On the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis and its (In)accurate Predictions

©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! ! ! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!! and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions1! ! Ignacio!Bosque! [email protected]! Universidad,Complutense,,Madrid, DOI!to!be!assigned! ! Abstract:!The! Lexical, Integrity, Hypothesis!(LIH)! holds! that! lexical! items! are! syntactic!atoms,!which!implies!that!neither!their!segments!nor!their!semantic! components!are!accessible!to!syntax.!LIH!is,!thus,!a!double=faced!hypothesis,! since!its!predictions!are!relevant!for!both!the!syntax=lexicon!interface!and!the! morphology=syntax!distinction,! and! specifically! the! controversial! issue! of! whether!or!not!morphology!is!an!independent!component!of!the!Grammar.! Both!sides!of!LIH!are!addressed!in!this!paper!through!a!series!of!syntactic!tests! (movement,!scope,!modification,!anaphora,!ellipsis,!coordination),!which!are! shown!to!often!give!different!results!depending!on!whether!the!grammatical! units!targeted!are!semantic!components!(and!lack!phonological!features)!or! morphological!segments.!LIH!is!shown!to!be!only!partially!wrong.!Its!failures,! which! cannot! be! dismissed,! are! shown! not! to! be! random,! since,! to! a! large! extend,! they! depend! on! the! grammatical! properties! of! the! relevant! components!of!lexical!items.! Keywords:!lexical,integrity,,morphology,,morphology=syntax,distinction,,semantic, layers,,lexical,structure,,interfaces.! Resumen:!La!hipótesis!de!la!integridad!léxica!(HIL)!sostiene!que!las!palabras! son! átomos! sintácticos,! lo! que! implica! que! ni! sus! segmentos! ni! sus! componentes! semánticos! son! accesibles! a! la! sintaxis.! La! hipótesis! posee,! en! consecuencia,!dos!caras,!ya!que!sus!predicciones!son!relevantes!tanto!para!la! interfaz! léxico=sintaxis! como! para! la! distinción! morfología=sintaxis,! y! en! particular! en! relación! con! la! controvertida! cuestión! de! si! la! morfología! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 1!Parts! of! this! material! were! presented! at! the! Autonomous! University! of! Barcelona!(December!2011),!the!13th!meeting!of!the!Argentinean!Society!of!Linguistics! (San!Luis,!Argentina,!March!2012)!and!the!University!of!Vigo!(May!2012).!I!wish!to! thank!the!audiences!of!these!meetings!for!their!very!useful!comments,!suggestions!and! remarks.! I! am! particularly! grateful! to! Á.! Gallego! and! J.! M.! García=Miguel! for! the! detailed! observations! they! made! on! the! issues! dealt! with! here! and!some! of! their! ramifications.!A!number!of!points!from!this!paper!were!not!developed!in!the!reduced! version!of!this!material!which!recently!appeared!as!Bosque!(2012).! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 141! Ignacio!Bosque! constituye!o!no!un!componente!independiente!de!la!Gramática.!Ambas!caras! de!la!hipótesis!son!abordadas!en!este!trabajo!a!través!de!una!serie!de!pruebas! sintácticas!(movimiento,!ámbito,!modificación,!anáfora,!elipsis,!coordinación),! que!dan!lugar!a!resultados!diversos!en!función!de!si!las!unidades!afectadas! son!componentes!semánticos!(y!carecen,!por!tanto,!de!rasgos!fonológicos)!o! son!segmentos!morfológicos.!Se!defiende!aquí!que!la!HIL!es!solo!parcialmente! falsa.!Sus!fallos,!que!no!pueden!ser!desestimados,!no!son!tampoco!arbitrarios,! ya!que!en!buena!medida!están!en!función!de!las!propiedades!gramaticales!de! los!componentes!de!las!piezas!léxicas!afectadas.! Palabras(clave:!Integridad,léxica,,morfología,,distinción,morfología=sintaxis,,niveles, semánticos,,estructura,léxica,,interfaces.! Resumo:!A! Hipótese! da! Integridade! Lexical! (LIH)! defende! que! os! itens! lexicais!são!átomos!sintáticos,!o!que!implica!que!nem!os!seus!segmentos!nem! os!seus!componentes!semânticos!são!acessíveis!à!sintaxe.!A!LIH!é,!assim,!uma! hipótese!de!dupla!face,!uma!vez!que!as!suas!previsões!são!relevantes!para!a! interface! sintaxe=léxico! e! para! a! distinção! morfologia=! sintaxe,! assim! como,! mais! especificamente,! para! a! questão! controversa! da! existência! ou! não! da! morfologia! como! uma! componente! independente! da! Gramática.! Ambos! os! lados! da! LIH! são! abordados! neste! artigo! a! partir! de! uma! série! de! testes! sintáticos!(movimento,!escopo,!modificação,!anáfora,!elipse,!coordenação),!que! muitas! vezes! geram! resultados! diferentes,! dependendo! de! as! unidades! gramaticais!visadas!serem!componentes!semânticas!(e!sem!traços!fonológicos)! ou! segmentos! morfológicos.! A! LIH! é! apresentada! para! ser! apenas! parcialmente! errada.! As! suas! falhas,! que! não! podem! ser! ignoradas,! demonstram!não!são!aleatórias,!uma!vez!que,!em!grande!medida,!dependem! das!propriedades!gramaticais!dos!componentes!relevantes!dos!itens!lexicais.! Palavras,chave:!integridade,lexical,,morfologia,,distinção,morfologia=sintaxe,,níveis, semânticos,,estrutura,lexical,,interfaces.! 1.!Two!ways!of!approaching!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis! The! so=called! Lexical, Integrity, Hypothesis! (LIH),! implicit! in! traditional! conceptions!of!Grammar,!is!explicit!in!most!formal!theoretical!frameworks!since! the!late!70’s!(Lapointe!1978,!Selkirk!1982,!Di!Sciullo!&!Williams!1987,!Anderson! 1992,!etc.).!The!LIH!simply!holds!that!words!are!syntactic!atoms,!which!implies! that! neither! their! segments! nor! their! semantic! components! are! accessible! to! syntax.! As! such,! the! hypothesis! is! both! too! strong! and! too! weak.! If! it! were! absolutely! wrong! —as! sometimes! has! been! claimed! to! be—,! most! morphological! treaties! and! monographs! would! simply! deal! with! no! specific! topic!at!all!(and,!by!extension,!possibly!most!dictionaries!and!grammars).!But,! at!the!same!time,!we!cannot!simply!take!the!LIH!for!granted.!Even!if!we!accept! some! mild! version! of! it,! the! number! of! wrong! predictions! it! makes! is! high! enough!to!cast!serious!doubts!on!its!feasibility,!no!matter!how!widely!spread!or! deeply!rooted!in!traditional!grammar!it!turns!out!to!be.!! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 142! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! As! it! is! well=known,! failures! of! the! LIH! are! not! expected! in! lexicalist! models!of!Grammar!(Chomsky!1970;!Williams!1981;!Di!Sciullo!and!Williams! 1987;!Anderson!1992;!Aronoff!1994;!Ackema!1999,!etc.),!since!the!syntax!has!no! access!to!the!word=formation!rules!postulated!in!those!theories.!On!the!contrary,! theories!of!Grammar!which!do!not!adopt!the!morphology=syntax!distinction!are! supposed!to!be!better!candidates!to!account!for!the!wrong!predictions!of!the! LIH.!These!frameworks!include!Distributed!Morphology!(DM;!Halle!&!Marantz! 1993;!Harley!&!Noyer!1999;!Marantz!1997,!2001;!Embick!&!Noyer!2007;!Siddiqi! 2009),!Borer’s!(2003,!2005)!exo=skeletal!theory,!and!Nanosyntax!(NS,!Ramchand! 2008;! Caha! 2009;! Starke! 2009),! among! other! models! which! not! only! lack! a! morphological!component,!but!—usually—!also!a!lexicon.!Although!there!exist! many!relevant!differences!between!these!theories,!structures!are!generated!in! most! of! them! by! combining! primitive! grammatical! features! and! providing! phonological!content!to!sets!of!syntactically!ordered!nodes.! Needless!to!say,!the!very!existence!of!non=lexicalist!theories!of!Grammar! does!not!guarantee!that!the!numerous!attested!exceptions!to!the!LIH!will!be! properly!accounted!for!in!these!frameworks,!anymore!than!a!good!scalpel!does! not! tell! the! surgeon! where! exactly! he! or! she! must! cut.! But,! crucially,! most! problems!posed!by!LIH!are!“problems!of!cutting!off”,!sometimes!in!areas!in! which!very!small!distances!make!big!differences.! As! it! is! obvious,! anyone! who! dispenses! with! the! morphology=syntax! distinction!must!account,!in!some!different!way,!for!everything!the!distinction! accomplishes.!Take!the!simple!DP!a,slow,composition,,and!consider!this!natural! question:!“What!specific!grammatical!principle!allows!us!to!explain!the!fact!that! this! phrase! does! not! refer! to! some! piece! of! music! that! has! been! composed! slowly?”!The!straightforward!answer!is!“LIH”,!since!LIH!prevents!the!adjective! slow,from!having!access!to!the!nominalization’s!verbal!base!(i.e.,!compose).!But! another,! ever! simpler,! answer! to! this! question! might! have! gone! as! follows:! “This!interpretation!is!ruled!out!because!Morphology!exists”,!that!is,!because! there!is!a!part!of!Grammar!devoted!to!the!organization!of!word!components,! and!because!this!internal!organization!has!no!effects!outside!the!word.!! Morphology! deniers! (in! the! sense! of! “deniers! of! the! independency! of! morphology!as!a!part!of!Grammar”)!would!probably!question!this!reasoning.! There!are!several!ways!to!do!so.!One!way!is!to!mark!words!as!opaque!domains! inside!syntactic!structures!(Lieber!1992).!Another!way!is!to!extend!the!notion!of! phase!to!word!structure,!as!proposed!by!DM.!Fragments!of!syntactic!structure! that!have!evaluated!their!relevant!features!cease!to!be!active!and!may!be!spelled! out.! In! our! example,! the! suffix! =tion! is! a! categorized! syntactic! head! taking! a! verbal! complement.! Once! the! relevant! grammatical! features! (such! as! those! forcing!V°!adjunction!to!N°,!as!well!as!others!relative!to!agreement)!have!been! checked,!these!syntactic!segments!would!not!be!active!anymore.!They!become! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 143! Ignacio!Bosque! opaque! to! syntactic! operations! (lexicalized,! in! traditional! terms)! and! can! be! thought!of!as!if!they!were!not!there,!hence!inaccessible!to!further!computations.! Since!grammatical!structures!may!vary!according!to!the!point!of!the!derivation! in!which!they!are!spelled!out,!what!we!call!words,with,morphological,structure, would! simply! be! —from! this! particular! theoretical! point! of! view—,! the! traditional!name!for!a!series!of!syntactic!structures!subject!to!early!spell!out.! Notice! that! there! are! two! issues! in! this! controversy! that! seem! to! be! relevant!for!LIH.!They!may!be!characterized!through!different!sets!of!questions:! a) What!specific!alternative!formal!theory!would!allow!us!to!account!for! the!predictions!that!the!traditional!distinction!between!morphology! and! syntax! accomplishes?;! Are! phases! the! appropriate! theoretical! instrument! to! account! for! the! variation! attested! as! regards! LIH! phenomena?! b) LIH!has!been!proved!to!fail! sometimes,!but!where!exactly!are!LIH! failures! found?;! In! which! specific! grammatical! structures! are! LIH! violations!detected,!as!well!as!not!detected?;!Would!the!analysis!of! these!structures!shed!some!light!on!the!basic!nature!of!LIH?! I!am!afraid!I!do!not!have!much!to!say!about!the!questions!in!(a).!The! standard,!positive,!DM!answer!to!the!question!whether!phase!spell!out!is!able! to!pre=empt!the!traditional!morphology=syntax!division!has!been!criticized!by! Lieber!&!Scalise!(2006)!and!Fábregas!(2011),!among!others.!As!Lieber!&!Scalise! (2006)!put!it,!from!DM!accounts!of!LIH,!one!should!perhaps!infer!a!much!larger! set! of! interactions! between! syntax! and! morphology! than! we! actually! find.! Notice!that,!if!all!word=formation!were!accomplished!in!the!syntax,!dictionaries! would! include! no! derived! words! at! all,! just! as! they! contain! no! phrasal! projections,! since! all! the! information! in! those! entries! would! simply! be! redundant.!The! fact!that! dictionaries!include! morphologically!derived! words! (many!thousands,!in!fact,!in!those!written!for!Germanic,!Romance!and!Slavic! languages)! does! not! seem! to! reveal! that! something! is! wrong! with! lexicographers,! but! rather! the! particular! status! of! words! as! structured! units! associated!with!particular!meanings.! Accounts!of!LIH!in!Lexical!Functional!Grammar!are!discussed!in!Asudeh! et,al.!(2008);!those!framed!in!Construction!Grammar!are!explained!in!Booij!(2005,! 2009,!2010);!on!functional!solutions!to!LIH!infractions!see!Haspelmath!(2002,! 2011).!Other!options!exist.!In!this!paper,!I!will!remain!silent!about!(a)!and!I!will! concentrate!on!some!aspects!of!(b),!mostly!in!relation!to!the!grammar!of!Spanish.!! Notice!that!the!perspective!in!(a)!basically!addresses!the!question!of!how! the! architecture! of! Grammar! would! be! once! we! have! decided! whether! the! hypothesis!is!right!or!wrong.!On!the!contrary,!the!questions!in!(b)!present!LIH! strengths! and! weaknesses! as! empirical! problems,! since! both! its! correct! and! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 144! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! incorrect! predictions! should! be! derived! in! principled! grounds.! Ackema! &! Neeleman!(2002)!are!right!in!pointing!out!that!one!has!to!decide!whether!LIH!is! an!axiom,!a!corollary!of!the!structure!of!Grammar,!or!an!epiphenomenon;!but! the!three!answers!assume!that!LIH!is!correct,!a!supposition!they!show!to!be! only!partially!true.!Keeping!with!the!analogy!I!have!introduced,!we!might!say! that!(a)!is!about!having!or!not!having!a!good!scalpel,!whereas!(b)!is!about!where! and!when!we!must!cut!off.! I!would!like!to!recall!that!one!basic!—although!not!often!emphasized—! property!of!LIH!is!its!double=faced!nature,!as!Postal!(1969)!explicitly!pointed! out:! some! of! the! phenomena! that! the! hypothesis! covers! are! related! to! the! syntax=lexicon!interface,!whereas!some!other!aspects!of!LIH!are!relative!to!the! traditional!morphology=syntax!distinction.!In!the!former!case,!we!might!expect! LIH!violations!in!which!syntactic!processes!have!access!to!semantic!components! of! words;! in! the! latter! case,! we! expect! violations! as! those! discussed! in! the! literature!I!have!just!referred!to:!phrasal!prefixes,!compounds,!attached!particles! (particularly!in!Germanic!languages),!complex!predicate!formation!(particularly! in!relation!to!Japanese!causatives!and!similar!phenomena!in!other!languages),! complex!structures!in!agglutinating!languages,!etc.!! In!any!case,!violations!of!both!types!are!expected!to!be!restricted.!Both!of! them!question!the!LIH,!but!they!do!so!in!quite!different!ways.!Since!words!are! acknowledged! to! be! composed! by! set! of! features,! I! suggest! that! we! should! carefully! examine! the! grammatical! structures! targeted! in! the! supposed! violations!of!LIH,!distinguish!the!real!violations!from!the!merely!apparent!ones,! and! attempt! to! derive! the! former! from! the! grammatical! properties! of! the! features!involved!in!the!relevant!structures.!Since!these!tasks!are!too!vast!to!be! accomplished!in!a!short!paper,!I!will!restrict!myself!to!sketching!the!general! guidelines!that!one!could!follow!to!pursue!those!objectives.!! 2.!Three!variants!of!the!hypothesis! The! double=faced! nature! of! the! LIH! shows! that! it! contains! too! much! information.!Let!us!then!decompose!it!in!three!more!restricted!principles:! (1)!a.!LIH=1:!Syntactic!processes!do!not!have!access!to!the!semantic!components!of!lexical! items.! !b.!LIH=2:!Syntactic!processes!do!not!have!access!to!morphological!components!of!(simple)! lexical!items.! !c.!LIH=3:!Syntactic!processes!do!not!have!access!to!the!components!of!complex!lexical! items.! Postal’s!(1969)!classical!“orphan’s!example”,!adapted!to!Spanish!in!(2),! nicely!illustrates!(1a),!since!LIH=1!prevents!a!semantic!component!of!the!word! huérfano!‘orphan’!(namely,!“parents”)!to!become!the!antecedent!of!a!pronoun:! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 145! Ignacio!Bosque! (2)!*Max! es! huérfano!! y! los! ! echa!mucho!de!menos.! !!!Max!is!orphan!and!they=MASC.ACC! t!hrow=3.PRES!!much!of!less! ! !‘Max!is!an!orphan!and!he!deeply!misses!them’! As!regards!(1b),!it!can!be!illustrated!by!any!standard!anaphoric!island! violation:! (3)!! *La!mayor!parte!de!los![europ]eos!no![le]! ven!un!futuro! ! ! ! the!biggest!part!of!the!Europeans!not!it=DAT!see=3.PL.PRES!! a! future! ! ! halagüeño.! ! ! promising! !!‘The!majority!of!Europeans!do!not!see!a!promising!future!in!it’! The! asterisk! in! (3)! is! restricted! to! the! intended! interpretation:! that! in! which!the!antecedent!of!the!pronoun!le!(‘it’)!is!the!noun!Europa.,The!problem! with!(3)!is!parallel!to!the!one!with!(2);!the!difference!lies!in!the!fact!that!the! relevant!component!that!some!pronoun!cannot!target!is!morphological!in!(3),! but!semantic!in!(2).!! LIH=3! cannot! be! reduced! to! LIH=2,! since! the! properties! of! complex! particles,! locutions! and! other! idioms! do! not! exactly! coincide! with! those! of! simple!words.!LIH=3!is!illustrated!in!(4):! (4)! A! juicio!(*unánime)!de!nuestros!abogados,!la!demanda!no! ! !To!judgment!unanimous!of!our!lawyers!the!demand!not! ! !prosperará.! !succeed=3.PL.FUT! ‘According!to!the!(unanimous)!judgment!of!our!lawyers,!the!demand!will!not!succeed’! That!is,!juicio!(‘judgment’)!is!a!noun,!but!it!cannot!receive!an!adjective!in! (4),!since!it!is!integrated!in!the!complex!preposition!a,juicio,de,(‘in!x’s!opinion’).! As! we! see,! the! relevant! components! of! LIH=1! are! semantic! features;! those! relevant!for!LIH=2!are!morphemes,!and!those!targeted!by!LIH=3!are!words.!! I!will!not!discuss!LIH=3!here!for!various!reasons,!besides!lack!of!space.! Perhaps!the!main!problem!with!idioms!is!the!fact!that!they!are!commonly!taken! to!be!lexical,items,!that!is,!a!certain!type!of!linguistic!unit!that!is!said!to!apply!to! simple!words!and!some!compounds2.!As!it!is!well=known,!idioms!seem!to!reject! some!defining!properties!of!lexical!items,!including!insertion!of!lexical!material! inside!their!segments3,!a!typical!syntactic!trait.!But!on!the!other!hand,!idioms! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 2!I!can!only!mention!a!few!titles!on!the!much=discussed!issue!of!the!grammatical! properties! of! idioms:! Jackendoff! (1977);! Nunberg! et, al.!(1994);! Everaert! et, al.!(1995);! O’Grady! (1998);! Mateu! &! Espinal! (2006,! 2007)! and! Espinal! &! Mateu! (2010).! On! the! syntactic! aspects! of! Spanish! idioms,! I! refer! to! Buenafuentes! de! la! Mata! (2007)! and! Alonso!Ramos!(2009),! as! well! as! the! overviews! in! García=Page!(2008)!and! Mendívil! Giró!(2009).! 3!Here!is!a!simple!example!with!the!transitive!VP!idiom!tomar,el,pelo,(‘tease’):! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 146! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! are!described!in!dictionaries!because!they!are!not!phrases!freely!constructed!in! the! syntax.! They! are! also! restricted! in! the! capacity! to! coordinate! their! components,!allow!for!passives,!modal!verbs!or!variants!with!wh=!phrases,!and! admit!structures!in!which!an!external!pronoun!refers!to!some!of!their!nominal! constituents.! The! extreme! variation! that! one! finds! as! regards! the! degrees! of! compositionality!in!idiom!structures!does!not!lead!us!to!directly!exclude!LIH=3! from! (1),! but! it! certainly! suggests! that! the! proper! generalizations! on! the! syntactic!behaviour!of!idioms!are!not!clear!enough!for!the!time!being.!! The!LIH! is!generally! formulated!in! negative!terms! or!interpreted! as!a! series! of! constraints,! and! so! are! the! three! variants! in! (1).! Perhaps! a! more! accurate!version!of!LIH!or!its!variants!should!be!formulated!in!a!positive!form,! as! most! generalizations! are,! given! that! LIH! is! not! a! filter.! Applying! this! methodological! principle,! we! would! substitute! (1b)! for! something! like! “Syntactic! processes! have! access! to! words! and! phrases”.! The! very! fact! that! “positive!formulations”!of!the!LIH!come!close!to!simple!definitions!of!parts!of! Grammar!is,!it!seems!to!me,!an!interesting!—as!well!as!welcome—!result.!As! the!tradition!clearly!stated,!words!are,!at!the!same!time,!the!ground!of!syntax! and!the!ceiling!of!morphology,!and!it!is!exactly!those!upward!and!downward! borders!that!LIH!violations!put!into!question.!Let!us!briefly!see!to!what!extent! they!do.! 3.!Lexical!integrity!and!the!syntaxHlexicon!interface! 3.1.!Anaphora! I!suggest!that!syntactic!structures!may!be!used!as!test!benches!for!LIH! variants,!so!that!we!can!find!out!whether!they!pass!or!they!fail!these!series!of! exams.! Proceeding! in! this! way,! we! can! first! notice! that! LIH=1! successfully! passes! the! tests! related! to! ANAPHORIC! PHENOMENA.! This! is! exactly! what! the! expected! ungrammaticality! of! (2)! shows.! More! generally,! LIH=1! is! a! rather! strong!hypothesis!as!regards!reference,!but!somehow!weaker!as!regards!other! syntactic!phenomena,!as!I!will!shortly!show.!In!fact,!I!have!only!been!able!to! find!a!few!systematic!exceptions!to!LIH=1!in!Spanish!in!relation!to!anaphora.! They!involve!some!person!nouns!associated!with!duals,!such!as!pareja!(‘couple’)! or!matrimonio!(‘married!couple’).!Here!is!an!example:! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! (i)! a.! Tomar!el!pelo!mucho! a! alguien.! ! ! take!the!hair!much!to!someone! ! ! ‘Tease!someone!very!much’! !b.!Tomar!mucho!el!pelo! a! alguien.!!!!! ! ! take!much!the!hair!to!someone! ! ! ‘Tease!someone!very!much’! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 147! Ignacio!Bosque! (5)!Algunos!matrimonios!son!muy!felices!aunque!ella!sea!! !some!married=couple.PL!!are!very!happy=Pl!though!she!be=3.PRES.SUBJ! !mucho! mayor!que!él.! !much!older!than!him!!! !‘Some!married!couples!are!very!happy,!even!if!she!is!much!older!than!him’! This! example! constitutes! a! flagrant! LIH=1! violation,! since! the! LIH=1! wrongly!predicts!that!the!antecedent!of!él!(‘he’)!and!ella!(‘she’)!will!be!found!in! the! preceding! discourse,! rather! than! in! the! lexical! structure! of! the! noun! matrimonio.! Interestingly,! the! semantic! components! of! these! dual! nouns! may! provide!syntactic!antecedents!for!other!pronouns,!as!in!the!example!(6),!attested! in!a!journal,!which!was!brought!to!my!attention!by!Á.!Gallego:! (6)!Esta!pareja!está!casada,!pero!no!!el!uno!con!el!otro.! this.FEM!couple!is!married=FEM!but!not!the!one!with!the!other! !‘The!members!of!this!couple!are!married,!but!not!with!each!other’! [ABC,!30=06=2011]!! I! suggest! that! this! peculiar! property! is! related! to! the! fact! that! the! pronouns!in!(5)!and!(6)!exhaustively!cover!the!denotation!of!the!dual!noun.!If! this! is! on! the! right! track,! a! purely! pragmatic! analysis! involving! part=whole! relations,!as!in!the!typical!cases!of!associative!anaphora!(Kleiber!2001!and!much! subsequent! work)! would! not! work! for! (5)=(6).! Notice! that,! whereas! a! loose! pragmatic!part=whole!relation!is!enough!to!licence!the!presence!of!the!definite! article!la!in!la,puerta,(‘the!door’)!in!(7a)!—on!the!encyclopaedic!basis!that!every! building!has!a!door—,!we!cannot!call!on!a!pragmatic!principle!of!this!sort!to! account!for!(7b),!since!the!pronoun!él!cannot!stand!for!el,alcalde!(‘the!mayor’)!in! this!sequence:! (7)!!a.!Me!acerqué! a! la!alcaldía,!pero!la!puerta!estaba!cerrada.! ! ! Me!approached!to!the!city!hall!but!the!door!was!closed=FEM! ! ! ‘I!dropped!by!the!City!Hall,!but!the!door!was!closed’! ! b! #Me!acerqué! a! la!alcaldía,!pero!él!no!estaba.! ! ! Me! approached!to!the!city!hall!but!he!not!be=3.IMP.IND! !! ! ‘I!dropped!by!the!City!Hall,!but!he!was!not!there’! As!it! is! obvious,!(7b)! is!intended! to! be!used! in!a! context! in!which! no! previous!reference!to!a!mayor!has!been!made.!Let!me!remark!that!the!property! of!dual!nouns!that!allows!for!(5)!or!(6)!is!not!to!be!confused!with!the!capacity!of! singular!collective!nouns!to!trigger!plural!number!features,!either!in!verbal!or! pronominal! inflection.! That! is,! (8a)! is! a! grammatical! sentence! in! the! interpretation! in! which! ellos! (‘they’)! refers! to! su,familia,(a! DP! made! out! of! a! singular!collective!noun),!but!it!is!not!grammatical!in!the!reading!in!which!ellos! refers!to!a!subset!of!that!family,!such!as!the!children!or!the!grandparents:! ! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 148! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! (8)!No!ve! a! su!familia!desde!hace!meses,!pero!! !not!see=3.SING.PRES!to!his/her!family!from!make=3.SING.PRES!months!but!! !se!acuerda!mucho!de!ellos.! !remember=3.SING.PRES!much!of!them=MASC! ! ‘S/he!has!not!seen!his/her!family!for!months,!but!s/he!thinks!about!them!very!much’ On! some! possible! LIH=1! anaphora! violations! in! English! related! to! the! verbal!predicate!bring,about,!see!Lakoff!(1970)!and!Lakoff!&!Ross!(1972).! 3.2.!Coordination!and!movement! Let!us!now!try!to!use!COORDINATION!in!our!test!bench!for!LIH=1.!Results! are!even!more!neat!and!straightforward!in!this!case,!since!LIH=1!clearly!passes! coordination!tests:!no!semantic!component!of!a!word!can!be!coordinated!with! an!overt!expression!under!any!circumstance.!We!may!reasonably!assume!that! sacar!(‘take!out,!pull!out’)!involves!a!causative!component,!which!the!verb!hacer! ‘make’!might! represent,!and! also! an!intransitive! verb!of! movement! (salir!‘go! out’).!The!contrasts!in!(9)!are!entirely!expected!according!to!the!LIH=1:! (9)!a.!Juan!{hizo!salir!/!sacó}!al!caballo.!! ! ! Juan!made!go=out!took=out!to=the!horse! ! ! !‘Juan!{made!the!horse!go!out!/!took!out!the!horse}’! !b.!Juan!{hizo!salir!/!*sacó}! y! trotar!al!caballo.!! ! ! Juan!made!go=out!took=out!and!gallop=INF!to=the!horse! ! ! ‘Juan!{made!the!horse!go!out!and!gallop!/!took!out!and!gallop!the!horse}’! MOVEMENT!tests!for!LIH=1!are!hard!to!design,!since!attempts!will!surely! end!up! as!something! else,! most! probably! standard!cases! of!the! coordination! structure! constraint.! In! fact,! since! components! targeted! by! LIH=1! lack! phonological!features,!no!movement!and!coordination!violations!of!LIH=1!are! expected!to!be!found.!We!may!thus!conclude!that!movement!and!coordination! represent!no!problem!for!LIH=1.! 3.3.!Modification! LIH=1!successfully!passes!COORDINATION!and!MOVEMENT!tests,!and!also! ANAPHORA! tests,! with! a! peculiar! exception! related! to! dual! nouns.! But! if! we! move!to!MODIFICATION!tests,!we!will!realize!that!results!are!not!so!neat.!Let!us! first!consider!some!cases!for!which!LIH=1!makes!the!appropriate!predictions,! and!then!turn!to!violations.!LIH=1!correctly!predicts!that!(10a)!will!be!roughly! equivalent! to! (10b),! but! not! to! (10c),! since! only! in! the! former! sentence! the! manner!adverb!targets!the!highest!verbal!predicate:! (10)! a.! La!mató!voluntariamente.! ! ! her=ACC!killed!voluntarily! ! ! ‘S/he!killed!her!voluntarily’! ! ! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 155! Ignacio!Bosque! acknowledge!that!not!all!the!syntactic!structures!related!to!this!variant!of!the! hypothesis! have! been! studied! in! similar! detail.! We! may! start! by! putting! COORDINATION!and!ELLIPSIS!in!our!test!bench!for!LIH=2!and!see!whether!or!not! the!hypothesis!passes!these!exams.! Does!LIH=2!pass!grammatical!tests!of!coordination?!The!answer!to!this! much!debated!question!is!theory=dependent!(see!Bosque!1987;!Rainer!&Varela! 1992;!Felíu!&!Fábregas!2003;!Kornfeld!&!Saab!2003;!Lieber!y!Scalise!2006,!among! many!others):!it!is!a!negative!answer!if!we!allow!for!the!coordination!of!lexical! bases!and!prefixes,!as!sketched!in!(26):! (26)!a.!Leyes![pre!y! post]!constitucionales.! ! ! Laws!pre!and!post!constitutional.PL! ! ! ‘Pre!and!postconstitutional!laws’! !b.![Simple! y! llana]mente.! ! ! Simple!and!plain=ly! ! ! ‘Clearly!and!simply’! !c.![Lava! y! seca]rropas.!!(Rioplatense!Spanish)! ! ! [wash!and!dry]clothes! ! ! ‘Washing!machine!and!tumble!dryer’! On!the!contrary,!the!answer!is!positive!if!we!claim!that!the!bracketing!in! (26)!is!wrong!and!we!adopt!the!alternative!in!(27):! (27)!a.!Leyes![pre=Ø]!y!postconstitucionales.! !b.![Simple=Ø]!y!llanamente.! !c.![Lava=Ø]!y!secarropas.!(Rioplatense!Spanish)! Some! authors! —including! Booij! (1985),! Nespor! (1985)! and! Bosque! (1987)—! suggest! that! ellipsis! might! give! more! adequate! results! than! coordination!in!these!and!other!similar!structures.!See!also,!on!the!same!issue,! Spencer!(2005)!and!Strauss!(1982).!Needless!to!say,!claiming!that!coordination! does! not! contravene! LIH=2! implies! accepting! that! ellipsis! does,! since! (27)! contains!null!bases!in!prefixed!words!and!compounds5.!One!strong!argument! for! preferring! (27)! to! (26)! relies! on! the! fact! that! elliptical! categories! can! be! forwardly!of!backwardly!recovered.!The!former!option!is!obtained!in!(28a,!b);! the!latter!corresponds!to!(28c):! (28)!a.![Literatur=[Ø]]!und!Musik![geschichte]!(German)! ! ! literature!and!music!history! ! ! ‘History!of!music!and!literature’! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! grammar,!I!refer!to!Varela!(1990),!Piera!(2009),!Piera!&!Varela!(1999),!Felíu!(2002)!and! Fábregas!(2011,!to!appear).!I!will!add!some!more!references!on!LIH=2!in!the!next!pages.!! 5!Even!so,!suffixes!are!not!subject!to!ellipsis.!As!for!=mente,,Torner!(2005)!argued! that!it!is!a!“phrasal!affix”,!whereas!Bosque!(1987),!Zagona!(1990)!and!others!argued! that!it!is!a!compound!segment.! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 156! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! !b.![Lenta=[Ø]]! y! penosa[mente]!(Spanish)! ! ! slow=FEM!and!painful=ly! ! ! ‘Slowly!and!painfully’! !c.!Lenta[ment]!i! [penosa=[Ø]]!!(Literary!Catalan)! ! ! slow=ly!and!painful! ! ! ‘Slowly!and!painfully’! Notice! that! the! segmentation! in! (26)! could! not! be! applied! to! (28c).! Backward!retrieval!is!excluded!in!German!compounds!(*Literaturgeschichte,und, Musik=Ø)!and!present=day!Spanish!prefixed!forms!as!well!as!compounds!(*leyes, preconstitucionales,y,post=Ø;!*lentamente,y,penosa=Ø;,*lavarropas,y,seca=Ø),!but!not! necessarily! in! medieval! Spanish! (NGRALE,! §! 7.14f=g)! or! present! day! literary! Catalan.!On!the!other!hand,!the!coordination!analysis!does!not!seem!to!be!able! to! account! for! A.! Bello’s! (1847:! §! 1007)! old! interesting! observation! on! =mente! ellipsis!in!comparative!structures:! (29)!Menos!magnífica!que!elegantemente!adornado.! !less!splendid=FEM!than!elegantly!decorated=MASC! !‘Less!splendidly!than!elegantly!decorated’! He!was!right!when!he!wrote!that!(29)!is!a!possible!phrase!because!“en! magnífica! se! suprime! la! terminación! mente! por! seguirse! otro! adverbio! que! la! lleva”! (‘in! magnifica! the! termination! mente! is! suppressed! because! an! adverb! containing! it! follows’).! As! it! is! obvious,! all! these! contrasts! on! forward! vs.! backward! retrieval! of! nominal! (or! quasi=nominal)! heads! in! morphological! structures!are!possible!because!recovery!is!a!property!of!elements!capable!of! bearing!a!referential!index.!If!this!is!correct,!LIH=2!does!not!fail!coordination! tests,!but!ellipsis!does.! ! As! in! the! case! of! LIH=1,! potential! LIH=2! failures! must! be! carefully! scrutinized!to!find!out!whether!or!not!they!provide!real!counterexamples!to!the! hypothesis.! Imagine! a! sentence! containing! a! morphological! segment! coordinated! with! a! full! DP.! If! this! were! possible,! LIH=2! would! certainly! be! untenable.!The!example!reproduced!in!(30),!seems!to!be!a!good!candidate!for! this!pattern:! (30)!Me!encargaron!conversar!contigo! y! Elías!Figueroa!en!Chile.!! !me!entrust=3.PL.PAST!talk=INF!with=you!and!E.!F.!!in!Chile.! !‘I!was!entrusted!to!talk!to!you!and!E.F.!in!Chile’! [Época,!28/07/1997,!taken!from!CREA].! That! is,! we! may! think! that,! if! the! bracketing! in! (31)! is! correct,! LIH=2! simply!collapses,!since!a!part!of!a!word!cannot!be!coordinated!with!a!DP:! (31)!Me!encargaron!conversar![con[tigo!y!Elías!Figueroa]]!en!Chile.! But! the! question! whether! or! not! (30)! contravenes! LIH=2! crucially! depends!of!the!morphological!status!of!the!segment!=tigo.!We!may!suppose!that! contigo! (‘with! you’)! or! conmigo! (‘with! me’)! are! phonological,! rather! than! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 157! Ignacio!Bosque! morphological,!words!(see!Nespor!1985,!Di!Sciullo!&!Williams!1987,!Bresnan!&! Mchombo! 1995! on! the! distinction),! besides! being! orthographical! words.! It! would!certainly!be!a!mistake!to!argue!that!=tigo!is!a!suffix.!In!fact,!affixes!do!not! allow! for! adjectives! in! any! possible! context,! but! the! adjective! misma! (‘self’)! modifies!the!pronoun!=tigo!in!(32a)!—and!not!the!whole!PP!contigo—,!just!as!it! modifies!ella!in!(32b):! (32)!!a.!Contigo!misma.! ! ! With=you!self=FEM! ! ! ‘with!yourself’! !b.!Con!ella!misma.! ! ! With!she!self=FEM! ! ! ‘with!herself’! Since!LIH=2!does!not!restrict!the!grammatical!behaviour!of!phonological! words,!we!can!safely!conclude!that!(30)!does!not!violate!this!hypothesis.!! Can!it!them!be!concluded!that!LIH=2!neatly!passes!all!coordination!tests?! It! certainly! passes! most! of! them,! but! it! systematically! fails,! at! least,! at! two! grammatical! structures.! The! first! one! is! represented! by! words! containing! prefixes!which!involve!information!related!to!the!verb!arguments.!Felíu!(2001)! has!studied!these!structures!in!detail.!We!may!assume,!for!example,!that!the! prefix!co=!in!(33)!incorporates!a!meaning!close!to!that!of!the!adverb!mutually:! (33)!Juan! y! María!se!corresponsabilizaron.! !‘Juan!and!María!assumed!mutual!responsibility’! Just!as!the!presence!of!this!adverb!makes!the!predicate!select!for!a!plural! or!coordinated!external!argument,!so!does!the!prefix!co=.!Both!the!prefix!and!the! adverb!change!the!predicate’s!argument!structure!(as!it!generally!happens!in! symmetric!and!reciprocal!configurations),!but!the!prefix!is!a!bound!morpheme,! which!violates!LIH=2.!I!refer!to!Felíu!(2001)!for!many!other!similar!cases.!! The! second! systematic! exception! I! have! in! mind! is! provided! by! the! structures! I! studied! in! Bosque! (2006).! In! that! paper! I! show! that! so=called! relational! (sometimes! also! “ethnic”)! denominal! adjectives! may! provide! the! cardinality!value!of!referential!expressions!in!coordinated!structures.!That!is,! (34a),!involving!two!singular!coordinated!adjectives,!is!about!two!literatures.! On! the! contrary,! two! or! more! singular! qualifying! adjectives! or! participles! cannot!be!coordinated!to!sum!up!the!plural!feature!needed!by!the!noun!they! modify,!and!provide!the!cardinality!value!of!the!DP,!as!(34b)!witnesses:! (34)!a.!Las!literaturas!española! y! francesa.! ! ! the=FEM.PL!literature.PL!Spanish=FEM.SING!and!French=FEM.SING! ! ! ‘The!French!and!Spanish!literatures’! !b.!*Las!películas!divertida! y! aburrida!(respectivamente).! ! ! the=FEM.PL!movies!funny=FEM.SING!and!boring=FEM.SING!respectively! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 158! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! This! means! that! the! nominal! bases! or! relational! adjectives! display! syntactic!properties!incompatible!with!their!morphological!status!according!to! LIH=2.!I!refer!to!Bosque!(2006)!for!further!details!and!I!conclude!that,!with!the! exception!of!the!structures!in!(33)!and!(34),!LIH=2!passes!COORDINATION!tests,! but!it!does!not!pass!those!related!to!ELLIPSIS.!! 4.2.!Modification! Let!us!now!put!MODIFICATION!structures!in!our!test!bench!for!LIH=2.!This! is!a!rather!strong!hypothesis!as!regards!these!patterns.!Here!are!some!standard! examples!of!the!unavailability!of!compound!segments!to!accept!modifiers:! (35)!!a.!*Lava[platos!grandes]! ! ! wash!dishes!bigs! ! ! ‘Washer!of!big!dishes’! !b.![Lavaplatos]!grandes! ! ! dishwashers!bigs! ! ! ‘Big!dishwashers’! (36)!a.!!*Seguro!multi=![riesgo!asumible]! ! ! Insurance!policy!multi!risk!assumable! ! ! ‘An!insurance!policy!for!many!assumable!risks’! !b.![Seguro!!multirriesgo]!asumible! ! ! Insurance!policy!multi=risk!assumable! ! ! ‘An!assumable!multi=risk!insurance!policy’! It!is!worth!remembering,!however,!that!English!compounds!are!known! to!contravene!this!pattern.!From!a!strict!point!of!view,!LIH=2!is!safe!in!(37a),!but! not! so! in! (37b),! where! an! adjective! targets! a! non=head! noun! in! a! nominal! compound:! (37)!a.!Good![truck!driver].! !b.![Long!truck]!driver.!! The!strong!contrast!between!English!and!Romance!nominal!compounds! is!traditionally!attributed!to!the!fact!the!former!are!head!final!structures!made! up! out! of! bare! nouns,! rather! than! bounded! roots.! This! gives! raise! to! grammatical! projections! which! only! to! a! certain! extent! can! properly! be! considered!“morphological”.!As!it!is!well=known,!compound!formatives!may! be!even!sentences,!as!in!Ackema!&!Neeleman!(2002)’s!example!A,don’t,tell,me, what, to, do, look.! Recent! discussions! on! the! much=debated! syntactic! nature! of! English!compounds!can!be!found!in!Lieber!&!Stekauer!(2009)!and!Arcodia!et,al.! (2010).! The!fact!that!the! contrasts! in!(35)=(36)!do!not!constitute! a! problem!for! LIH=2!does!not!imply!that!this!hypothesis!successfully!passes!modification!tests.! In! fact,! bracketing! paradoxes! provide! strong! arguments! against! LIH=2.! The! segmentation!of!quantified!=mente!adverbials!is!a!straightforward!example:! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 159! Ignacio!Bosque! (38)!Muy!tranquilamente.! !‘Rather!calmly’! (39)!a.![Muy]![tranquilamente]! !b.![Muy!tranquila]![mente]! The! bracketing! in! (39a)! is! correct! on! syntactic! (and! also! orthographic)! grounds,!given! that!muy! (‘very’)!is! not! a! morpheme,! but! it! is!not! correct!on! semantic!grounds,!since!(39a)!provides!a!wrong!paraphrase!(‘rather!in!a!calm! way’)!for!(38).!On!the!contrary,!the!bracketing!in!(39b),!in!which!=mente!targets!a! full!syntactic!AP,!presents!problems!with!for!both!syntax!and!orthography,!but! it!provides!the!correct!meaning!of!(38):!‘in!a!rather!calm!way’.!! Some!other!bracketing!paradoxes!also!contravene!LIH=2,!but!not!all!of! them!do.!In!fact,!the!potential!argument!against!LIH=2!provided!by!adjectives! interpreted!as!modifiers!of!inner!nouns!or!verbs,!as!in!the!molecular,biologist!or! the!beautiful,dancer!classical!cases,!might!not!be!as!sound!as!it!looks!like!(see! Larson!1999;!Spencer!1988;!Beard!1991,!1995!for!discussion).!The!main!reason!is! that!the!relevant!factors!to!explain!some!of!these!patterns!can!be!thought!of!as! being!lexical,!rather!than!strictly!morphological.!Notice!that!we!should!not!be! forced!to!sustain!that!the!adjective!bad!in!a,bad,dancer,is!interpreted!in!a!different! way!to!that!in!which!the!same!adjective!is!interpreted!in!a,bad,musician.,But!this! is!exactly!what!one!must!deduce!from!the!fact!that!the!former,!but!not!the!latter,! has!access!to!a!verbal!base!(i.e.!dance).!A!similar!conclusion!may!be!obtained! from!contrasts!in!(40)!in!Spanish,!and!some!others!similar!to!these!attested!in! NGRALE,!§!13.8i:! (40)!a.!El!{actual!/!actualmente}!director!del!museo.! ! ! the!current!currently!director!of=the!museum!! !!!!!‘The!current!director!of!the!museum’! !b.!El!{posterior!/! posteriormente}!ganador!del!campeonato!de!España.! ! ! the!later!(adj.)!later!(adv.)!winner!!of=the!championship!of!Spain! ! ! ‘The!later!winner!of!Spain’s!championship’! Although!one!might!be!tempted!to! argue!that!the!adverb,!but!not!the! adjective,! has! access! to! the! verbal! base! of! the! nouns! director! (‘director’)! or! ganador!(‘winner’),!I!believe!that!the!problem!is!not!morphological,!since!director! can!be!replaced!by!jefe!(‘chief’)!in!(40a),!and!ganador!may!be!safely!substituted! by!campeón!(‘champion’)!in!(40b),!another!non=derived!noun.!The!contrasts!in! (40)!are!most!probably!related!to!Stowell’s!(1991)!idea!that!some!nouns!may! denote! titles! as! well! as! properties! of! kinds! of! individuals.! Whatever! specific! implementation!of!this!suggestion!we!chose,!it!will!not!question!the!main!point:! these!phenomena!do!not!constitute!a!failure!of!LIH=2!as!regards!modification! structures.! VPs! and! IPs! converted! into! head! nouns! do! not! infringe! LIH=2! in! structures! of! modification! either,! since! these! phrases! cease! to! be! syntactic! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 160! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! projections!when!they!become!lexical!heads.!These!include!neologisms!such!as! nomeimportismo! ‘gross! negligence’! (attested! in! NGRALE,! §! 6.4b),! from! No,me, importa,‘I!don’t!care’,!or!frenteamplista,‘supporter!of!Frente,Amplio!(Wide,Front),!a! coalition!of!Uruguayan!political!parties’.!! As!opposed!to!all!this,!the!conclusion!that!some!isolable!prefixes!defy! LIH=2! is! hard! to! avoid.! These! include! pro=,! ex=,! anti=! and! some! others.! They! become!close!to!adjectives!and!target!full!DPs,!but,!even!so,!they!maintain!some! of! their! morphological! properties! as! prefixes! (fixed! initial! position,! non= concurrence!with!other!adjectives,!etc.).!Example!(41c)!was!found!in!the!Internet:! (41)!a.!ex![jugador!de!primera!división]! ! ! ex!player!of!first=FEM!division! ! ! ‘ex!1st!division!football!player’!! !b.!medidas!pro!![derechos!humanos]!! ! ! measures!pro!!!rights!human=MASC.PL! ! ! ‘Pro=human!rights!measures’! !c.!manifestación!anti![decretazo!22!de!enero]! ! ! demonstration!anti!strong=decree!22!of!January! ! ! ‘Demonstration!anti!the!strong!decree!of!January,!22nd’! Although! each! of! these! structures! presents! its! own! peculiarities,! they! clearly!show!that!modification!patterns!pose!a!number!of!problems!to!LIH=2!in! a!much!more!consistent!way!than!they!do!as!regards!LIH=1.! 4.3.!Scope! SCOPE!is!more!severely!restricted!than!MODIFICATION!as!a!test!for!LIH=2.! The!contrast!in!(42)!clearly!supports!this!hypothesis.!It!shows!that!the!prefix!des=! is!not!a!negative!operator!with!scope!outside!the!word.!Consequently,!it!is!not! able!to!license!the!contrastive!expression!pero,sí!(‘but!it!does’):! (42)!a.!No!obedece! a! sus!padres,!pero!sí! a! sus!profesores.! ! ! not!obey=3.PRES.IND!to!his/her!parents!but!does!to!his/her!teachers!! ! ! ‘S/he!does!not!obey!his/her!parents,!but!his/her!teachers’! !b.!*Desobedece! a! sus!padres,!pero!sí! a! sus!profesores.! ! ! disobey=3.PRES.IND!!to!his/her!parents!but!does!to!his/her!teachers! ! ! ‘S/he!disobeys!his/her!parents,!but!his/her!teachers’! As!we!can!see,!this!is!fully!consistent!with!LIH=2.!I!am!aware!of!only!one! true!exception!to!this!generalization!(that!is,!“LIH=2!passes!scope!tests”)!in!the! Spanish!Grammar,!although!one!might!think!of!some!others,!merely!apparent.! The!true!exception!I!think!of!is!provided!by!the!scope!of!the!negative!prefix!des=! with!a!few!verbs,!notably!desconocer!(‘not!know’).!If!LIH=2!passed!scope!tests!in! all!cases,!the!sentence!(43)!would!refer!to!some!“exact!lack!of!knowledge”,!but! the! truth! is! that! it! speaks! about! not! knowing! something! with! certainty! or! accuracy,!quite!a!different!meaning:! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 161! Ignacio!Bosque! (43)!Desconozco!con!exactitud!las!causas!del!accidente.!! !Not=know=1st.PRES.IND!with!exactness!the=FEM.PL!causes!of=the!accident! !‘I!do!not!know!the!causes!of!the!accident!accurately’! Thus,! the! problem! with! (43)! is! the! fact! that! the! prefix! des=! has! scope! outside!the!verb,!hence!flagrantly!violating!LIH=2.!Some!other!examples!of!this! pattern!are!attested!in!NGRALE,!§!48.2l.!I!know!of!no!existing!solution!to!this! unexpected!result,!according!to!LIH=2,!but!one!might!speculate!with!the!idea! that!perhaps!desconocer!displays!two!different!structures,!so!that!in!one!of!them! the! prefix! is! phonologically! bound! to! the! verbal! base,! but! interpreted! as! an! independent!operator.!In!this!particular!structure,!des=!is!not!exactly!a!prefix,! just!like!=migo!and!=tigo!were!shown!not!to!be!suffixes!in!(30)=(32).!I!will!not!be! able!to!develop!this!line!of!explanation!here.! As!opposed!to!these!real!LIH=2!failures!as!regards!scope!tests,!some!other! potential! arguments! are! merely! apparent.! I! suggest! that! they! are! just! direct! consequences! of! the! confusion! of! lexical! and! morphological! factors! that! I! mentioned! in! the! previous! sections.! A! glance! at! (44)! might! suggest! that! a! negative!prefix!triggers!a!negative!polarity!item!in!(44c),!thus!implying!that!the! prefix!has!a!syntactic!effect!outside!the!adjective!imposible!(‘impossible’):! (44)!a.!*Es!posible!que!venga!nadie.! ! ! is!possible!that!come=3.PRES.SUBJ!anyone! ! ! ‘It!is!possible!that!anybody!comes’! !b.!No!es!posible!que!venga!nadie.! ! ! not!is!possible!that!come=3.PRES.SUBJ!anyone! ! ! ‘It!is!not!possible!that!anybody!comes’! !c.!Es!imposible!que!venga!nadie.! ! ! is!impossible!that!come=3.PRES.SUBJ!anyone! ! ! ‘It!is!impossible!that!anybody!comes’! But!this!is!a!wrong!conclusion,!similar!to!the!one!we!dismissed!in!other! similar!cases,!such!as!(18)=(19)!or!(40):!the!triggering!of!the!negative!polarity! item!is!not!a!morphological!property!of!the!prefix,!but!a!lexical!characteristic!of! the! adjective! imposible,! shared! by! other! similar! adjectives! lacking! negative! prefixes:! (45)!Es!{absurdo!/!temerario!/!ridículo}!que!venga!nadie.! !is!absurd!reckless!ridiculous!that!come=3.PRES.SUBJ!anyone! !‘It!is!{absurd!/!reckless/!ridiculous!that!anybody!comes’! I!then!conclude!that!LIH=2!safely!passes!scope!tests,!with!the!possible! exception!of!some!negative!prefixes!in!a!very!restrictive!context.! 4.4.!Anaphora! The! possible! ways! in! which! anaphoric! relations! confirm! o! contradict! LIH=2! (i.e.,! the! question! of! whether! or! not! words! are! anaphoric, islands)! has! worried!grammarians!for!more!that!forty!years,!beginning!with!Postal!(1969).! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 162! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! To!my!knowledge,!the!first!LIH=2!failures!attested!in!theoretical!grammar!as! regards!anaphora!were!mentioned!in!this!paper,!although!somehow!strangely! interpreted! in! favour! of! Generative! Semantics.! More! empirical! counterarguments!to!LIH=2!based!on!anaphora!were!discussed!in!Lakoff!and! Ross!(1972),!Grinder!and!Postal!(1971),!Barone!(1972),!Watt!(1973,!1978),!Corum! (1973),!Browne!(1974),!Kaplan!(1976),!Sampson!(1979)!and!many!other!studies.! The!debate!was!retaken!vigorously!in!the!80’s!and!90’s!by!Lieber!(1984,!1992),! Sproat! (1985),! Sproat! and! Ward! (1987),! Ward! et,al.! (1991),! Harris! (2006),! Ziv! (1996)! and! others,! since! frameworks! of! theoretical! morphology! where! articulated!in!much!more!explicitly!ways!in!those!days.! One! of! the! most! remarkable! peculiarities! of! anaphoric! structures! in! relation! to! LIH=2! is! the! very! fact! that! crucial! data! are! unstable.! The! unquestionable!ungrammaticality!of!(46a),!an!example!provided!by!Postal!(1969:! 230),!sharply!contrast!with!the!grammaticality!of!(46b),!extracted!by!Ward!et,al.! (1991)!from!a!U.S.!newspaper.!However,!both!sentences!basically!display!the! same!phenomenon:!the!access!of!a!pronoun!to!the!morphological!structure!of!a! nominal!compound:! (46)!a.!*Animal!hunters!tend!to!like!them.! !b.!Millions!of!Oprah!Winfrey!fans!were!thoroughly!confused!last!week!when,!during!her! show…! Many! other! similar! contrasts! can! be! found! in! the! literature.! The! experiments! described! in! Garnham! &! Oakhill! (1988)! on! the! acceptance! of! English!structures!with!nominal!morphological!bases!as!pronoun!antecedents! showed!a!similar!instability,!but!also!a!certain!tendency!of!informants!to!admit! those!constructions!in!a!large!number!of!cases.!Crucial!data!is!also!unstable!in! Spanish,!both!in!V+N!compounds,!nominalizations!and!other!derived!nominals.! Even!so,!native!speakers!accept!most!of!these!constructions!in!the!appropriate! contexts:! (47)!a.!?No!todos!los!aparcacoches!los!tratan!con!cuidado.! ! ! Not!all!the.MASC.PL!car=parkers!them!treat.3.PL.PRES.IND!with!!care! ! ! ‘Not!all!parking!attendants!treat!cars!carefully’! !b.!Tengo! ! que!comprarme!un!lavaplatos!porque!estoy! ! ! have=1.sing.pres.ind.!to!buy=for=me! a! dishwasher!because!be.1sing.pres.,ind! !!! ! cansado!de!lavarlos! a! mano.!(Taken!from!NGRALE,!§!11.2t).!! ! ! tired=masc!!of!wash=them!by!hand! ! ! ‘I!have!to!buy!myself!!a!dishwasher!because!I!am!tired!to!wash!them!by!hand’! !c.!En!mi!pueblo!no!necesitamos!pararrayos!porque! ! ! ! in!my!village!not!need=1.PL.PRES.IND!!lighting=conductor!because! ! ! ! no!ha!caído!ninguno!desde!hace!un!par!de!siglos.! ! ! not!has!fallen!none.MASC!!from!make=3.SING.IND! a! pair!of!centuries! ‘We!don’t!need!any!lighting=conductor!where!I!come!from,!since!not!one!has!fallen!in! about!two!centuries’! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 163! Ignacio!Bosque! !d.!Tú!serás!una!madrileña!de!pura!cepa,!pero!yo!no!podría!nunca! ! ! ! You!might=well=be!a=FEM.! Madridean!authentic! but! I! no!could!ever! ! ! viví!allí.! ! ! live!there! !!!!!!!‘You!might!well!be!a!pure,!authentic!Madridean,!but!I!could!never!live!there’! !e.!!!A!finales! de!1980,!ni!siquiera!los!más!fervientes! !! ! ! By=the=end!of!1980,!not!even!the.masc.pl!more!fervent=PL.MASC!Suárez=!! ! ! suaristas!confiaban!ya!en!él.! ! ! supporters!trust=3.pl.IMP.IND!already!in!him! ‘By!the!end!of!1980,!not!even!the!most!passionate!supporters!of!Suárez!would!trust! him!anymore’! These!sentences!are!intended!to!be!used!in!an!out!of!the!blue!context.!As! it!is!obvious,!(47e)!would!not!infringe!LIH=2!if!the!pronoun’s!antecedent!was! the!noun!Suárez,!introduced!in!the!previous!discourse,!but!it!would!question! this!hypothesis!if!used!at!the!beginning!of!an!essay!or!a!newspaper!article.!! Since!recoverability!of!pronoun!antecedents!allows!for!several!discourse! options,!not!all!apparent!LIH=2!failures!related!to!anaphora!are!to!be!interpreted! properly!as!such!(see!Sampson!1979,!Harris!2006!and!Ward!et,al.!1991!on!this! issue).! I! have! already! mentioned! associative! anaphora! patterns! as! false! candidates! to! LIH=1! violations.! Interestingly,! these! structures! reappear! as! potential!proofs!against!LIH=2!in!anaphora!tests,!as!(48)!suggests:! (48)!Si!al!entrar!en!un!lavacoches!no!cierras!bien!las!ventanillas,!! !if!! when!entering!in! a! car!wash!not!close=2.PRES.IN!well!the!windows! !puedes!recibir!una!ducha!inesperada.! !may=2.IND.PRES!receive!a! shower!unexpected! !‘If!you!do!not!close!the!windows!properly!when!you!go!through!a!car!wash,!you!might! get!an!unexpected!shower’! From!this!point!of!view,!the!content!of!the!null!complement!of!ventanillas! (‘windows’)! in! (48)! would! be! recovered! from! inside! the! V=N! compound! lavacoches!(‘car!wash’):!it!would!be!the!noun!coches!(‘cars’).!However,!at!least! two! arguments! point! towards! a! different! conclusion:! first,! the! required! complement!would!contain!a!singular!DP,!but!the!noun!in!the!V=N!compound! in!(48)!has!plural!features;!second,!another!Spanish!noun!for!car,wash,!besides! lavacoches,!is!lavadero.!It!contains!no!potential!nominal!antecedent!for!a!pronoun,! but!it!gives!rise!to!the!same!effect:! (49)!Si!vas!! a! un!lavadero,!acuérdate!de!cerrar!bien!las!ventanillas.! !If!go=2.PRES.IND!to! a! car!wash!remember=IMP!of!close=INF!well!the!windows! ‘If!you!go!to!a!carwash,!remember!to!properly!close!the!windows’! I!then!conclude!that!associative!anaphora!patterns!do!no!challenge!LIH=2.!! Another!factor!that!seems!to!be!relevant,!when!evaluating!the!result!of! testing! LIH=2! with! anaphoric! structures,! is! the! compound’s! degree! of! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 164! On!the!Lexical!Integrity!Hypothesis!and!its!(In)accurate!Predictions! transparency.!A!speaker!of!Spanish!who!accuses!someone!of!being!aguafiestas! (‘killjoy’,!literally!‘water!down!parties’)!may!not!be!thinking!of!some!particular! party,!or!even!have!that!noun!in!mind!at!all.!It!then!comes!as!no!surprise!the! fact!that!it!is!almost!impossible!to!recover!this!nominal!component!of!the!V=N! compound!through!a!pronoun:! (50)!*Juan!es!un!aguafiestas!en!todas! Ø.! !J.!is! a! killjoy!in!all=FEM.PL! ! ‘Juan!is!a!killjoy!at!all!parties’! Considerable! crosslinguistic! variation! has! been! observed! as! regards! infractions!of!anaphoric!islands.!Coulmas!(1988)!shows!that!these!violations!are! found! in! Japanese! and! Chinese! compounds;! Hagège! (1988)! describes! similar! patters!in!Eskimo,!Tagalog!and!Dakota;!Harris!(2006)!finds!them!in!Georgian,! whereas!Bresnan!and!Mchombo!(1995)!argue!that!possible!candidates!in!some! Bantu!languages!are!only!apparent.!! Potential!LIH=2!violations!related!to!anaphora!extend!to!other!patterns.! LIH=2!does!not!comply!with!the!very!existence!of!reflexive!prefixes,!in!a!parallel! way! to! the! behaviour! of! other! prefixes! in! coordinated! structures! (remember! (33)):! (51)!La!autocensura!de!María! !the!self=censorship!of!María! !‘Mary’s!self=censorship’! Whatever!morphological!recourse!is!adopted!to!make!reflexive!prefixes! absorb!the!internal!predicate’s!argument,!reference!to!the!external!DP!argument! will!still!have!to!be!possible!from!that!inner!constituent,!hence!violating!LIH=2.! See!again!Felíu!(2001)!on!this!pattern.! As!we!have!seen,!we!cannot!simply!conclude!that!LIH=2!safely!passes! anaphora!tests,!since!the!evidence!shows!that!a!number!of!violations!are!real,! not! merely! apparent.! Even! so,! the! possibilities! of! discourse! retrieval! of! the! information!provided! by!nominal! roots! and! bases! are!numerous,! varied!and! complex!enough!as!to!cast!serious!doubts!on!the!idea!that!LIH=2!fatally!fails!at! the!anaphora!test!bench.! 4.5.!Balance!of!tests!for!LIH=2!! We!may!add!MOVEMENT!to!the!tests!for!LIH=2!that!we!have!proposed!in! the!previous!sections.!No!exception!is!known!to!the!fact!that!LIH=2!successfully! passes!this!test:! (52)!a.!Juan!arregla!lavaplatos.! ! ! Juan!fixes!dishwashers! ! ! ‘Juan!fixes!dishwashers’! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.1,!2012,!140=173!! !http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! 171! Ignacio!Bosque! Lapointe,!Stephen.!1978.!A!theory!of!grammatical!agreement.!Ph.D.!dissertation,! 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Revision!date/Fecha!de!revisión/Data!de!revisão:!6/09/2012! Acceptation!date/Fecha!de!aceptación/Data!de!aceitação:!11/09/2012! ! Ignacio!Bosque! ! [email protected]! Universidad!Complutense,!Madrid!