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SHARED THINKING:
CONCEPT AND ASSESSMENT
An onio Aguile a
Uni e si y o Se ille
The inal publica ion is a ailable a Sp inge ia h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1007/BF03173030
Fo some ime now, he esea ch eam o “Cogni i e En ichmen and Special Educa ional Needs”
o he Uni e si y o Se ille (Spain) has been wo king on he s udy o hinking skills and hei
assessmen and imp o emen (e.g. Aguile a, 1989, 1991, 1997; Aguile a & Mo a, 1992,1993;
Le a & Aguile a, 1992; Mo a, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1998; Mo a & Aguile a, 1992; Mo a & Mo a-
Me chán, 1995). The wo k we he eby p esen is pa o his line o esea ch and has as a main
objec i e he alida ion o an ins umen o he assessmen o hinking skills necessa y o
cogni i e unc ioning and social adjus men .
O he au ho s (e.g. Imbe nón, 1999, ERT, 1995) and ou sel es (Aguile a, 2000b; Aguile a and
Ga cía, 2000) ha e analysed he demands he in o ma ion socie y places on he educa ional
sys em and he con ibu ions ha ha e been made bo h in he con ex s o educa ional and social
in e en ion ( o he i s , see o example, D ucke , 1993; Minc, 1994; To le , 1980,1990;
Cab e izo, 1986; Eu opean Commision, 1994; Cas ells, 1995; and o he second, Tedesco, 1995;
Pé ez, 1996; Delo s, 1996). We ha e also commen ed on how he p esen educa ional sys em in
Spain (MEC, 1990) inco po a es elemen s ha in end o con ibu e o he educa ion o u u e
gene a ions ollowing p esen demands. The inclusion o p ocedu al educa ional con en s and he
explici o mula ion, as an educa ional p inciple, o he need o s uden s o “lea n o lea n” and
o “lea n o hink” a e hus, in his sense, an in e es ing no el y.
I educa ion in an in o ma ion socie y had o be esumed unde wo coo dina es, wi hou doub
hey should be hose o he need o de elop adequa e hinking skills, specially he abili y o ake
pa in eamwo k, and he de elopmen o ce ain a i udes and alues. In his a icle we will cen e
on he i s o hese aspec s in wha has been called sha ed hinking o hinking in in e ac ion
(Aguile a, 1997, 2000a): we a e conside ing hough no jus as any o m o esponse o eali y,
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bu speci ically as a cul u al (i.e. a sha ed) esponse o i .
In he ollowing pages we shall commen on he hinking skills ha cen e ou in e es , why hey
should be s udied du ing in e ac ion and he use ulness o hei assessmen . As we commen on
ou empi ical wo k we shall p esen he ins umen designed o he assessmen o his o m o
cogni ion, he PAT (P ocedu e o he Assessmen o Thinking in In e ac ion) (Aguile a, 2000a),
and some esul s and conclusions ob ained om i s use in wo s udies, one longi udinal and
ano he c oss-sec ional.
The hinking skills we a e in e es ed in
We a e in e es ed in he human being as a subjec ha p ocesses in o ma ion, and ha hinks as
he o she does so. One pa icula ly human aspec specially in e es s us: he ac ha hough i sel
can be he objec o hinking. This is a le el o p ocessing supe io o ha o analysing da a, ex s,
knowledge o e en han in elligence (in o ma ion capable o c ea ing new in o ma ion om ha
which al eady exis s) (Aguile a, 1997, 2000b; Gago, 1995). We a e e e ing o he me acogni i e
le el: hinking ha can pe cei e i sel , hus leading o he appea ance o social eali ies
(he e o egula ion), he possibili y o sel - egula ion and he capabili y o comp ehension and
ans o ma ion, bo h o he en i onmen and o he sel . We a e no so much in e es ed in
in elligence in i sel , as much as he p o i ha can be ob ained om i h ough adequa e use o
ce ain s a egies, p ocedu es and hinking skills. In elligence is capable o sol ing p oblems,
hinking c ea es hem, in en s hem; in elligence is an ap i ude (a po en iali y), hinking is an ac .
I we mus espond o social demands in he in o ma ion socie y, he hinking skills in which we
should cen e a e hose ha allow us o lea n o lea n, ha is, hose ha allow a pe son o pe cei e
his o he sel de eloping possibili ies o sel - egula ion, sel -comp ehension and sel -
ans o ma ion in a ce ain con ex a he same ime as he o she is capable o comp ehending
and ans o ming i . This is why we a e in e es ed in he hinking skills necessa y o handle in e nal
and ex e nal in o ma ion in a manne ha is adap ed o he en i onmen . We also belie e ha he
cogni i e ools necessa y o unde s and and change he condi ions o li ing, he day- o-day
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si ua ions, and o adap o hem should be augh , and in his we ind ano he eason o be
in e es ed in hem.
The hinking skills we a e ocusing on a e he e o e hose ha a e use ul in he solu ion o daily
p oblems, wi hin ou own social con ex . We a e no a emp ing o educe he impo ance o skills
needed o unde ake speci ic asks in he school se ing, bu o go u he in iden i ying gene al
abili ies no necessa ily linked o academic con en and use ul in highly ecological si ua ions.
This way o concei ing hough has p o en o be alid in in e en ion. Resul s ob ained wi h he
p og amme “Comp ehending and T ans o ming” (Mo a, 1991,1998) cen ed on sel - egula ion
skills seem o con i m i . The skills we e iden i ied by ex e nal obse e s when hey desc ibed
wha hey hough we e indica o s o high le el in ellec ual unc ioning, o imp o ed cogni ion
(using he exp ession o Nicke son, Pe kins and Smi h, 1987) ha a e no usually app ecia ed in
s anda dized ins umen s, such as in elligence es s, which a e usually employed o e alua e
cogni i e en ichmen p og ammes. Fo his wo k we ha e used a g oup o hinking skills ha
espond o hese cha ac e is ics and ha ha e hei oo s in wo di e en bu , so we belie e,
con e ging concep ual and esea ch adi ions: me acogni ion and c i ical hinking.
In Con ex s o In e ac ion
We a e, in addi ion, in e es ed in hese hinking skills when hey come in o being in con ex s o
in e ac ion, ha is, when eams o people a e acing p oblem sol ing. We unde s and hough no
only as a esponse o eali y, bu as a collec i e, sha ed, cul u al, esponse o human g oups o
he con ex ’s demands. I is no jus “ hinking abou e en s and objec s”, bu also “wi h o he s”, o
e en “wi h mysel ” in a sel - e e ing si ua ion. We al eady poin ed ou abo e ha ou ocus o
in e es is no on in elligence, bu on wha can be ob ained om i . Now we can add ha we a e
e en less in e es ed in in elligence unde s ood as and indi idual asse . In any case we would be
e e ing o wha au ho s such as Cos a and Lowe y (1989) o Leg ee (1995) ha e called social
in elligence, al hough exp essions such as “sha ed hinking” o “ hinking in in e ac ion” seem mo e
adequa e. The o me social “in elligence” is also used o name indi idual abili ies o he solu ion
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o in e pe sonal p oblem sol ing.
The e a e easons o be in e es ed in in e pe sonal in e ac ions. In he i s place, he p oblems
we mus ace in a complica ed socie y equi e he handling o a g ea deal o in o ma ion, so
complex ha i would be e y di icul o an indi idual alone o handle all he esou ces necessa y
o sol e hem wi hou coope a ion wi h o he s. Also, as Vygo sky (1979), We sch (1988) and
Rogo (1993), among o he s, ha e de ended, he capabili y o hink de elops in a social milieu.
I is social in e ac ion ha makes a pe son de elop o ms o easoning adequa e o hei
ans o ming adap a ion o hei en i onmen . Di e en o ms o social in e ac ion, in di e se
cul u al con ex s, will ha e di e en e ec s on de elopmen . Ins ead o he piage ian me apho o
he child scien is , Rogo (1993) p oposes he child app en ice, who lea ns while pa icipa ing in
p oblem sol ing asks wi h he help o o he s wi h g ea e expe ise. In he wo k, Rogo assumes
ha human de elopmen is o a social na u e and she emphasises he ole o con ex as a uni o
analysis, while ejec ing any indi idual psychological phenomenon conside ed sepa a ely om i s
social con ex . In he second place, social in e ac ions a e a undamen al elemen in school
lea ning models o undoub ed in e es , such as dialogic lea ning (Flecha, 1997,1999; Flecha and
To ajada, 1999). Finally, we belie e he e is no sense in s a ing ha hinking is cul u al and is
cons ued in in e ac ion and hen p oceeding o assess i indi idually. Concep s such as he zone
o p oximal de elopmen do no e e o indi idual aspec s, bu o a space ha appea s du ing
in e ac ion, a sha ed space o common cogni ion ha is mo e ha he addi ion o indi idual
hinking.
The ollowing a e elemen s o he sha ed na u e o hinking skills we a e speci ically in e es ed in:
in e subjec i i y, in e ela ion be ween he ac ual (p esen ) and ha which is possible ( u u e), he
no ions o app op ia ion, zone o p oximal de elopmen , nego ia ion o meanings, sca olding,
si ua ion de ini ion, sha ed hinking, sociocogni i e con lic , e c.
Neopiage ian esea ch abou he de elopmen o he o ma ion o conscience and p ocesses o
egula ion has also poin ed ou ha social in e ac ion si ua ions a e essen ial (e.g. Mugny and
Doise, 1983; Pe e -Cle mon , 1984; Mugny, Paolis and Ca uga i, 1991; Pe e -Cle mon , Pe e
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and Bell, 1991). Howe e , bo h hese s udies and hose ca ied ou wi hin a Vygo skian amewo k
ha e limi ed hemsel es o si ua ions o sociocogni i e con lic , ei he in dyadic o in asymme ic
si ua ions. We shall do so in si ua ions ha equi e collabo a ion among equals in eams o
subjec s simila o hose o med in class ooms o coope a i e wo k o in g oups o iends. Ou
ocus is on he coope a i e wo k and social in e ac ion in eams o school-age child en ha ace
p oblem sol ing oge he .
We know ha no all hinking i s in he concep ualisa ion we a e de ending. The analysis o
indi idual p ocesses should p obably con inue o be a p io i y. Bu we do belie e ha he
assessmen o hinking skills is incomple e i indi iduals a e no obse ed in in e ac ion wi h o he s
wi h highe , lowe o equal cogni i e le el. On he o he hand, he s udy o hinking skills in dyadic
si ua ions is complica ed enough me hodologically o discou age u he b oadening o he ield.
Howe e , he isks o s udying in e ac ion among equals mus be unde aken. I is easy o say so,
o cou se, as a gene al ecommenda ion, bu his mus also be done wi h speci ic si ua ions and
ins umen s ha make i conc e e and possible o e alua e. We a e no su e whe he o en e in o
such ma e s, and a e conscious o he ease wi h which mis akes can be made when alking abou
social si ua ions and hough sepa a ed om in elligence. Howe e , he s udies unde aken up o
p esen in ou esea ch g oup encou age us o do so.
Assessmen
We ha e jus poin ed ou he ou maximum in e es is in he analysis o hinking p ocesses and
abili ies ha a e ac i a ed in social p oblem sol ing in in e ac ion (which is also social). The main
poin o depa u e is ha maximum in e es o he eaching o cogni i e ools is he en ichmen o
hinking abili ies ha a e applied o e e yday (al hough no necessa ily o he immedia e con ex )
p oblem sol ing, nea ly always sa u a ed o social ac o s. We can, howe e , ask ou sel es he
eason o his ask we call assessmen , why we claim ou pu pose o be he objec i e analysis o
his o m o hinking in o de o e alua e i . The answe lies in he conside a ion ha he eaching
o hinking equi es, among o he hings, he knowledge o he de elopmen o hese abili ies bo h
in he no mal and he less s imula ed popula ion. Bo h one and he o he seem o be lacking in

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cu en li e a u e (Fo ns, 1993).
Mos o he in e en ion p og ammes a e e alua ed using indi idual pape -and-pencil asks
(no mally IQ es s), mo e cen ed on p oduc s han on hinking p ocesses, and analysing expec ed
e ec s, when unexpec ed ones a e jus as in e es ing o mo e. These p ocedu es a e, in addi ion,
complica ed o eache s o use in he assessmen o p esen cu icula.
In ou own e ision o he me hods o he assessmen o me acogni i e and c i ical hinking skills
(Aguile a, 1997), we ha e ound ha mos ins umen s a e inadequa e o he e alua ion o
hinking skills in in e ac ion. The c i ical hinking assessmen p ocedu es consis o indi idual
w i en asks, al hough hey can be used as a p e ex o eam discussions. We belie e, howe e ,
ha ecological alidi y is bes gua an eed wi h p oblems close o subjec s’ daily expe iences. The
me acogni i e assessmen ins umen s a e also designed o indi idual applica ion.
The assessmen p ocedu e we ha e adop ed, as will be seen below, elies on obse a ion. In his
way we ha e access o spon aneous, di ec in o ma ion, p esen while subjec s ace he ask, and
unde di e en modali ies, such as e bal exp essions (elabo a ed and semi-cons ued –
exp essions o de eloping hough s), ges u es o “eloquen ” silences, and wi h di e en con en s
(communica i e, o egula o y o sel o o he beha iou ).
As we men ioned abo e, he objec i e is o de e mine he alidi y o an ins umen o he
assessmen o sha ed hinking, he “P ocedu e o he Assessmen o Thinking in In e ac ion”
(PAT) (Aguile a, 2000a) in wo s udies, one c oss-sec ional and ano he longi udinal.
Me hod
Subjec s
PAT has been used in ou esea ch, in a longi udinal and a c oss-sec ional s udy. In he i s , da a
om subjec s we e aken on wo occasions sepa a ed by a 26-mon h in e al, and in he second,
on one only occasion, da a om h ee di e en age g oups.
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The sample o he longi udinal s udy was composed o 30 g oups o six elemen a y and middle
school s uden s andomly chosen om hei classes. G oups we e selec ed in o de o include
wo le els o social and cul u al s imula ion. Fi een g oups a ended schools socially dep i ed
zones and he o he 15 om esiden ial a eas, all o hem li ing in he ci y o Se ille. The sample
was also dis ibu ed among h ee age le els: P ima y 2, P ima y 5 and P ima y 8.
The sample o he c oss-sec ional s udy was composed o six g oups simila hose o he o he ,
wi h ages co esponding o P ima y 4 and P ima y 6.
Ins umen s
A p ocedu e named PAT was de eloped o use in de elopmen al esea ch, he ield o lea ning
disabili ies, he de e mina ion o special needs and he e alua ion o cogni i e in e en ion
p og ammes, as well as he in he e alua ion o p ocedu al con en s included in he Kinde ga en,
P ima y and Seconda y cu icula.
I is composed o an assessmen p ocedu e and an obse a ion ins umen . The i s consis s o
a se ies o p oblems each eam o s uden s mus sol e. The e a e nine p oblems o h ee di e en
ypes, complexi y and di icul y. P oblems ela i e o ins i u ional con lic s, in e pe sonal si ua ions
and logic puzzles we e included. They we e p esen ed o each eam, and s uden con e sa ion
ideo eco ded and analysed. Table 1 shows an example o each o hese si ua ions.
INSERT TABLE 1 HERE
The obse a ion ins umen used o ideo analysis consis s o a g oup o “imp o ed cogni ion
indica o s”, i.e., gene al cogni i e abili ies o be assessed. Some co espond o me acogni i e
abili ies, o he s o c i ical hinking skills, in o ma ion managemen skills, and p oblem-sol ing and
easoning skills (see able 2)
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INSERT TABLE 2 HERE
P ocedu e
P ocedu e was simila in bo h s udies. Teams we e andomly o med and selec ed: in each class
s uden s we e andomly assigned o g oups, and hen h ee eams we e andomly chosen in each
one o hem. The ield p o ocol explici ly indica ed ha no pupil ha did no wan o pa icipa e
should be included. The same documen included ins uc ions o be p esen ed o he eams.
These we e aken ou o he class ooms, one a a ime in a p ede e mined o de . They we e aken
o ano he hall p epa ed wi h a ideo came a, aking no e o iden i ica ion da a o he eams and
each o he s uden s. Co esponding p oblems we e hen p esen ed and child en we e allowed o
discuss hem. Adul s in cha ge would hen dis ance hemsel es om he g oup, wi hou lea ing
he oom. Each eam had o sol e a logic p oblem ( ype C1 om able 1), an in e pe sonal p oblem
( ype B2 om able 1) and an ins i u ional p oblem ( ype A1 om able 1) in he longi udinal s udy.
In he c oss-sec ional s udy only he ins i u ional ype p oblem was p esen ed. In he longi udinal
s udy, he si ua ions assigned o each eam was done in such a way ha all hem sol ed e e y
si ua ion, and ha each eam would no ace he same p oblem in any o he wo momen s. Tasks
we e conside ed comple ed when he pupils said hey had inished, when he si ua ion had
de e io a ed o a poin in which hey we e abandoning he ask, o a e a maximum pe iod o 60
minu es. Once da a collec ion was comple ed, eco dings we e coded o p esence o absence o
he cogni ion indica o s in each minu e.
Ra en P og essi e Ma ices we e used as an ex e nal indica o . This es was passed o all he
class be o e he p oblems we e p esen ed o he eams. Academic pe o mance indica o s we e
also ob ained.
Resul s
C oss-sec ional s udy
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Reliabili y was de e mined con as ing he coding o wo expe imen ed obse e s
1
. No signi ican
di e ences we e ound in he coding, o in he ins uc ions o each eam o hei gende
composi ion.
No s a is ical di e ences in a e age ime de o ed o discussion o p oblems we e ound o same
age g oups among di e en s imula ion le els. All second, i h and eigh yea eams ended o
spend simila imes discussing he p oblems, i espec i e o hei socioeconomic s a us.
Discussion ime, howe e , does inc ease signi ican ly wi h age: 2’5” is he a e age o second
yea pupils, 6’11” o i h and 12’14” o eigh h.
Da a ela i e o equency o hinking abili ies indica o s ollowed a simila pa e n. The e we e no
signi ican di e ences among sco es ob ained by eams o he same age le el, a e age sco es
inc eased wi h age, and di e ences be ween dep i ed and s imula ed subjec s, al hough sligh ly
a ou able o hese, we e no signi ican (see igu e 1). Howe e , i i ems ela i e o me acogni i e
abili ies a e conside ed sepa a ely, di e ences be ween s imula ed and dep i ed subjec s, in he
13 and 14 yea old le el, we e signi ican (see igu e 2). O he easoning abili ies appea ed in he
h ee age g oups conside ed and inc eased wi h age. Me acogni i e abili ies only appea ed
clea ly in he 13 and o e g oup, especially in he s imula ed eams.
INSERT FIGURES 1 AND 2
In hi d place, a quali a i e e alua ion o h ee aspec s (discussion p ocess, decision-making and
me acogni i e con ol) was ca ied ou .
The discussion p ocess was di e en in he h ee age le els. Second yea s uden s began o alk
immedia ely, did no exp ess disc epan opinions o a gued and seemed o be p eoccupied wi h
inding an answe quickly, in such a manne ha when a g oup membe p oposed a solu ion i
was immedia ely adop ed by he eam. Fi h yea s uden s also began o alk apidly, al hough in
1
The au ho o his a icle and D . Mo a, o whom we exp ess ou g a i ude.
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sa is ied wi h any answe , as happens in o he p oblem ypes in which
esul s depend only on he deg ee o complexi y o s uden s’ hinking.
Howe e , di e ences be ween one and ano he ype o si ua ions we e no
signi ican , so i could be concluded ha p og ess expe imen ed by each
g oup does no depend on he kind o si ua ion.
e) Co ela ions o PAT sco es and discussion imes wi h Ra en P og essi e
Ma ices sco es could discou age, o he sake o economy, he use o
PAT. This could be so i all in e es we e cen ed on da a ela i e o he
p oduc s o in ellec ual unc ioning. Bu when we a e in e es ed in
assessing p ocesses and iden i ying speci ic hinking skills, we should
de ine and obse e hem sepa a ely. Pape and pencil es s a e no use ul
ei he when he hinking abili ies we would like o assess a e hose ha
come in o ac ion in social in e ac ion si ua ions in coope a i e eamwo k.
The co ela ions we ha e men ioned should hus be in e p e ed as a
con i ma ion o he ins umen ’s alidi y, a he han as an a gumen in
a ou o i s i ele ance.
) Finally, signi ican inc emen s we e no ound in all ages in e e y PAT
cogni ion sco e. These i ems could need imp o emen in hei de ini ion o
simply be excluded om he ins umen . Howe e , his should no be
a emp ed be o e disca ding some possible explana o y hypo heses, such
as an insu icien age span o di e ences o e ec i ely appea , an
insu icien social and cul u al di e si y in he sample, o he ac ha some

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o he cogni ions e alua ed do no appea ho ough simple ma u a ion, bu
need speci ic o mal aining o mos child en. Since esea ch ca ied ou
by o he membe s o ou esea ch g oup ha e ound di e ences in hese
indica o s among g oups, i does no seem app op ia e o exclude hem
wi hou analysing mo e closely he easons o a lack o eplica ion o hose
esul s.
Finally, esea ch pending could be de ailed in he ollowing manne : a) is PAT
suscep ible o use in o dina y educa ional assessmen ? which educa ional
objec i es can be e alua ed using his p ocedu e and which canno ? wha does
assessmen in shools wi h he ins umen en ail o eache s and o he
p ocedu e i sel ? b) PAT should be es ed o use in he e alua ion o cogni i e
en ichmen p og ammes, and c) i s applica ion should be explo ed wi h samples
o a di e en na u e o hose used he e, such as s uden s wi h special educa ional
needs, di e en age g oups, eams wi h a con olled he e ogenei y in cogni i e
de elopmen , social and cul u al s imula ion, academic pe o mance, p e ious
expe ience wi h simila asks, e c.
As can be seen, wha is le o explo e is mo e han wha has been achie ed.
Mo e so i ou con ibu ion is compa ed o he con ex o social demands we
commen ed on he beginning o his a icle. We do, howe e , hope o apply o
ou sel es wha we s a ed be o e: all impo an asks equi e he coope a i e
eamwo k o closely kni g oups. This is one o hose asks and we expec o
con inue wi h i in he esea ch lines his s udy opens. We us i will also s imula e
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o he eams ha a e in ol ed in simila ields o sha e in o ma ion o mu ual
in e es .
Re e ences
Aguile a, A. (1989). In luencias de la in e acción en la adquisición de p ocesos
cogni i os [In luence o in e ac ion on he acquisi ion o cogni i e
p ocesses]. Unpublished esea ch epo . Uni e si y o Se illa.
Aguile a, A. (1991). Po qué los maes os abandonan la adminis ación de
p og amas de en iquecimien o cogni i o: Di icul ades ins i ucionales en su
aplicación [Why eache s abandon cogni i e en ichmen p og ammes:
ins i u ional di icul ies o hei applica ion]. Pape p esen ed a he I
Symposium Nacional sob e P og amas de Enseña a Pensa . G anada.
Aguile a, A. (1997) E aluación de las habilidades de pensamien o en si uaciones
de in e acción social [Assessmen o hiking skills in social in e ac ion
si ua ions]. Unpublished doc o al disse a ion. Uni e si y o Se illa.
Aguile a, A. (2000a). D.E.P.I.: Un ins umen o pa a la e aluación del
pensamien o compa ido [PAT: An ins umen o he assessmen o
sha ed hinking]. Pos e p esen ed a IX Cong eso INFAD (In ancia y
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a.1
In he neighbou hood whe e you li e he e is a bi o was eland in which lo s o
child en no mally play. Fo some ime now he neighbou s ha e been asking he
Ci
y Council o build a pa k he e. Howe e , an insu ance company has bough
he land and is going o build a block o o ices. Mos o he people s ill wan a
pa k.
Wha do you hink could be done o ge i ? Discuss he p oblem un il you
each an ag eemen
abou wha should and could be done o ge he pa k
e e yone wan s.
b.2.
Albe is a boy ha en e ed ou class a he beginning o his yea , when he
ailed and had o epea he cou se. He ne e seems o unde s and any hing
and ails mos o he exams
. He is always dis ac ed, playing wi h oys o alking
wi h his classma e. Al hough e e yone laughs a lo a wha he does, he has no
go many iends, because he is always igh ing wi h he o he s and, besides,
ge ing oge he wi h him is a su e way o
ailing in class. Teache s a e
wonde ing wha o do wi h him: h ow him ou o school, lea e him un il he
inishes, o ... any hing else ha could be a solu ion. The o he kids in class don’
seem o ag ee among hemsel es ei he abou wha o do.
Wha do
you hink should be done? Think abou i and discuss i wi h he
o he s un il you each an ag eemen o you a e con inced i is impossible
o do so.
c.1
A ain co e s he long dis ance ha sepa a es wo Eu opean ci ies in se en
days. A ain lea es
daily om he i s own o he second, and ano he does so
in he opposi e di ec ion. Le ’s suppose we ca ch he ain. How many ains will
we mee coming in he opposi e di ec ion? Some people on he ain say i ’s
se en, bu he ain d i e , ha has
done he jou ney mo e han once now, says
i is a ew mo e.
Would you be able o say how many he e will be? Think abou i and
discuss i un il you each an ag eemen o un il you gi e up.
Table 1.- Examples o he h ee ypes o p oblems ound in he PAT.
24
01. De ining he p oblem spon aneously, explaining i mo e p ecisely and/o e o mula ing i .
02. Analysing eali y. Decomposing i in pa s.
03. Simpli ying si ua ions. Conside ing pa ial aspec s as a solu ion s a egy.
04. Con ibu ions o new, ele an and pe inen in o ma ion.
0.5 A gumen a ion, jus i ica ion and/o easoning opinions and decisions.
06. Fo mula ing conclusions based on gi en in o ma ion.
07. Fo mula ing hypo heses as a poin o depa u e o a line o easoning.
08. Poin ing ou absu di ies o con adic ions in an a gumen a ion.
09. Re o mula ing p e iously discussed poin s: econside ing al eady closed aspec s.
10. Explo ing al e na i es. Opening new lines o discussion
11. Non impulsi e beha iou . Main enance o a e lexi e hy hm.
12. Planning o ac ion: Poin ing ou objec i es, s ages owa ds success...
13. Applying ea lie con ibu ions o new si ua ions.
14. Cen ing on p ocesses. Poin ing ou s a egies and p ocedu es.
15. Re ising, discussing, e i ying own con ibu ions.
16. Main aining a en ion o con inue implica ion in ask.
17. Main aining a c i ical and noncon o mis cogni i e a i ude.
18. Sel - e e ing conclusions ela i e o a i udes, mis akes...
19. Fo mula ing gene al laws decon ex ualised and dis anced ela i e o ask.
20. Demand o a g ea e amoun o in o ma ion.
21. P ecision in he demand and ansmission o in o ma ion.
22. Inclusion o conclusions in wide and mo e abs ac e e ence sys ems .
23. Conside a ion o he poin o iew o o he s. Inclusion in an opinion o he con ibu ions o
o he s. Adop ing he poin o iew o ano he pe son.
Table 2.- Imp o ed cogni ion indica o s in he obse a ion ins umen o he PAT.
25
32

33
SIGNIFICANT DIFERENCES
NON-SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES
01. P oblem de ini ion (*)
04. Con ibu ion o discussion (***)
05. Reasoning opinions and decisions (**)
06. Fo mula ing conclusions (*)
07. Fo mula ing hypo heses (*)
08. Poin ing ou absu di ies and con adic ions (***)
12. Planning ac ion (**)
13. Applying con ibu ion o new si ua ions (*)
14. Cen ing on p ocesses and s a egies (*)
16. Main aining a en ion (***)
17. C i ical and uncon o ming a i ude (**)
20. Demanding mo e in o ma ion (**)
21. P ecision o in o ma ion (**)
23. Conside ing poin s o iew o o he s (**)
02. Analysing eali y
03. Simpli ying si ua ions
09. Re u ning o p io opics
10. Explo ing o he al e na i es
11. Non impulsi e beha iou
18. Sel - e e ing conclusions
19. Fo mula ing gene al ules
22. Inclusion in gene al e e ence
sys ems
*p<0.05
** p<0.01
***p<0.001
Table 6.- Di e ences be ween momen s 1 and 2 on each imp o ed cogni ion indica o .