Academic Edi o s: Igo Ma ek and
Mehdi Ami khani
Recei ed: 19 May 2025
Re ised: 2 June 2025
Accep ed: 10 June 2025
Published: 12 June 2025
Ci a ion: Delgado-Gu ie ez, E.;
Rubio-Bellido, C.; Cani ell, J. The mal
Com o in Social Housing in Ecuado :
Do F ee-Running Buildings Wo k in
Cu en and Fu u e Clima es?
Buildings 2025,15, 2018. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/buildings15122018
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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
The mal Com o in Social Housing in Ecuado : Do
F ee-Running Buildings Wo k in Cu en and Fu u e Clima es?
E elyn Delgado-Gu ie ez , Ca los Rubio-Bellido * and Jacin o Cani ell
Highe Technical School o Building Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille 41012, Spain;
[email p o ec ed] (E.D.-G.); [email p o ec ed] (J.C.)
*Co espondence: ca los [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Ecuado aces a signi ican housing de ici , p omp ing go e nmen policies
aimed a imp o ing access o social housing o ulne able amilies. Despi e i s ela i ely
small geog aphic size, he coun y exhibi s subs an ial clima ic di e si y, encompassing
en dis inc Köppen–Geige clima e zones. These ange om opical ain o es s o high-
al i ude Andean egions, each equi ing speci ic housing s a egies. Howe e , social
housing uni s a e ypically designed using a s anda dized model ha dis ega ds egional
clima ic a ia ions, leading o subop imal he mal pe o mance and ene gy ine iciencies.
This s udy e alua es he he mal com o pe o mance o s anda dized ee- unning social
housing ac oss six dis inc can ons, using he ASHRAE 55-2020 adap i e com o model.
Dynamic simula ions we e conduc ed o bo h cu en clima ic condi ions and u u e
scena ios o 2050 and 2100, employing ools such as Me eono m 8.1 ( o wea he da a),
Ene gyPlus 9.4.0, and DesignBuilde 7.0 ( o he mal modeling). The indings e eal
signi ican di e ences in indoo com o le els among iden ical housing uni s due o
localized clima e condi ions. No ably, high-al i ude egions showed imp o ed he mal
pe o mance unde u u e scena ios, whe eas coas al lowland a eas expe ienced inc eased
discom o . These esul s unde sco e he u gen need o clima e- esponsi e, adap i e
housing designs ailo ed o local clima ic eali ies ac oss all egions o Ecuado .
Keywo ds: ee- unning building; he mal com o ; social housing; clima e change;
building simula ion
1. In oduc ion
In 2020, he global u ban popula ion exceeded 4.4 billion, wi h mo e han 75% esiding
in u ban cen e s o less de eloped egions. An es ima ed 1 billion people li e in in o mal
se lemen s o inadequa e housing condi ions [
1
]. While his issue p edominan ly a ec s
low-income egions in Asia and A ica [
2
,
3
], La in Ame ica also expe iences a conside able
housing de ici , exace ba ed by ongoing mig a ion ends [
4
]. The egion’s u ban popula ion
is p ojec ed o each 100 million by 2025 [
5
], inc easing he demand o housing and
exace ba ing he numbe o households li ing in inadequa e condi ions.
This housing de ici is no only quan i a i e bu also quali a i e. Many dwellings
ail o mee minimum s anda ds o sa e y and habi abili y, con ibu ing signi ican ly o
housing inadequacy [
6
,
7
]. In Ecuado , housing adequacy is assessed based on ac o s such
as access o basic se ices, cons uc ion ma e ials, and o e c owding [
8
,
9
]. Al hough public
housing ini ia i es aim o educe he quan i a i e sho all, hey o en o e look quali a i e
dimensions like he mal com o and ene gy e iciency [10].
Social housing plays a c ucial ole in mi iga ing he housing de ici . Howe e , s an-
da dized designs o en neglec local clima ic condi ions, esul ing in he mally ine icien
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/buildings15122018
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 2 o 17
buildings. The mal com o —a key de e minan o indoo en i onmen al quali y and
occupan well-being—is in luenced by a iables such as me abolic a e and clo hing in-
sula ion [
11
–
15
]. The ASHRAE S anda d 55 [
16
] de ines he ollowing accep able indoo
empe a u e anges: 23–26
◦
C in summe and 20–24
◦
C in win e , wi h ecommended
humidi y le els o ensu e com o and heal h. Consequen ly, indoo he mal com o has
become a widely s udied opic [17–21].
The mal com o assessmen commonly employs wo app oaches: he P edic ed Mean
Vo e (PMV) and adap i e models [
14
]. PMV es ima es he mal neu ali y based on a
con olled se o en i onmen al and pe sonal ac o s [
22
], while adap i e models accoun
o occupan s’ capaci y o adjus o empe a u e a ia ions o e ime. These adap i e
models a e pa icula ly ele an in egions wi h low seasonal empe a u e a iabili y, such
as Ecuado .
The mally com o able indoo en i onmen s a e essen ial o p e en ing heal h isks
such as hea s ess and ca dio ascula condi ions [
15
,
23
]. In Ecuado , he housing de ici in
2020 was 13.92%, acco ding o he Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics and Census (INEC) [
24
,
25
].
In esponse, he go e nmen launched ini ia i es like he “Casa pa a Todos” p og am [
26
],
aiming o cons uc 220,900 housing uni s be ween 2019 and 2021 [27].
Ecuado ’s di e se geog aphy and clima e pose dis inc challenges o social housing
design. The coun y comp ises ou majo egions— he Coas , Highlands, Amazon, and
Galápagos—and spans eigh Köppen–Geige clima e zones [
28
]. Despi e his a iabili y,
Ecuado expe iences only wo p ima y seasons—d y and ainy—wi h ela i ely s able
empe a u es h oughou he yea [
29
,
30
]. These cha ac e is ics make adap i e com o
models pa icula ly sui able o he na ional con ex . Adminis a i ely, Ecuado is di ided
in o 24 p o inces, which a e u he subdi ided in o can ons and pa ishes [31].
P e ious s udies suppo he applica ion o adap i e models in Ecuado due o he
coun y’s unique clima ic and geog aphic condi ions and he popula ion’s demons a ed
capaci y o acclima iza ion [
32
]. Howe e , hei use emains limi ed, as mos esea ch
on adap i e com o has ocused on he Medi e anean, Sou he n Eu opean, and selec ed
Asian and Ame ican egions. [33–41].
In ecen yea s, adap i e he mal com o models ha e become aluable ools o
imp o ing indoo en i onmen al quali y and ene gy pe o mance. Thei implemen a ion
has expanded ac oss opical clima es like hose in Malaysia and Mexico [
42
,
43
], em-
pe a e zones in Eu ope and India [
44
], and has in o med he de elopmen o na ional
com o s anda ds. Recen e inemen s include adjus men s o empo al dynamics and
occupan beha io , highligh ing he models’ e sa ili y in suppo ing sus ainable building
p ac ices [45–48].
Gi en Ecuado ’s minimal seasonal empe a u e a ia ion, i p esen s an op imal
con ex o applying adap i e he mal com o models. Simula ion ools a e essen ial o
e alua ing clima ic esponses and he mal beha io in di e en housing ypologies [
49
–
52
].
This s udy e alua es and compa es he he mal com o pe o mance o wo iden ical
ee- unning social housing uni s—pa o an exis ing go e nmen p o o ype—ac oss six
Ecuado ian clima e zones unde bo h cu en and p ojec ed clima e scena ios. I seeks o
answe he ollowing ques ions (RQs):
•
RQ1: How do wo iden ical homes pe o m he mally ac oss Ecuado ’s di e se clima e
zones?
•RQ2: Can consis en beha io al pa e ns be iden i ied ac oss di e en clima es?
•RQ3: How do pe o mances a y unde h ee clima e change scena ios?
Simula ions we e conduc ed o six ep esen a i e loca ions o analyze bo h p esen
and u u e indoo he mal pe o mance. The me hodology and da a sou ces a e p esen ed
in he ollowing sec ion.
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 3 o 17
The emainde o he pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2ou lines he me hodology
and clima e scena ios used. Sec ion 3p esen s he simula ion esul s and discusses hei
implica ions. Sec ion 4concludes he s udy by summa izing key indings and p oposing
ecommenda ions o u u e housing design in simila clima ic con ex s.
2. Me hodology
This s udy comp ises ou main phases: (i) de ining he building model, (ii) se ing
simula ion pa ame e s, (iii) selec ing he adap i e com o model, and (i ) acqui ing and
p ocessing clima ic da a. Each phase is desc ibed below.
2.1. Case S udy
The selec ed case is a s anda dized mul i- amily block om Ecuado ’s “Casa pa a To-
dos” housing p og am, which aimed o build 220,900 uni s be ween 2018 and
2021 [26,27].
The “4D block” ypology includes ou 52 m
2
apa men s— wo pe loo (Figu e 1). Each
uni con ains wo bed ooms, one ba h oom, a ki chen, and a li ing–dining a ea, wi h
a 2.55 m
loo - o-ceiling heigh . G ound- loo uni s a e adap ed o indi iduals wi h e-
duced mobili y.
(a) (b)
Figu e 1. (a) G ound loo dis ibu ion. (b) Uppe loo dis ibu ion. In o ma ion ob ained om he
Minis y o Housing and U ban De elopmen and edi ed by he au ho s.
Cons uc ion speci ica ions a e as ollows:
•Walls: 10 cm ein o ced conc e e wi h plas e and pain ; U- alue: 2.695 W/m2·K;
•Floo : 10 cm conc e e wi h ce amic inish; U- alue: 3.15 W/m2·K;
•In e media e slab: 15 cm conc e e wi h ce amic inish;
•Roo : Me al ame wi h 5 mm polyu e hane panel; U- alue: 3.13 W/m2·K;
•Windows: 4 mm single-glazed glass in aluminum ames; U- alue: 5.70 W/m2·K;
•Doo s: In e io wood, ex e io me al.
Two uni s we e selec ed o simula ion: Li ing A (g ound loo ) and Li ing B (uppe
loo ), based on high day ime occupancy pa e ns (Figu e 1). The block’s sou h- acing
o ien a ion was p ese ed. Due o Ecuado ’s equa o ial loca ion, o ien a ion was no
expec ed o signi ican ly in luence he mal pe o mance [30].
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 4 o 17
2.2. Pa ame ic The mal Simula ions
The mal simula ions we e conduc ed using DesignBuilde 7 [
53
], a alida ed dy-
namic simula ion in e ace o Ene gyPlus, o assess indoo he mal beha io based on
he desc ibed en elope and occupancy condi ions. Inpu s we e de i ed om na ional
household p o iles [54], assuming a ou -membe amily pe uni (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. Occupancy pa ame e s used.
All simula ions modeled na u ally en ila ed condi ions—windows opened om
09:30 o 17:30 daily. No mechanical hea ing o cooling sys ems we e included, e lec ing
he o iginal design speci ica ions.
A o al o 42 annual simula ions we e pe o med: se en pe loca ion, ep esen ing
p esen -day condi ions and u u e clima e scena ios unde Rep esen a i e Concen a ion
Pa hways (RCPs) 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5 o he yea s 2050 and 2100. The models we e expo ed in
IDF o ma o Ene gyPlus p ocessing. The esul s included hou ly ope a i e empe a u es,
la e compa ed agains com o h esholds om he adap i e model.
2.3. Adap i e The mal Com o Model om ASHRAE 55-2020
To e alua e he mal com o , his s udy adop ed he adap i e model ou lined in
ASHRAE S anda d 55-2020 [
55
], which is app op ia e o ee- unning buildings and
clima es wi h low he mal ampli ude—such as hose ound in Ecuado . The s anda d
de ines wo le els o accep abili y: 80% and 90%. The 80% accep abili y ange was selec ed
o e lec a b oade ange o occupan com o .
The model ela es indoo com o limi s o he p e ailing mean ou doo empe a u e
( pma(ou ))
(Equa ion (1)), which accoun s o sho - e m ou doo empe a u e ends.
Fo equa o ial clima es, ASHRAE ecommends an exponen ial unning mean calcula ed
as ollows:
pma(ou )=(1−α)·
n
∑
d=1α(i−1)·Tex ,d[◦C](1)
whe e
α
= 0.9 and (
Tex ,d
) ep esen s he daily mean ex e nal empe a u e on day d. This o -
mula ion emphasizes ecen wea he condi ions while smoo hing day- o-day luc ua ions.
Using his alue, he ope a i e empe a u e com o limi s a e calcula ed as ollows:
Uppe limi (80% accep abili y)=0.31· pma(ou )+21.3 [◦C](2)
Lowe limi (80% accep abili y)=0.31· pma(ou )+14.3 [◦C](3)
These limi s apply when
( pma(ou )
lies be ween 10
◦
C and 33.5
◦
C. Values ou side
his ange all ou side he scope o he model (Figu e 3). The ope a i e empe a u e ou pu
om simula ions was e alua ed agains hese dynamic h esholds.
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 5 o 17
Figu e 3. Uppe and lowe limi s conside ed in he adap i e com o model wi h 80% accep abili y.
2.4. The mal Com o Assessmen
The mal pe o mance was assessed by compa ing simula ed hou ly ope a i e empe -
a u es wi h he calcula ed adap i e com o ange o each loca ion and clima e scena io.
This compa ison p oduced he Pe cen age o Time Wi hin he Adap i e Accep abili y
Model (PDAAM), de ined as Equa ion (4):
PDAAM =∑8760
i=1di
8760
di=1i 33.5 ≥ pma(ou )≥10 (4)
whe e
di
= 1 i he hou ly ope a i e empe a u e is wi hin he com o ange and 0 o he wise.
This me ic indica es he ac ion o he yea du ing which indoo condi ions mee adap i e
com o c i e ia.
The analysis was conduc ed sepa a ely o bo h apa men s (Li ing A and Li ing B),
ac oss all six loca ions and se en clima e da ase s (cu en and p ojec ed scena ios o 2050
and 2100 unde RCPs 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5). The esul s we e agg ega ed o iden i y pa e ns in
com o pe o mance and ulne abili y o u u e clima ic changes.
2.5. Clima e Da a
Six loca ions ep esen ing dis inc Köppen–Geige zones we e selec ed, each wi h o e
50,000 inhabi an s [
56
]. The loca ion o he locali ies is shown in he Figu e 4. The clima e
zones analyzed a e he ollowing:
•
C b: Qui o. Oceanic clima e, cha ac e ized by cool summe s and cold o mild win e s;
•
A : Nue a Loja. Humid opical o jungle clima e, wi h high empe a u es and ain
h oughou he yea ;
•
Aw: Esme aldas. T opical sa anna, wi h wa m empe a u es yea - ound and a de ined
d y season;
•
Am: San o Domingo. T opical monsoon clima e, ea u ing wa m empe a u es wi h
al e na ing d y and we seasons;
•
BWh: San a Elena. Ho dese clima e, wi h mild win e s and signi ican diu nal
empe a u e a ia ion;
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 6 o 17
•BSh: Po o iejo. Semi-a id ho clima e, wi h mild win e s and wa m summe s;
•
Clima e iles we e gene a ed ia METEONORM using s ochas ic ex apola ion [
57
,
58
].
Figu e 4. The egions o Ecuado and he loca ion o he 6 locali ies used in his s udy.
Se en da ase s pe loca ion co e ed cu en and u u e RCP scena ios (2.6, 4.5, and
8.5) o 2050 and 2100 [59]. Tempe a u e anges o each locali y a e shown in Figu e 5.
Figu e 5. Maximum and minimum mon hly empe a u es (
◦
C). Single lines co espond o maximum
empe a u es and do ed lines o minimum empe a u es o each loca ion.
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 7 o 17
3. Resul s and Discussion
The he mal beha io o he analyzed uni s e eals signi ican di e ences in pe o -
mance be ween g ound- loo (Li ing A) and uppe - loo (Li ing B) spaces unde a ious
clima e scena ios and loca ions. Fo cla i y, he ope a i e empe a u e p o iles we e con-
e ed in o deg ee-hou s ou side he adap i e com o ange, ollowing Equa ion (4), and
ep esen ed in poin diag ams (see Appendix A). This ep esen a ion accoun s o all
8760 h
o he yea o each scena io and dwelling.
These esul s a e consis en wi h p io esea ch e alua ing adap i e com o in
Ecuado [
60
], highligh ing how he ela i e he mal s abili y o many Ecuado ian clima e
zones h oughou he yea suppo s he applica ion o b oade adap i e se poin s. This
app oach con as s wi h ixed empe a u e h esholds, o e ing po en ial ene gy sa ings by
educing eliance on mechanical hea ing and cooling sys ems, as suppo ed by p e ious
s udies in di e se clima e con ex s [11,18,36–38,61–73].
Figu e 6shows he deg ee-hou s ou side adap i e limi s o each dwelling and scena io.
O e all, Li ing A demons a es be e pe o mance han Li ing B ac oss mos loca ions
and ime ho izons, pa icula ly in wa me egions. A ecu ing pa e n is he p esence o
deg ee-hou s below he lowe com o limi in all loca ions, while uppe -limi exceedances
a e gene ally mo e p ominen in Li ing B. No ably, only Qui o eco ded cooling demand in
Li ing A, while Li ing B p esen ed uppe -limi exceedances in all scena ios and ci ies.
(a)
Figu e 6. Con .
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 8 o 17
(b)
Figu e 6. Deg ee hou s (
◦
C) ou side he uppe (a) and lowe limi s (b) o each dwelling unde
cu en clima e condi ions and p ojec ions o 2050 and 2100 (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5).
Qui o (C b clima e):
Tempe a u e a iabili y be ween loo s is ela i ely small. Bo h ooms egis e signi -
ican hou s below he adap i e lowe limi : 55.79% in Li ing A and 41.30% in Li ing B
unde cu en condi ions (Table 1).
O e hea ing is a e in Li ing A bu inc eases no ably in Li ing B unde ex eme
scena ios, eaching 89.85% in 2050 (RCP 8.5) and 85.25% in 2100 (RCP 2.6).
Po o iejo (Aw clima e):
Li ing B exceeds uppe com o limi s unde RCPs 4.5 and 8.5 by 2050 and 2100. While
Li ing A emains mos ly wi hin accep able anges, i egis e s 206 deg ee-hou s below he
lowe h eshold unde RCP 8.5 (2050). Li ing B expe iences no hou s below he lowe limi
in any scena io.
San o Domingo (Am clima e):
Deg ee-hou s below lowe limi s a e mo e equen in Li ing A, wi h peaks o 818
◦
C
(cu en ), 470 ◦C (2050, RCP 8.5), and 531 ◦C (2100, RCP 2.6).
O e hea ing is concen a ed in Li ing B, su passing 4000 deg ee-hou s in 2050 unde
RCPs 2.6 and 4.5.
San a Elena (BWh clima e):
Li ing A eco ds negligible hou s below lowe limi s, wi h a mino excep ion in 2050
(RCP 2.6). Howe e , i shows inc easing uppe -limi exceedances ac oss scena ios. In
con as , Li ing B emains ela i ely s able, s aying mos ly wi hin com o bounds.
Esme aldas (A clima e):
While bo h dwellings egis e deg ee-hou s below he lowe limi , hese inc ease
subs an ially unde he cu en and 2100 (RCP 2.6) scena ios, eaching 919
◦
C and 2597
◦
C,
espec i ely. O e hea ing is a majo conce n o Li ing B, wi h nea ly 6000 h abo e com o
limi s in 2100 unde RCP 8.5.
Nue a Loja (BSh clima e):
Buildings 2025,15, 2018 9 o 17
Deg ee-hou s below lowe limi s appea only in 2050 (RCP 8.5), wi h 99
◦
C o Li ing
A and 6473 ◦C o Li ing B.
O e hea ing occu s exclusi ely in Li ing B unde 2100 (RCP 8.5), whe eas Li ing A
emains wi hin he adap i e limi s h oughou all scena ios.
Table 1. Values wi hin he adap i e com o limi s ob ained by bo h dwellings in each clima e
scena io. Ligh e shades indica e highe pe cen ages o com o (be e pe o mance), while da ke
shades e lec lowe com o le els.
Li ing A
Scena io Po o iejo Qui o San a Elena Esme aldas Nue a Loja San o
Domingo
2020 98.85% 44.21% 99.33% 89.51% 95.96% 90.66%
2050 RCP 2.6 99.12% 52.69% 95.43% 99.34% 99.59% 100.00%
2050 RCP 4.5 99.82% 54.04% 99.70% 99.82% 98.20% 100.00%
2050 RCP 8.5 97.65% 94.11% 99.91% 99.62% 98.87% 94.63%
2100 RCP 2.6 98.95% 93.53% 99.97% 70.35% 97.16% 93.94%
2100 RCP 4.5 99.74% 62.81% 99.95% 99.25% 99.52% 97.05%
2100 RCP 8.5 100.00% 75.98% 100.00% 99.97% 100.00% 99.34%
Li ing B
Scena io Po o iejo Qui o San a Elena Esme aldas Nue a Loja San o
Domingo
2020 69.78% 58.44% 60.96% 83.04% 78.90% 88.24%
2050 RCP 2.6 66.23% 67.57% 71.56% 60.53% 60.84% 44.58%
2050 RCP 4.5 49.94% 70.58% 52.72% 49.54% 66.83% 49.45%
2050 RCP 8.5 69.98% 10.15% 49.32% 56.70% 26.11% 82.42%
2100 RCP 2.6 64.55% 14.75% 45.40% 89.03% 71.42% 83.86%
2100 RCP 4.5 57.10% 78.73% 44.03% 57.31% 54.36% 79.50%
2100 RCP 8.5 36.05% 88.26% 25.72% 31.51% 29.94% 63.16%
Table 1syn hesizes he PDAAM alues o bo h uni s ac oss scena ios, now isualized using a g ayscale g adien
o clea e in e p e a ion. Ligh e shades indica e highe pe cen ages o com o (be e pe o mance), while
da ke shades e lec lowe com o le els. This app oach esponds o e iewe eedback aiming o imp o e isual
accessibili y and consis ency.
A consis en pa e n eme ges: g ound- loo dwellings (Li ing A) main ain PDAAM
alues abo e 90% in mos cases, excep in colde clima es like Qui o. Con e sely, uppe -
loo uni s (Li ing B) show educed com o pe o mance in all ci ies, al hough San o
Domingo exhibi s compa a i ely mode a e esul s.
The di e ences be ween Qui o (a e age 14.16
◦
C) and Esme aldas (a e age 24.77
◦
C)
unde sco e he clima ic con as s d i ing hese ou comes. As illus a ed in Figu e 7, Es-
me aldas exhibi s consis en di e ences be ween uni s, wi h Li ing A gene ally s aying
wi hin com o limi s. Meanwhile, in Qui o, bo h uni s equen ly all ou side accep -
able
anges—abo e
and below—demons a ing he limi a ions o passi e design in coole
highland condi ions.
These indings unde sco e he c i ical ole o localized adap i e s a egies in social
housing. To main ain he mal com o unde u u e clima e condi ions, especially in wa me
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Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
