Digi al Skills in Dis ance Uni e si y S uden s: A Psychome ic
Analysis
Compe encias Digi ales en Es udian es Uni e si a ios a Dis ancia: Un
Análisis Psicomé ico
Luísa Ai es1
LE@D, Uni e sidade Abe a (Po ugal)
h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5649-276X
Lúcia Aman e
LE@D, Uni e sidade Abe a (Po ugal)
h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-3210-7980
Es he Fe nández-Má quez
Pablo de Ola ide Uni e si y (España)
h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-0111-2533h
Ca a ina Nunes
Uni e sidade Abe a (Po ugal)
h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9401-2616
Abs ac
In ecen yea s, esea ch on he digi al skills o highe educa ion s uden s has inc eased signi ican ly.
Howe e , many o he exis ing s udies ha e ocused p ima ily on iden i ying hese skills a he han explo ing
he ac o s ha in luence hei de elopmen . This s udy in es iga es he digi al skills o i s -yea
unde g adua e s uden s en olled a an online dis ance educa ion uni e si y, as well as hei key de e mining
ac o s. Employing a quan i a i e me hodology, he s uden s comple ed a Like -scale ques ionnai e as pa
o an online amilia iza ion module. Based on he indings, he s uden s' digi al skills we e g ouped in o he
ollowing ca ego ies: collabo a ion and c ea i i y, ne wo king, con en sha ing, in o ma ion managemen ,
in o ma ion e alua ion, and c i ical hinking. Addi ionally, he key in luencing ac o s we e iden i ied, including
he pe cei ed ease o using ICT o p oblem-sol ing, o ien a ion owa ds lea ning goals, pe sonal ini ia i e,
and sel - egula ion in he use o ICT and he In e ne . The esul s sugges ha bo h indi idual and social
s a egies ela ed o In e ne use play a c ucial ole on he acquisi ion o digi al skills. Fu u e esea ch should
explo e heo e ical amewo ks and, especially, e ine assessmen ools, shi ing he ocus om simply
desc ibing digi al compe encies o examining he ac o s ha in luence and p edic hei de elopmen . Such
heo e ical and me hodological adjus men s a e expec ed o signi ican ly eshape aining s a egies in his
ield.
1 Au o de co espondencia: lai [email protected]
Re is a Fuen es
2025, 27(2), 149-163
h ps://doi.o g/10.12795/ e is a uen es.2025.26469
Recibido: 2024-08-11
Re isado: 2024-09-03
Acep ado: 2025-03-11
Fi s Online: 2025-05-01
Publicación Final: 2025-05-15
REVISTA FUENTES,27(2), 149-163 www. e is ascien i icas.us.es/index.php/ uen es/index
Resumen
La in es igación sob e las compe encias digi ales se ha inc emen ado los úl imos años. Sin emba go, es as
in es igaciones se han cen ado más en iden i ica es as compe encias que en conside a los ac o es que
in luyen en su desa ollo. En es e es udio se analizan las compe encias digi ales de un g upo de es udian es
de una uni e sidad de educación a dis ancia. Op ándose po una me odología cuan i a i a, se aplicó un
cues iona io ipo Like online a un g upo de es udian es de nue o ing eso. Los da os ob enidos han sido
analizados con écnicas es adís icas desc ip i as e in e enciales. Los esul ados demos a on que las
compe encias digi ales mejo alo adas po los es udian es son: colabo ación, c ea i idad, abajo en ed,
in e cambio y ges ión de in o mación, e aluación de in o mación y pensamien o c í ico. Además, se han
iden i icado los siguien es ac o es cla e que de e minan el desa ollo de es as compe encias: acilidad de uso
de las TIC en la esolución de p oblemas; o ien ación hacia los obje i os de ap endizaje; inicia i a pe sonal,
au o egulación en el uso de TIC/In e ne . Se concluye que es a egias indi iduales, sociales y ac i udinales
especi icas hacia In e ne ienen un impac o impo an e en la adquisición e ec i a de es as compe encias. En
in es igaciones u u as, se ecomienda p o undiza en los ma cos eó icos y, especialmen e, en los
ins umen os de e aluación de es as compe encias, ampliando el oco de la desc ipción de las compe encias
digi ales hacia los ac o es que condicionan y p edicen su desa ollo. Se es ima que cambios eó icos y
me odológicos de es e ipo impulsa án ans o maciones signi ica i as en las es a egias o ma i as en es e
ámbi o.
Palab as cla e / Keywo ds
Compe encia Digi al, In e ne , Educación a Dis ancia, Es udian es, Educación Supe io , Ins umen o de
E aluación.
Digi al Skills, In e ne , Dis ance Educa ion, S uden s, Highe Educa ion, Assessmen ool, Lea ning.
1. In oduc ion
In ecen yea s, he e has been a g owing body o esea ch on he digi al skills o highe educa ion s uden s.
Howe e , many o he exis ing s udies ha e ocused p ima ily on desc ibing he s uden s' exis ing skills, a he
han explo ing he unde lying ac o s ha in luence hei de elopmen . The li e a u e e iew highligh s a
p e ailing endency o add ess digi al compe encies as isola ed en i ies, disconnec ed om he b oade
con ex s and ac o s ha de e mine hem (Ha gi ai, 2021; Wu e al., 2021; Раkhomo a e al., 2023).
Apa om heo e ical models, e ec i e assessmen ools a e essen ial o measu ing digi al compe ence.
Howe e , despi e he exis ence o a ious amewo ks designed o e alua e digi al skills (Schwa z e al., 2024),
such as DigComp 2.0 o DigComp 21 (Vuo ika i e al, 2016; Ca e e o e al., 2017), cu en assessmen
sys ems s uggle o es ablish sys ema ic and e icien e alua ion me hods. This highligh s he need o imp o e
measu emen app oaches (Silla e al., 2021) and he iden i ica ion o he key p edic o a iables o digi al
p o iciency (Cabezas- González e al, 2022).
In ligh o ongoing digi al ans o ma ions and he challenges educa ional communi ies aced du ing he
Co id-19 pandemic, digi al compe encies (o lack he eo ) and he me hods o e alua e hem ha e become a
cen al opic o discussion ac oss all educa ional le els, including uni e si ies (Zhao e al., 2021; Saienko e
al., 2022; Mon e a o, 2024).
This s udy examines digi al skills wi hin he b oade amewo k o 21s -cen u y compe encies, ocusing no
only on s uden s’ digi al skills, bu also on he ac o s ha in luence hei unequal de elopmen . The li e a u e
e iew conduc ed emphasized he ele ance o he s udies by Van Laa e al. (2017, 2020) and Helspe (2019),
who o e aluable insigh s in o he key de e minan s o digi al skills and hei de elopmen . Thei indings a e
pa icula ly ele an o online dis ance lea ning uni e si ies, which ha e long ecognized he c ucial ole o
digi al compe encies in p omo ing s uden inclusion wi hin i ual campuses, enhancing academic success,
and imp o ing o e all educa ional ou comes (Mohammadya i & Singh, 2015; Pham T a & Dau Thi Kim, 2024).
As Fe nández-Gómez e al. (2021) poin ed ou , dis ance educa ion models a o he adop ion o mo e
collabo a i e me hodologies, which os e digi al li e acy. The e o e, as online dis ance uni e si ies p io i ize
REVISTA FUENTES, 27(2), 149-163 www. e is ascien i icas.us.es/index.php/ uen es/index
he inclusion o digi al skills in hei pedagogical models (Pe ei a e al., 2007; G os Sal a e al., 2009), hey
ac i ely con ibu e o ad ancing esea ch in his ield (Quin as-Mendes e al., 2019; Sezgin & Fı a , 2024).
This s udy is pa o a esea ch p ojec ha aims o analyze he digi al skills o newly en olled uni e si y
s uden s. The i s phase ocuses on e alua ing he digi al skills o i s -yea s uden s and he ac o s ha
de e mine hei de elopmen . A ques ionnai e was adminis e ed o he s uden s du ing a manda o y online
amilia iza ion module (OFM) comple ed p io o he s a o hei deg ee p og ams. The esul s highligh he
need o changes bo h in he me hodological app oaches and assessmen ools cu en ly employed o e alua e
digi al skills.
1.1 Digi al Skills in he 21s Cen u y
Many s udies associa e he digi al di ide and digi al skills o poli ical, social, and educa ional agendas (EU,
2021), ye hei ole in key educa ional p io i ies in he 21s cen u y is no e iden (Voog & Roblin, 2012; Soule
& Wa ick, 2015; an Deu sen e al., 2017; Sezgin & Fı a , 2024). This gap emphasizes he need o de ine o
cla i y he concep s o digi al skills and 21s -cen u y skills. The e a e nume ous de ini ions o digi al skills
depending on he amewo k used o ca ego ize hem. In gene al, digi al skills e e o he abili y o use digi al
echnologies o wo k, leisu e, and communica ion (F om, 2017). Howe e , a mo e de ailed and ope a ional
de ini ion, in line wi h Fe a i (2012), desc ibes digi al skills as he se o abili ies equi ed o pe o m asks,
sol e p oblems, and c ea e and sha e knowledge in a c i ical, e hical, and au onomous manne , ac oss he
domains o wo k, social pa icipa ion, leisu e, and pe sonal de elopmen (Koch & Fehlmann, 2025). Cu en
in es iga ions on he opic has ound ha digi al inclusion and digi al skills also os e mul iple expe iences o
in e ne use (Ha gi ai e al., 2018; Helspe , 2019; an Laa e al., 2020).
Twen y- i s -cen u y skills encompass ounda ional pe sonal, social, and p o essional abili ies ha empowe
indi iduals o engage in a ious dimensions o he knowledge socie y. These compe encies a e ans e sal
and mul idimensional, combining knowledge, a i udes, and alues, as well as os e ing highe -o de hinking
o sol e complex p oblems, and deal wi h unce ain si ua ions (OECD, 2018). Gi en ha hese cons uc s a e
in e connec ed, an Deu sen e al. (2017) and an Laa e al. (2020) ha e p oposed me ging 21s -cen u y
skills and digi al skills in o a single amewo k, e med 21s -cen u y digi al skills (see Table 1). This p oposal
aims o enhance he ole o digi al compe encies in educa ion, wo k, and social pa icipa ion (Helspe e al.,
2016), placing indi iduals, hei con ex s, communi ies, and b oade ela ionships a he co e o digi al
educa ion.
Table 1
Twen y- i s cen u y digi al skills
(Sou ce. an Laa e al., 2018, 2019b, 2020).
Theo e ical pe spec i es on digi al li e acy and digi al skills ha e de eloped signi ican ly and been
consolida ed o e he pas i e yea s, bu much s ill needs o be done ega ding he de elopmen o
assessmen ools. The e emains a c i ical need o ools ha go beyond me ely desc ip i e e alua ions,
capable o o e ing p edic i e and comp ehensi e assessmen s ha accoun o con ex ual and indi idual
di e ences. They should encompass a b oade ange o compe encies, including c i ical hinking and o he
highe -o de cogni i e abili ies, while also ac i ely engaging s uden s, eache s, and communi y membe s.
Reliable assessmen o digi al skills and so skills a e essen ial, oo ed in obus eliabili y me hodologies ha
do no comp omise s uden s' eadiness o ace he di e se demands o daily li e (Peláez-Sánchez e al., 2024).
1.2 De e minan s o 21s cen u y Digi al Skills
Resea ch on digi al skills has o en elied on unidimensional app oaches ha ail o conside ac o s ha
in luence digi al skill acquisi ion. Ye , i is c i ically impo an no only o unde s and how indi iduals acqui e
21s Cen u y Digi al Skills
In o ma ion Managemen
Communica ion
Collabo a ion
C ea i i y
C i ical Thinking
P oblem Sol ing
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hese digi al skills bu also o iden i y he ac o s ha shape hei de elopmen ( an Deu sen e al., 2020;
Casillas-Ma ín e al, 2020; Cabezas-González e al, 2022). Howe e , ecen s udies ( an Laa e al.,2019a,
2020; Cabezas-González e al, 2022) ha e in oduced a mul idimensional app oach o 21s -cen u y In e ne
skills, highligh ing he ac o s ha in luence hei de elopmen . This p oposal depa s om he ins umen al
pe spec i e ha has adi ionally domina ed aining in his domain, posi ioning he de elopmen o digi al
compe ences as a cen al p io i y wi hin he con ex o li elong lea ning. Ou s udy is in line wi h his pe spec i e
by ocusing on he social, indi idual, and mo i a ional de e minan s ha a e conside ed ele an o examine
indi idual di e ences. Fac o s such as ease o use, pe cep ions o ICT, sel -di ec ed lea ning, pe o mance,
and socio-con ex ual a iables, including suppo o in e ne use, a e p oposed as po en ial p edic o s ha
can accoun o a ia ions in digi al skill acquisi ion (Table 2).
Table 2
De e minan s o 21s cen u y Digi al Skills
De e minan s
ICT A i ude
Pe cei ed ease o use
ICT sel - egula ion
Sel -di ec ed lea ning
Pe o mance goal o ien a ion
A oidance lea ning goal o ien a ion
Pe sonal Ini ia i e
(Sou ce: an Laa e al. 2019b; 2020)
1.3 Highe Educa ion S uden s and Digi al Skills
When s uden s en e Highe Educa ion and begin hei unde g adua e s udies, hey a e equi ed o
demons a e a b oad ange o skills o ensu e hei pa icipa ion in new lea ning en i onmen s. Among hese,
digi al skills a e c i ical o s uden s o e ec i ely engage in di e se campus con ex s and a e especially c ucial
in online campuses (Gu ie ez e al., 2009, Alme ich e al., 2019; Pe e a & Ga dne , 2018; EU, 2017; 2021;
Sezgin & Fı a , 2024; Smi h e al., 2024). In online se ings, s uden s will encoun e lea ning expe iences ha
equi e mo e han basic echnological usage. The online lea ning skills hey mus de elop encompass
pedagogical, indi idual and social compe encies ailo ed o lea ning con ex s. Key skills o success ul online
lea ning include independen lea ning, ime managemen , online communica ion, in e pe sonal in e ac ions,
and wellbeing (Pe ei a e al., 2003; Koch & Fehlmann, 2025). The e o e, uni e si ies mus p io i ize he
de elopmen o hese skills in hei educa ional goals and s a egies (Palmei o, Pe eda & Ai es, 2019; De
Pablos, 2018; Saienko, Ku ysh, & Siliu ina, 2022).
To be e unde s and he s uden s’ needs in he domain o digi al compe encies, his s udy pu sued he
ollowing goals:
G1. To analyze he digi al skills o i s -yea s uden s en olled a an online dis ance educa ion uni e si y.
G2. To iden i y he key ac o s in luencing he de elopmen o s uden s’ digi al skills.
G3. To op imize an assessmen ool o e alua e digi al skills.
2. Me hods
This quan i a i e s udy analyzed he pe cep ions o incoming unde g adua e s uden s a a dis ance
educa ion uni e si y ega ding hei digi al skills, aiming o answe he ollowing ques ions:
Q1: Wha a e he s uden s’ pe spec i es on hei digi al skills as hey begin hei unde g adua e s udies a
an online dis ance uni e si y?
Q2: Wha social and indi idual de e minan s in luence he s uden s’ digi al skills?
2.1 Resea ch Con ex
The s uden s who pa icipa ed in his s udy we e en olled a an online dis ance educa ion uni e si y, and
we e equi ed o a end a manda o y online amilia iza ion module (OFM). Speci ically designed o newly
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admi ed s uden s, he OFM is in acco dance wi h he uni e si y's pedagogical model (Pe ei a e al., 2007;
Mendes e al., 2019; A e io, 2014, 2021; Willems e al., 2019). The OFM se es o amilia ize new s uden s
wi h he uni e si y’s digi al lea ning en i onmen and each hem "how o be an online s uden ". I o e s each
s uden he oppo uni y o e alua e hei eadiness o adap o his lea ning sys em.
2.2 Sample
The s udy sample consis ed o 327 s uden s abou o s a hei deg ees in Sep embe 2020. Newly admi ed
unde g adua e s uden s we e selec ed because i was c ucial o unde s and hei baseline digi al skills,
pa icula ly hei In e ne skills, upon en e ing uni e si y. The insigh s ob ained help o iden i y he s uden s'
po en ial and hei needs in he a ea o digi al li e acy. P io in o med consen was ob ained om all s uden s
in ol ed in he s udy.
2.3 Da a Collec ion Ins umen
Da a we e collec ed using a Like -scale ques ionnai e adap ed om p e ious s udies ( an Deu sen e al.,
2017; an Laa e al., 2018; an Laa e al., 2019a). The ques ionnai e was designed o assess a b oad ange
o digi al skills, such as in o ma ion managemen , communica ion, collabo a ion, c i ical hinking, c ea i i y, and
p oblem-sol ing. Addi ionally, i inco po a ed cons uc s ela ed o he s uden s' pe sonal, mo i a ional, and
social pe cep ions, including pe cei ed ease o use, sel - egula ion o ICT use, au onomous lea ning,
o ien a ion owa ds lea ning goals, a oidance o lea ning-goal o ien a ion, and pe sonal ini ia i e ( an Laa e
al., 2019b) (Table 4).
This ques ionnai e included a o al o 91 i ems: i e i ems on desc ip i e da a (gende , age, educa ion le el,
academic s a us, and p o essional ac i i y), and 86 i ems ela ed o indica o s ha co e 21s -cen u y digi al
skills and hei de e mining ac o s, using a 5-poin Like scale (“Ne e ,” “Ra ely,” “Some imes,” “O en,” and
“Almos always”) ( an Laa e al., 2019a, 2019b). Fo he pu poses o his s udy, we ocused on he ollowing
h ee sec ions o he ques ionnai e: (i) sociodemog aphic da a, (ii) In e ne use wi hin he OFM, and (iii)
s a egies o online discussion and c i ical hinking.
This esea ch p ojec complied wi h he e hical s anda ds o educa ional esea ch. All esea ch p ocedu es
and ques ionnai es we e e iewed and app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o LE@D (Labo a ó io de Educação
e Ensino a Dis ância, Uni e sidade Abe a) in Sep embe 2019.
2.4 Da a Analysis P ocedu es
All he da a analyses we e conduc ed using IBM SPSS ( e sion 25) and R so wa e. S a is ical signi icance
was se a P < 0.05.
The da a analysis was pe o med in wo phases. In he i s phase, a desc ip i e analysis was pe o med
on he esul s o he ques ionnai e’s wo main sec ions: (i) Uses o he In e ne wi hin he OFM; and (ii) Online
Discussion S a egies. The i s sec ion comp ised 74 i ems aimed assessing he s uden s’ sel -pe cei ed
usage o he In e ne wi hin he scope o he cou se. In his sec ion, s uden s sel -assessed hei digi al
compe encies in in o ma ion managemen , communica ion, collabo a ion, c ea i i y, and p oblem sol ing, as
well as he de e minan s o digi al compe encies, such as pe cei ed ease o use, sel - egula ion o ICT use,
au onomous lea ning, lea ning goal o ien a ion, pe o mance goal o ien a ion, a oidance o lea ning goal
o ien a ion, and pe sonal ini ia i e ( an Laa e al., 2019a, 2019b).
The second sec ion consis ed o 12 i ems ocusing on online discussions in he OFM’s o ums. In his
sec ion, s uden s sel -assessed he esou ces hey mobilized in online discussions, such as c i ical hinking
(Appendices 1 and 2).
A desc ip i e da a analysis was conduc ed o each sec ion. To e i y in e nal consis ency, C onbach's
alpha was calcula ed (C onbach, 1984). No mali y was assessed using skewness and ku osis. The sui abili y
o applying ac o analysis was es ed using he Kaise -Meye -Olkin (KMO) coe icien and Ba le ’s es o
sphe ici y (Hai e al., 2014).
The second phase o he da a analysis consis ed o an Explo a o y Fac o Analysis using P incipal
Componen s and he Va imax o a ion wi h Kaise no maliza ion. The main goal was o ob ain he minimum
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numbe o componen s ha explained he g ea es amoun o o al a iance obse ed, and o iden i y he
ac o s ha s uden s conside ed essen ial in each domain. In addi ion, a Con i ma o y Fac o Analysis (wi h
unweigh ed leas -squa es es ima ion) was pe o med o e i y whe he he da a con i med he s uc u al model
ob ained by he Explo a o y Fac o Analysis.
In iew o he esul s ob ained, we belie e ha his is a eliable and us wo hy assessmen ool, in line wi h
goal 3 (G3) o his esea ch.
3. Resul s
3.1 Sample Desc ip ion
A o al o 800 access ins ances o he ques ionnai e link we e eco ded, esul ing in 327 comple ed
ques ionnai es, ep esen ing a 70% esponse a e. Table 3 p esen s he demog aphic da a o he s uden s
who pa icipa ed in he s udy.
Table 3
S uden demog aphics (au ho s’ elabo a ion)
N (%)
Gende
Female
198 (60,6%)
Male
129 (39,4%)
Age (yea s)
18-30
61 (18,7%)
31-45
171 (52,4%)
46 - 60
95 (29,1%)
Educa ion
Basic
6 (1,8%)
Seconda y
250 (76,5%)
Unde g adua e
55(16,8%)
Mas e
14 (4,3%)
PhD
2 (0,6%)
Academic Si ua ion
Full-Time S uden
24 (7,3%)
Pa -Time S uden
303 (92,7%)
Employmen Si ua ion
Employed
288 (88,1%)
Unemployed
36 (11%)
Ne e had a job
3 (0,9%)
The sample was mos ly composed o emale s uden s, aged p edominan ly 31 o 45 yea s old. Seconda y
educa ion is he mos common le el o comple ed educa ion, and a signi ican po ion o he sample we e
s uden wo ke s (Table 3).
3.2 Da a Analysis
Fo he i s sec ion on “Uses o he In e ne wi hin he OFM,” C onbach's alpha was 0.962, while in he
second sec ion “Online Discussion S a egies”, he C onbach's alpha was 0.946, e lec ing a high deg ee o
in e nal consis ency in bo h sec ions.
All i ems we e assessed o no mali y. Skewness was on a e age -0.114 ± 0.242 and ku osis a e aged
2.954 ± 0.435, indica ing, he e o e, ha no ans o ma ions we e equi ed.
The explo a o y ac o analysis conduc ed on he sec ion “Uses o he In e ne wi hin he OFM” iden i ied
11 ac o s, based on he K aise c i e ia, explaining 68.68% o he a iance. The Kaise -Meye -Olkin (KMO)
coe icien was 0.930 and he esul ob ained om Ba le ’s es o sphe ici y was P < 0.001.
All i ems had ac o loadings o g ea e han 0.5, and he componen ma ix exhibi ed a well-de ined
s uc u e. Fi een i ems wi h loadings below 0.5 we e emo ed (Ai es, Pe eda, Palmei o, Aman e. & Nunes,
2021).
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The con i ma o y ac o analysis con i med ha all he pa hs in he model we e s a is ically signi ican . Fi
indices o esiduals indica ed a good model-da a i : Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA) =
0.028; S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e Residual (SRMR)=0.066. The Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI) was 0.991
and he Tucke -Lewis Index (TLI) was 0.990, indica ing a good model-da a i . The C onbach's alpha o he
emaining 59 i ems was 0.952, indica ing a high deg ee o in e nal consis ency.
In he explo a o y ac o analysis o he “Online Discussion S a egies” sec ion, he Sc ee Plo componen
ex ac ion me hod was applied because he e we e only 12 i ems (Hai , Black, Babin, & Ande son, 2014). The
KMO coe icien was 0.942 and a P < 0.001 was ob ained in Ba le ’s es o sphe ici y.
All i ems had ac o loadings g ea e han 0.5, and he componen ma ix exhibi ed a well-de ined s uc u e.
Two ac o s we e iden i ied, which explained 71.95% o he o al a iance. The con i ma o y ac o analysis
showed ha all he pa hs in he model we e s a is ically signi ican . The i indices o esiduals indica e a good
model-da a i : RMSEA < 0.001; SRMR=0.036. The CFI and TLI we e bo h g ea e han 0.999, indica ing a
good model-da a i . The C onbach's alpha emains he same a 0.946, since no i ems we e emo ed.
O e all, hi een ac o s we e iden i ied in he explo a o y ac o analysis. These ac o s we e g ouped in o
wo b oad ca ego ies: se en ac o s ela ed o 21s -cen u y digi al skills, and six ac o s associa ed wi h he
de e minan s o digi al skills (Table 4, Figu es 2 and 3). Conside ing hese wo b oad ca ego ies, C onbach's
alpha alues we e 0.956 and 0.914, espec i ely, e lec ing a high deg ee o in e nal consis ency. When
examining he ac o s indi idually, C onbach's alpha anged om 0.894 o 0.940.
Figu e 1: Digi al In e ne Skills: Ca ego ies wi h he highes and lowes le els (au ho s’ elabo a ion).
Figu e 1 p esen s a compa a i e o e iew o he digi al skill ca ego ies, highligh ing he a eas in which
s uden s ob ained he highes and lowes sco es. The highes -sco ing ca ego ies include In o ma ion
Managemen , Communica ion: Exp essi eness, C i ical Thinking, Pe cei ed Ease o Use, and Au onomous
Lea ning. These esul s sugges ha s uden s possess s ong compe encies in managing in o ma ion,
exp essing hemsel es in digi al communica ion, hinking c i ically, and lea ning independen ly, as well as
pe cei ing digi al ools as easy o use. The s a egies adop ed in online dis ance in e ac ions, pa icula ly
c i ical hinking, yielded consis en ly high sco es. All i ems in his ca ego y ha e a median o 4, excep o he
i em "Use he In e ne o jus i y [my] choices", which had a median is 3.
In con as , he lowes -sco ing ca ego ies include Communica ion: Ne wo king, Communica ion:
Knowledge Sha ing, and A oidance Lea ning Goal O ien a ion.
4. Discussion
The sample was p edominan ly composed o emale s uden s, he majo i y o which alling wi hin he 31-45
age g oup. Mos pa icipan s had comple ed seconda y educa ion, and a signi ican po ion we e s uden
wo ke s, highligh ing he c ucial ole o dis ance educa ion uni e si ies in li elong lea ning.
Highes Sco es
In o ma ion Managemen
Communica ion: Exp essi eness
C i ical Thinking
Pe cei ed Ease o Use
Au onomous Lea ning
A oidance lea ning goal o ien a ion
Communica ion: Ne wo king
Communica ion: Knowledge Sha ing
Lowes Sco es
REVISTA FUENTES,27(2), 149-163 www. e is ascien i icas.us.es/index.php/ uen es/index
The desc ip i e s a is ical analysis highligh s ha s uden s a e p o icien in handling digi al in o ma ion
e ec i ely, a icula ing ideas clea ly in digi al in e ac ions, applying c i ical hinking skills, and independen ly
na iga ing digi al lea ning en i onmen s wi h con idence in hei usabili y. Howe e , he indings also sugges
ha s uden s ace challenges in es ablishing academic o p o essional ne wo ks, ac i ely engaging in digi al
knowledge-sha ing p ac ices, and main aining a p oac i e lea ning mindse in online en i onmen s. These
indings a e in line wi h p e ious esea ch indica ing use p o iciency in accessing in o ma ion and digi al
communica ion. Howe e , while hese insigh s a e aluable, u he explo a ion o he collec ed da a h ough
ac o analysis is essen ial o ob ain mo e subs an ia ed answe s o he esea ch goals and ques ions.
The explo a o y ac o analysis iden i ied hi een ac o s. In he “Uses o he In e ne wi hin he OFM”,
ele en ac o s we e iden i ied based on K aise c i e ia, explaining 68.68% o he a iance. All i ems had ac o
loadings g ea e han 0.5, and he componen ma ix had a well-de ined s uc u e. Fi een i ems wi h loadings
below0.5 we e emo ed (Ai es, Pe eda, Palmei o, Aman e & Nunes, 2021). The con i ma o y ac o analysis
showed ha all he model’s pa hs we e s a is ically signi ican . Fi indices o esiduals indica ed a good model-
da a i : Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA) = 0.028; S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e
Residual (SRMR)=0.066. The Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI) was 0.991 and he Tucke -Lewis Index (TLI) was
0.990, indica ing a good model-da a i . The C onbach's alpha o he emaining 59 i ems was 0.952, indica ing
a high deg ee o in e nal consis ency.
In he explo a o y ac o analysis o he “Online discussion s a egies” sec ion, he Sc ee Plo componen
ex ac ion me hod was applied because he e we e only 12 i ems (Hai , Black, Babin, & Ande son, 2014). All
i ems had ac o loadings g ea e han 0.5, and he componen ma ix had a well-de ined s uc u e. Two ac o s
we e iden i ied, which explained 71.95% o he o al a iance. The con i ma o y ac o analysis showed ha all
he model’s pa hs we e s a is ically signi ican . Fi indices o esiduals indica e a good model-da a i : RMSEA
< 0.001; SRMR=0.036. The CFI and TLI we e bo h > 0.999, indica ing a good model-da a i .
Thi een ac o s we e clus e ed in o wo b oad ca ego ies: se en ac o s ela ed o 21s -cen u y digi al skills,
and six ac o s associa ed wi h he de e minan s o digi al skills (Table 4).
In he ollowing sec ions, we will discuss he esul s o each o hese dimensions, in line wi h he main goals
and ques ions o his s udy.
Table 4
Resul ing ac o s clus e ed in he 21s cen u y Digi al Skills and De e minan s o 21s cen u y Digi al Skills
(au ho s’ elabo a ion)
21s Cen u y Digi al Skills
De e minan s o 21s Cen u y Digi al Skills
Fac o s
Ca ego ies
Fac o s
Ca ego ies
Fac o 1
Collabo a ion and C ea i i y
Fac o 2
Ease o Use o ICT and P oblem Sol ing
Fac o 3
Communica ion: ne wo king
Fac o 4
O ien a ion owa ds lea ning objec i es
Fac o 5
Communica ion: con en sha ing
Fac o 6
Pe sonal Ini ia i e
Fac o 9
In o ma ion managemen
Fac o 7
Au o egula ion in ICT/ In e ne
Fac o 11
In o ma ion e alua ion
Fac o 8
A oidance lea ning goal o ien a ion
Fac o 12
C i ical Thinking: Indi idual pe spec i e
Fac o 10
Sha ing
Fac o 13
C i ical Thinking: Social pe spec i e
Table 4 p esen s he s uden s' digi al compe ences in he le -hand column and he key de e mining ac o s
o hese compe ences in he igh -hand column.
4.1 Twen y- i s cen u y digi al skills
The esul s o he Fac o Analysis ela ed o 21s -cen u y digi al skills in lea ning con ex s a e p esen ed in
Figu e 2. These esul s show he ac o s, i ems in each ac o , espec i e loadings, and pe cen age o a iance
explained by each ac o .
REVISTA FUENTES, 27(2), 149-163 www. e is ascien i icas.us.es/index.php/ uen es/index
Figu e 2: 21s Cen u y Digi al Skills iden i ied h ough Fac o Analysis (au ho s’ elabo a ion).
In ela ion o he s uden s' pe cep ions on hei digi al skills a he s a o hei unde g adua e s udies a an
online dis ance uni e si y—add essing esea ch ques ion 1 (Q1)— he analysis g ouped he compe encies in o
se en ac o s (Figu e 2). In u n, hese se en ac o s highligh h ee key dimensions:
• Fac o 1 - Collabo a ion and C ea i i y: This ac o includes join ac i i ies and c ea i e p ocesses
wi hin he same con ex . I is he mos signi ican , explaining 29.79% o he a iance.
• Fac o s 3, 5, 9, and 11 - Communica ion and In o ma ion: These ac o s ha e high loadings and
emphasize ne wo king communica ion, con en -sha ing compe ences, as well as wo o he
undamen al compe encies in he lea ning p ocess: managing and accessing in o ma ion.
• Fac o s 12 and 13 - C i ical Thinking: These ac o s highligh a key 21s -cen u y digi al compe ency
in bo h social and indi idual dimensions. Howe e , he indi idual pe spec i e explains 64.08% o
he a iance, indica ing a s ong emphasis on pe sonal in o ma ion analysis and p oblem-sol ing
compe encies.
Based on hese dimensions, ac o s, and ca ego ies iden i ied h ough he ac o analysis, he da a p o ides
a p o isional mapping o essen ial digi al skills o dis ance highe educa ion in he 21s cen u y. C ea i i y in
digi al lea ning en i onmen s is ein o ced h ough collabo a ion (Dwye e al., 2014). Addi ionally, he as
amoun o in o ma ion a ailable online equi es s uden s o de elop speci ic skills in managing and e alua ing
in o ma ion (Saienko e al., 2022; Silla & Laanpe e, 2021).
