sol ing) in he con ol and expe imen al g oups.
Dimensions G oup P e-
es
Mean
Pos -
es
Mean
P e- es
S anda d
De ia ion
Pos - es
S anda d
De ia ion
ATE Con ol 85.03 92.93 10.233 7.631
Expe imen al 85.67 95.49 8.701 7.376
C ea i i y Con ol 15.69 18.58 2.746 1.245
Expe imen al 15.90 19.14 2.475 1.233
Pe sonal
Con ol
Con ol 18.79 19.23 2.367 1.316
Expe imen al 18.97 19.79 2.152 1.390
Goal
O ien a ion
Con ol 20.42 21.79 3.130 2.180
Expe imen al 20.67 22.17 2.899 2.363
Leade ship Con ol 14.02 14.98 3.056 2.516
Expe imen al 14.09 15.48 2.901 2.771
In ui ion o
P oblem
Sol ing
Con ol 16.12 18.34 2.467 1.686
Expe imen al 16.04 18.91 2.274 1.535
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
´
A. Ma ín-Gu i´
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7
ATE (EP). Table 3 shows how hese dimensions show a s a is ically
signi ican inc ease (p =0.000). The mos de eloped dimensions a e
he applica ion o PElEO a e CRE and INT (3.24 and 2.87 poin s
espec i ely abo e he ini ial le el) and he leas enhanced wi h he
p og am is CON (0.82 poin s abo e he ini ial le el) which, in u n, was
he dimension wi h he highes mean in he p e es (mean =18.97).
Table 3 shows ha he e we e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences
in he p e- es sco es be ween he con ol and expe imen al g oups. In
o he wo ds, he indi iduals in bo h he con ol and expe imen al g oups
s a ed om he same ini ial si ua ion. Howe e , he esul s ob ained in
he pos - es showed s a is ically signi ican di e ences (p- alue below
0.05) in ATE and in all i s dimensions, wi h all he mean alues being
g ea e in he expe imen al g oup han in he con ol g oup. The e a e
di e ences in he mean alues o he pos - es o he con ol (s uden s
pa icipa ing in he adi ional p og am) and expe imen al g oups
(s uden s pa icipa ing in he PElEO p og am). This indica es ejec ion o
H1
0
and accep ance o H1
1
. The PElEO p og am was e ec i e and ach-
ie ed i s objec i es wi h espec o gene ic en ep eneu ship p og ams
( adi ional me hodology).
4.2. Di e ences in he EP o men and women a e he applica ion o he
PElEO p og am
As is shown in Table 4, in gene al, o bo h men and women in he
expe imen al g oup, i can be obse ed ha he p og am had a posi i e
and signi ican e ec on he EP o he s uden s and all i s dimensions
since he p- alue was lowe han 0.005 in all cases.
The analyses con i med signi ican di e ences in he mean alues o
EP and each o i s dimensions be o e and a e he implemen a ion o he
PElEO p og am. Howe e , he e we e no di e ences be ween men and
women. The e o e, H2
0
is accep ed, and he al e na i e (H2
1
) is ejec ed.
As can be obse ed in Table 4, on he one hand, in he p e- es (be o e
applying o he p og am), s a is ically signi ican di e ences we e
obse ed as a unc ion o gende in EP (ATE, sig. =0.003) as he p- alue
was lowe han 0.05. Speci ically, signi ican di e ences we e obse ed
be ween men and women a he beginning o he p og am in C ea i i y
(sig. =0.002) and Goal O ien a ion (sig. =0.000). In he emaining
cases, no di e ences we e de ec ed be ween he men and women.
The esul s o he pos - es (Table 4) showed no signi ican di e -
ences be ween men and women (p- alue below 0.05) nei he in gene al
(EP) no by dimension (C ea i i y, Pe sonal Con ol, Goal O ien a ion,
Leade ship, In ui ion o P oblem Sol ing). The e o e, al hough he
s a ing poin o men and women was no he same be o e ini ia ing he
PElEO p og am, since he women ob ained a highe sco e han he men
in some dimensions, he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial dimensions
was equalized a e comple ing he p og am. This indica es ha he
PElEO p og am had a g ea e impac on men han on women.
5. Discussion
This s udy, which was ocused on de e mining he e ec i eness o
he PElEO p og am in he de elopmen o EP in he adolescen popula-
ion in Spain and in he possible unde lying di e ences be ween men
and women, sheds ligh on se e al undamen al aspec s. I can be
concluded ha he p og am was e ec i e and p omo ed he de elop-
men o EP and i s i e dimensions in he g oup o indi iduals who
pa icipa ed in he p og am. The esul s highligh ha a s uden -cen ed
and sys ema ic me hodology can enhance he skills necessa y o
en ep eneu ship. These indings suppo p e ious s udies emphasizing
he need o c oss-cu icula , con ex ualised educa ion o os e en e-
p eneu ial skills (Bacigalupo e al., 2016), es ablishing a solid ounda-
ion o embedding p og ams like PElEO in educa ional cu icula.
Despi e i s e ec i eness, he p og am had no a di e en impac on
men and women. We obse ed in his ega d ha he e a e ce ain di-
mensions (C ea i i y and Goal O ien a ion) in which women ha e be e
sco es han men be o e applying o he p og am. We also disco e ed ha
men sco ed sligh ly highe in Pe sonal Con ol and In ui ion o P oblem
Sol ing, and ha he dimensions o C ea i i y and In ui ion o Sol ing
P oblems achie ed he bes esul s in he pos - es o bo h men and
women. The gende gap in he Leade ship dimension dec eased oo.
Howe e , di e en s udies ha e shown gende di e ences in en ep e-
neu ial in en ion (cogni ion ha guides he ac ion o he en ep eneu ial
pe son, which is a undamen al componen o EP), concluding ha i is
g ea e in men han in women in a wide a ie y o cul u es and
geog aphic scopes (Minni i & Na done, 2007; Zellwege e al., 2011).
Mo eo e , i has been demons a ed ha women ha e a lowe le el o
Table 3
T- es o he equali y o means o he con ol and expe imen al g oups (p e- es and pos - es di e ences) o he ATE a iable and each o he dimensions o he ATE-S
scale (C ea i i y, Pe sonal Con ol, Goal O ien a ion, Leade ship, and In ui ion o P oblem Sol ing).
Le ene’s es o
equali y o
a iances
T- es o equali y o means
F Sig. T Sig. (bila e al) Di e ence o means (Con ol g oup- Expe imen al
g oup)
S anda d e o
di e ence
ATE P e- es 7.873 0.005 −1.054
a
0.292 −0.637 0.604
Pos -
es
2.687 0.102 −5.444
a
0.000 −2.562 0.470
C ea i i y P e- es 2.344 0.126 −1.323
a
0.186 −0.216 0.163
Pos -
es
2.703 0.100 −7.091
a
0.000 −0.552 0.078
Pe sonal Con ol P e- es 3.612 0.058 −1.287
a
0.198 −0.182 0.141
Pos -
es
7.423 0.007 −6.711
b
0.000 −0.569 0.085
Goal O ien a ion P e- es 1.296 0.255 −1.336
a
0.182 −0.252 0.189
Pos -
es
15.979 0.000 −2.638
b
0.008 −0.375 0.142
Leade ship P e- es 1.186 0.276 −0.349
a
0.727 −0.065 0.187
Pos -
es
17.865 0.000 −3.020
b
0.003 −0.499 0.165
In ui ion o P oblem
Sol ing
P e- es 4.313 0.038 0.519
a
0.604 0.078 0.150
Pos -
es
1.916 0.167 −5.644
a
0.000 −0.568 0.101
No e.
a
Equal a iances a e assumed.
b
No equal a iances a e assumed.
´
A. Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez e al.
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8
con idence in hei en ep eneu ial skills han men (Wilson e al., 2007)
due o hei sel -pe cep ion o being less capable o ca ying ou a
business beha iou , along wi h he expe ience o ecei ing less suppo
om bo h he closes en i onmen and he social en i onmen (San os
e al., 2010). S udies such as hose by Fonseca e al. (2015) epo he
exis ence o signi ican di e ences be ween men and women ega ding
en ep eneu ial in en ion, concluding ha men’s en ep eneu ial
in en ion is associa ed wi h sel -e icacy o a g ea e ex en han
women’s en ep eneu ial in en ion, indica ing ha women p esen a
lack o knowledge, ea o ailu e, and doub s in hei skills o ca y ou
asks ela ed o en ep eneu ship. The e o e, scien i ic e idence shows
ha he di e ence be ween en ep eneu ial in en ion and gende is due
o psychological ac o s a he han social no ms (Jo ´
e, 2017) and ha
he e is an unde lying di ide in en ep eneu ial in en ion ha ma ks he
pe sonali y se ing (Obschonka e al., 2014).
On he con a y, o he au ho s poin ou ha he s a ing poin s a e
he same o bo h men and women in en ep eneu ial in en ion and a
he skill le el, and ha he di ide s a s o b oaden du ing e ia y ed-
uca ion and expands in he job ma ke (K iege e al., 2022).
In his espec , one possible explana ion o women sco ing highe in
he p e- es on he dimensions o C ea i i y and Goal O ien a ion may lie
in social and cul u al ac o s ha equi e hem o excel in hei ields o
in e es o be ecognised. Howe e , as hey begin o en e con ex s ha
a e, in a ce ain way, masculinised (o unde s ood as spaces o male
powe o domina ion), hey may become imme sed in he dynamics ha
limi hem.
These esul s a e in line wi h hose o Fonseca e al. (2015), who
s a ed ha , al hough women p esen a g ea e a ie y o skills in
adolescence, hey do no de elop en ep eneu ial business capaci y o a
signi ican ex en . Fo his eason, p og ams such as PElEO do no p o-
mo e meaning ul g ow h in hese skills, al hough hey do demons a e
ha women ha e p e iously de eloped, such as C ea i i y o Goal
O ien a ion. Fonseca e al. (2015) asse ha women a e a aid o ailu e
and do no us hei skills o pe o m asks ela ed o en ep eneu ship.
This could be ela ed o he s e eo ypical idea ha en ep eneu ial (and
p obably success ul) p ocesses a e ela ed o masculine skills and alues
(Laguía e al., 2019) because, as was also sugges ed by Gup a e al.
(2008), he exis ence o masculine s e eo ype ac i a ion, bo h implici
and explici , in luences people’s EP, e en i hese a e no delibe a ely
men ioned.
Thus, he PElEO p og am helped demons a e which dimensions o
EP a e al eady de eloped by women (C ea i i y, Pe sonal Con ol, Goal
O ien a ion, Leade ship and In ui ion o P oblem Sol ing), equi ing
u he s udies o analyze o he dimensions o EP ha ad hoc p og ams
could enhance. Some o hese dimensions a e ga he ed in he Eu opean
model En ecomp (including in he a eas o ideas and oppo uni ies,
esou ces and ac ions), which mus be used as a e e ence o he design
o en ep eneu ship educa ion p og ams om a gende pe spec i e ha
p omo es g ea e in ol emen o women in s udies ela ed o he sci-
en i ic and echnological scope and acili a es en ep eneu ship by op-
po uni y a he han necessi y.
The e o e, i is necessa y o expand he dimensions s udied in u u e
esea ch i we wan he gende gap o dec ease, pe haps by analysing he
di e ences in he en ep eneu ial in en ion o men and women,
conside ing his in en ion as he cogni ion ha guides he ac ion o he
en ep eneu owa ds he c ea ion o a company (Mo iano e al., 2007),
and, acco ding o Ma ín e al. (2013), p o ides s uden s wi h a i udes
and skills, which e e o he pe sonal dimension, along wi h business
knowledge ha inco po a es he economic dimension. This app oach
opens he possibili y o new s udies on en ep eneu ial educa ion and
gende (Nú˜
nez-Canal e al., 2023).
F om his pe spec i e, and based on his mul i ac o compila ion
unde lying he socio-educa ional dynamics ha impac he en ep e-
neu ial dimensions o EP, we p opose ha u u e en ep eneu ial p o-
g ams aimed a Seconda y Educa ion and Voca ional T aining should
include new dimensions o he EP and conside he ollowing elemen s o
imp o e he dimensions analysed in his wo k o bo h men and women:
A) C ea i i y:
•Ac i e Lea ning Me hodologies: Using me hods such as
p ojec -based lea ning and design hinking can enhance s u-
den s’ c ea i i y. Acco ding o Neck and G eene (2011), hese
me hodologies allow s uden s o de elop ideas expe imen ally,
add essing eal-wo ld p oblems and explo ing inno a i e
solu ions.
•Spaces o F ee Exp ession and Expe imen a ion: C ea ing
lea ning en i onmen s ha alue di e gen hinking, such as
inno a ion labs o make spaces, os e s c ea i i y (Fillis &
Ren schle , 2010). These spaces allow s uden s o explo e ideas
and concep s wi hou ea o making mis akes, a c ucial
elemen in c ea i e hinking.
B) Leade ship:
•Collabo a i e Ac i i ies and Ro a ing Leade ship Roles:
Encou aging eamwo k wi h gende balance and allowing
s uden s o o a e leade ship oles helps hem de elop skills o
guide o he s and make decisions (Baggen e al., 2016). These
p ac ical leade ship expe iences imp o e s uden s’ compe-
encies in eam managemen and e ec i e communica ion.
•Men o ship om Expe ienced Leade s: Es ablishing
men o ship p og ams whe e s uden s can in e ac wi h
Table 4
T- es o he equali y o means o men and women (p e- es and pos - es di e ences) o he ATE a iable and each o he dimensions o he ATE-S scale (C ea i i y,
Pe sonal Con ol, Goal O ien a ion, Leade ship, and In ui ion o P oblem Sol ing) in he expe imen al g oups.
Le ene’s es o equali y o
a iances
T- es o equali y o means
F Sig. T Sig. (bila e al) Di e ence o means (men -women) S anda d e o di e ence
ATE P e- es 0.258 0.611 −2.939
a
0.003 −2.082 0.708
Pos - es 0.017 0.898 0.405
a
0.685 0.245 0.605
C ea i i y P e- es 0.654 0.419 −3.115
a
0.002 −0.627 0.201
Pos - es 0.821 0.365 1.755
a
0.080 0.177 0.101
Pe sonal Con ol P e- es 0.093 0.760 0.401
a
0.689 0.071 0.176
Pos - es 5.119 0.024 −0.430
b
0.668 −0.049 0.114
Goal O ien a ion P e- es 0.125 0.724 −5.580
a
0.000 −1.293 0.232
Pos - es 0.435 0.510 1.243
a
0.214 0.240 0.194
Leade ship P e- es 0.179 0.673 −0.440
a
0.660 −0.105 0.238
Pos - es 0.494 0.483 0.326
a
0.745 0.074 0.227
In ui ion o P oblem Sol ing P e- es 0.075 0.784 −0.686
a
0.493 −0.128 0.186
Pos - es 9.343 0.002 −1.571
b
0.117 −0.197 0.126
No e.
a
Equal a iances a e assumed.
b
No equal a iances a e assumed.
´
A. Ma ín-Gu i´
e ez e al.
Social Sciences & Humani ies Open 11 (2025) 101365
9
