A cultural bridge between East and West: the Beat reimagining of Japanese haiku as an American poetic form

GRADO EN ESTUDIOS INGLESES TRABAJO DE FIN DE GRADO CURSO: 2024/2025 A CULTURAL BRIDGE BETWEEN EAST AND WEST: HOW THE BEAT GENERATION REIMAGINED JAPANESE HAIKU INTO AN AMERICAN FORM ALUMNO: MIGUEL GÓMEZ MATEOS TUTOR: MARÍA DE LOS ÁNGELES TODA IGLESIA FIRMADO: ############### ################ ################ ################ ABSTRACT The dissertation explores the cross-cultural adaptation of the Japanese haiku within the context of the American Beat Generation, illustrating how a traditional Eastern poetic form was reimagined and turned into a different literary and philosophical setting. Tracing the origins from classical definitions by Bashō and Shiki to its popularization in the West by R.H. Blyth, the study first establishes the poetic and philosophical foundations of haiku, including some of its formal features (kigo, kireji, and syllabic structure). The analysis then shifts to examine how key figures of the Beat Generation—Gary Snyder, Jack Kerouac, ruth weiss, and Diane di Prima—engaged with haiku as a medium for poetic innovation and spiritual exploration. Through close readings of selected haikus, the dissertation highlights each poet’s distinctive approach. In doing so, this research challenges the notion that English-language haiku is a diluted imitation of its Japanese counterpart, arguing that Beat poets redefined haiku’s parameters, making it a resource for cultural blending, artistic experimentation, and personal revelation. Lastly, the dissertation demonstrates that the Beat Generation’s use of haiku served as both a literary and philosophical bridge between East and West, expanding the possibilities of poetic expression in the modern world. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Fernando Rodríguez-Izquierdo. If it had not been for his work, I would never have found the courage to embark on the demanding task of learning Japanese to read haikus in their original language. His passion for Japanese poetry has been a constant source of inspiration. I am also deeply grateful to my tutor, Professor María de los Ángeles Toda Iglesia, for her guidance and support throughout this process. Special thanks to Professor Estíbaliz Encarnación Pinedo for her contribution, particularly for providing access to Diane di Prima’s Haiku. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1 SECTION 1: HAIKU................................................................................................................2 I.1. INTRODUCTION TO HAIKU......................................................................................2 I.2. POETIC FORM..............................................................................................................4 I.3. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON HAIKU.......................................................................6 SECTION 2:THE BEAT GENERATION.............................................................................. 7 II.1. HISTORICAL CONTEXT............................................................................................7 II.2. GARY SNYDER...........................................................................................................9 II.2.1 HAIKU BY GARY SNYDER.............................................................................. 9 II.3. JACK KEROUAC.......................................................................................................13 II.3.1 HAIKU BY JACK KEROUAC.......................................................................... 14 II.4. RUTH WEISS.............................................................................................................16 II.4.1. HAIKU BY RUTH WEISS................................................................................17 II.5. DIANE DI PRIMA......................................................................................................19 II.5.1 HAIKU BY DIANE DI PRIMA......................................................................... 20 CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................... 22 NOTES................................................................................................................................................. 25 WORKS CITED......................................................................................................................26 Gómez 1 INTRODUCTION At the turn of the 20th century, Western literary circles saw a growing fascination with Eastern aesthetics, particularly Japanese poetry. Modernist poets such as Ezra Pound or Amy Lowell sought new ways to break free from Western verse, finding inspiration in the brevity of haiku¹. Pound’s imagism, with its emphasis on precision and economy of language along with Lowell’s interest in Japanese forms brought haiku further into the Anglo-American poetic landscape. This early engagement with haiku sets the stage for a deeper appreciation of Japanese poetics, which would gain further attention in the aftermath of World War II. The end of World War II marked a period of profound cultural and intellectual exchange between the East and the West. Among the many figures who bridged these cultural divisions was Reginald Horace Blyth, whose works on Japanese haiku reshaped the landscape of poetry in postwar America. Between 1949 and 1952, Blyth published a four-volume series on haiku poetry that presented this traditional Japanese poetic form, emphasizing not only its cultural value within Japan but also proposing haiku as a universal means to express human experience: I looked forward to reading haiku from Russia – all the vast energy, the intense bleakness of the Russian soul, contained, or constrained, in a three-line poem…What an Earthly Paradise it will be when the Eskimo blow on their fingers as they write haiku about the sun that never rises, the sun that never sets (Spence, ch.12). Therefore, his interpretations introduced philosophical views on Zen Buddhism, highlighting simplicity, immediacy, and the beauty of the ordinary, some of the qualities that resonated deeply with an emerging generation of American poets: the Beat Generation. The Beat Generation, a literary movement that sought to challenge societal norms and explore alternative spiritualities, found in Blyth’s haiku a model for poetic rebellion. Figures such as Gary Snyder, Jack Kerouac, ruth weiss or Diane di Prima drew inspiration from the East, incorporating haiku’s brevity and its Zen-like emphasis on the present moment into their own compositions. Through their engagement with haiku, these poets developed a cross-cultural dialogue that redefined American poetics and introduced elements of Eastern philosophy and aesthetics into Western literary traditions. The analysis of American haiku is still an evolving field of study as it has often been dismissed as an inauthentic or diluted version of its Japanese counterpart, largely due to its deviations from traditional structural and thematic elements. This led scholars such as Blyth to view American haiku as an incomplete or superficial engagement with the form rather than Gómez 2 a legitimate poetic evolution. However, this preconceived notion has begun to shift in recent years, as seen in works such as those by Fernando Rodríguez-Izquierdo, whose studies, shaped by the influence of R.H. Blyth, have contributed to a broader understanding of haiku as a dynamic and adaptable literary tradition. This evolving perspective on haiku not only serves as a foundation for the analysis to be presented in this dissertation but it also proposes a deeper appreciation of the creative possibilities inherent in American haiku. The goals of this dissertation are thus to explore how the traditional Japanese form of haiku has influenced members of the Beat Generation, and to examine the ways in which they reinterpreted it, giving rise to new forms of haiku poetry. Therefore, it investigates whether their compositions adhered to centuries-old Japanese traditions or represented a distinctly new and innovative approach, and if so, what defining characteristics set them apart. The first section provides an overview of haiku within its Japanese context adhering to two definitions proposed by specialized scholars. It examines the form’s characteristics and the philosophical views frequently conveyed in this poetic tradition. The second section analyses how the Beat poets adapted haiku, focusing first on Gary Snyder’s contributions before examining Jack Kerouac’s work, who would be considered as the main contributor and renowned figure. Additionally, this section will discuss ruth weiss’s watercolor haikus, providing an analysis of her compositions in relation to the Japanese haiga tradition. It will also consider some of the haikus by Diane di Prima, highlighting her understanding of the form and her visionary scope about the composition of haiku poetry in the English language. SECTION 1: HAIKU I.1. INTRODUCTION TO HAIKU Before getting into the analysis of the American haiku, we should aim for a better overview of what a haiku is, considering its classical form and characteristics. Historically, several definitions of this poetic form have been discussed, but two in particular are worth discussing for a deeper understanding of this art. The first one is by Blyth who proposes a definition in the preface of his four-volume work on Haiku: A kind of satori, or enlightenment, in which we see into the life of things. We grasp the inexpressible meaning of some quite ordinary thing or fact hitherto entirely overlooked. Haiku is the apprehension of a thing by a realization of our own original and essential unity with it, the word “realization” having the literal meaning here of “making real” in ourselves (7-8). Gómez 3 The second definition is by Fernando Rodríguez-Izquierdo, taken from his book El haiku japonés: historia y traducción, greatly inspired by Blyth’s work, reads as the following: El haiku en su brevedad expresiva es enteramente imagen, impacto de un momento sentido en profundidad. A través de él el poeta quiere hacer ver y sentir el núcleo de su experiencia. El haiku llega a ser así símbolo de una visión intuitiva de la realidad, que en ocasiones comporta valoraciones religiosas o éticas (22). The two definitions portrayed offer complementary perspectives that emphasize distinct but also interconnected dimensions of the poetic form. Blyth’s definition highlights the spiritual and philosophical core of haiku, framing it as a moment of profound realisation or enlightenment also known in Japanese as satori. It is well-known from other of his works that Blyth was highly interested in Zen spirituality, stating “haiku as direct experience, a way of living - not a substitute for Christianity or Buddhism, but their fulfilment” (Spence, ch. 9), something that he makes clear in his previous definition as he elevates haiku as a medium for transcendent comprehension. The emphasis on the “inexpressible meaning” suggests that haiku operates in the subtle space between words and individual perception, proposing an implicit dependency between both. In contrast, Rodríguez-Izquierdo’s definition shifts the emphasis to the immediacy and sensorial engagement of the form, providing expressions such as “entirely image” or “impact of a moment”. This aligns with the idea of haiku as a concise declaration of reality that captures the essence of experience, resonating with the reader on an intuitive level, therefore making it more approachable for the general public. This dual nature of haiku, both as a path to enlightenment and a distilled image of reality will be key in understanding its adaptation by the Beat poets. I.2. POETIC FORM Haiku is a Japanese poetic form that consists of three lines and “is made up of 17 jion (symbol / sounds) arranged in a pattern of 5-7-5’” (Harr 2). There has been significant debate about whether this structure corresponds to a traditional form of Japanese haiku that is still relevant or if it is a pattern in disuse and obsolete in modern compositions. According to Rodríguez-Izquierdo, the latter seems to be the case, as evidenced by innovations in the poetic form and avant-garde movements: “Los que se sitúan en la línea innovadora abierta por Shiki en sus momentos más vanguardistas, y continuada por Seisensui y Hekigodoo, no se someten en absoluto a número fijo de sílabas” (Rodríguez-Izquierdo 142). This evolution suggests that haiku is defined less by rigid structure and more by its thematic and aesthetic principles. Gómez 4 Although one might assume that haiku cannot be effectively adapted into American poetry due to the significant differences in syllabic structure between Japanese and English, Harr notes that “in the Western adaptation, the syllable count varies and is sometimes less than the 5-7-5” (Harr 2). When considering the essential features of haiku, emphasis should be paid upon the Japanese approach to nature and the distinct seasons composing a year: “The culture of the four seasons is a culture, not a type of poetry, and it is rooted in how the Japanese view nature as a whole in relation to humanity” (Booher 13). This relation proposed by Booher is through the use of a seasonal word known as kigo. This type of word is highly regarded in haiku composition as it situates the poem a specific time of the year, creating in this way a deep connection between the natural world and human emotion. Considering the functions of the kigo, attention should be paid to the fact that not only does it serve as a marker of seasonality but it also works as a means for evoking a certain imagery and mood, allowing readers to visualise and feel the scene depicted. Some haiku poets meticulously select these words from established seasonal word lists, known in Japanese as saijiki: “Se podría decir en términos generales que el haiku consta de cinco temas: primavera, verano, otoño, invierno y Año nuevo” (Rodríguez-Izquierdo 138). However, representing kigo in English is more complex than it may initially appear due to fundamental divergences between the Japanese and English languages. As Booher explains, “Kigo can also be either a single word or a character or a compound set, where two or more words indicate the seasonal reference” (Booher 24). This flexibility in Japanese allows for a kanji or Japanese ideogram to express a seasonal imagery, whereas English often lacks a direct equivalent, requiring adaptation or creative interpretation to preserve the haiku’s essence. Apart from kigo, the richness of the Japanese language offers another type of word which tends to be disregarded within English. This is called kireji, or “cutting word”, which serves as a verbal punctuation mark that enhances the poem's impact. The kireji often appears at the end of one of the three lines and creates a pause or break, dividing the poem into two juxtaposed ideas or images or as Rodríguez-Izquierdo proposes: “El kireji es una especie de puntuación poética que tiene el fin de señalar o poner énfasis en los estados anímicos del poeta” (139). Nonetheless, as English lacks a direct equivalent, translators must recreate their effect through punctuation (e.g., dashes, ellipses, or colons), line breaks, or strong words that evoke a similar pause or shift in tone. Gómez 5 The poetic features discussed previously can be more fully understood and appreciated by examining David Landis’s translation of the famous poem by Matsuo Bashō, widely regarded as the greatest representation of haiku: old pond— a frog jumps in, water’s sound furuike ya / kawazu tobikomu / mizu no oto (Matsuo 54) As we observe in the English translation, the syllable count does not follow the traditional 5-7-5 pattern commonly associated with haiku in the Japanese language, which highlights the challenges and sometimes the impossibility of preserving the syllabic structure in translation. However, the kigo, or seasonal word, has been preserved, as the noun “frog” appears in both the Japanese and English versions. Frogs are traditionally associated with spring in Japanese poetry, as their croaking marks the arrival of warmer weather. Nevertheless, the Japanese kireji “ya” which according to Rodríguez-Izquierdo: “expresa admiración, incertidumbre, interrogación” (Rodríguez-Izquierdo 139), has been replaced in English by a dash. This punctuation mark preserves the pause intended by Bashō but does not fully convey the sense of admiration or uncertainty inherent in the Japanese particle. Thus, the poetic form of haiku, defined by its brevity, simplicity, and deep connection to nature, does not only shape its aesthetic essence but also serves as a lens through which different philosophical perspectives can be examined. Over time, scholars and poets have explored how haiku reveals its intrinsic ties to broader Japanese philosophical traditions. As the following section will discuss, these perspectives have been central to the study and evolution of traditional haiku. I.3. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON HAIKU In the previous example by Bashō, we observe how the poet embodies a profound union between nature and the self, so it is the case that there are no noticeable remnants of the poet himself. The poet functions as the eyes of nature, a simple means to achieve a precise representation of what the living world portrays: “When we are in this condition, we can look at anything and everything and see with its eyes, hear with its ears, fly with its wings” (Blyth 164). In this way, Blyth does not only propose an interaction with the natural world, but the Gómez 12 riverside or a lakeside location where the poet engages in the activity of fishing. The use of the first-person perspective in the final line: “I get used to it”, situates the poet within the moment, echoing Shiki’s approach, where haiku could serve as a means of expressing the poet’s personal perception and evolving emotional states, rather than merely presenting an objective scene. In contrast, the second haiku presents a death that is neither intentional nor anticipated. Here, the object “a drowned mouse” is discovered rather than engaged with. The time is explicitly marked by the word “morning” and, unlike the previous haiku, this one clearly identifies the place: a domestic or rural setting, where a water bucket has been left outside and has inadvertently become a site of death. The mouse’s floating body, positioned “face down”, contrasts sharply with the active struggle of the living grasshoppers from the previous haiku. However, the poet’s reaction remains unstated, leaving room for personal interpretation: does he feel shock, resignation, or even feels indifferent about the situation? In addition, the contrast between these haikus extends to their structural composition. Both maintain the three-line form characteristic of haiku, but neither adheres strictly to the 5-7-5 syllabic structure. The use of the dash in the first poem resembles the effect of kireji from traditional haikus, while the alteration of the normal sentence order in the second haiku slows the reading pace, making the reader reflect upon the tragic event that has just happened. In both cases, the final line functions as a moment of realisation; in the first, it marks the poet’s shift in perspective about the act he is committing, whereas in the second, it conveys an image of death with a harsh ending. Despite sometimes being overlooked, Snyder’s haiku invites further reflection on the composition of English haiku. R.H. Blyth praised him as “by far the most interesting of them all [the beatniks]” (Spence, ch.12), recognising his ability to integrate haiku principles into English-language poetry. Through his approach, Snyder demonstrates that a haiku can adhere to traditional Japanese forms while still allowing for necessary adaptations, particularly those concerning kigo and kireji. His poetry reflects a deep engagement with nature and Zen philosophy, capturing the essence of transience and simplicity that characterise classical haiku. Snyder’s engagement with haiku not only reinforced its adaptability into English but also set the stage for Jack Kerouac, whose freer and more spontaneous approach would evolve into a new form. Snyder, in turn, found himself “always astounded by Kerouac’s facility” (Hakutani, American Haiku 130). Gómez 13 II.3. JACK KEROUAC Jack Kerouac (1922-1969), a key figure of the Beat Generation, is widely known for his spontaneous prose and deeply personal explorations of spirituality, freedom, and his numerous trips through America. While he is mostly famous for his novel On the Road (1957), he also had a profound engagement with haiku, a poetic form he both admired and reinterpreted for a Western audience. Influenced by Gary Snyder, from whom he learnt how to compose an English haiku, Kerouac was also highly regarded as a haiku poet. Allen Ginsberg remarked: “He is the only one in the United States that knows how to write a haiku” (Hakutani, American Haiku 130). Born in Lowell, Massachusetts, to a French-Canadian family, Kerouac was raised speaking joual, a dialect of Canadian French, which shaped his later fascination with language and rhythm. After attending Columbia University on a football scholarship, he left before completing his degree, embarking instead on the travels that would define his literary career. These experiences fueled his development of spontaneous prose, a technique shaped by jazz improvisation and stream-of-consciousness writing. In addition, beyond his association with Beat literature, Kerouac’s work was also informed by his spiritual pursuits, particularly his immersion in Buddhism. His interest in Zen teachings, meditation, and Eastern philosophy not only influenced his prose but also became central to his poetic experiments, especially his engagement with haiku. Despite his several compositions and influence, academic research on Kerouac’s haiku remains relatively limited in comparison with studies of his prose. While some of his previously mentioned novels such as On the Road (1957) or The Dharma Bums (1958) have been extensively analysed in relation to Beat aesthetics or masculinity, his haiku have received less critical attention. Although scholars such as Richard A. Iadonisi (2014) or Yoshinobu Hakutani (2021) have explored and subtly analyzed several haikus from Kerouac, considering the trend of American Haiku. These studies highlight Kerouac’s innovative approach in adapting haiku to an American literary context, a process that involved both adherence to and departures from traditional haiku conventions. Kerouac’s visions of haiku were shaped significantly by Gary Snyder, particularly “in terms of technique and the use of imagery” (Hakutani, Modern Haiku 21). Snyder’s deep engagement with Japanese aesthetics and Zen philosophy provided Kerouac with a framework for integrating traditional haiku principles into his own poetic practice. Nonetheless, while Snyder took inspiration from the imagist movement and particularly Ezra Pound, Kerouac Gómez 14 was less focused on them and instead “was enormously interested in the works of scholars on Japanese poetics and haiku in particular” (Hakutani, Modern Haiku 21). This intellectual commitment, combined with Snyder’s guidance, contributed to Kerouac’s development of a distinct haiku style that balanced spontaneous expression with precise, image-driven compositions. II.3.1 HAIKU BY JACK KEROUAC When analyzing Jack Kerouac’s approach to haiku, Book of Haikus (2003) edited by Regina Weinreich serves as a fundamental resource. This compilation provides a selection of haikus from different notebooks dating from 1956 to 1966, highlighting his adaptation of the traditional Japanese form into what he termed the American haiku. The following haikus will be analysed according to the patterns outlined by Booher. The first haiku, drawn from Weinreich’s compilation, lacks an assigned title and an exact date of composition: In back of the Supermarket, in the parking lot weeds, Purple flowers From an initial reading, this haiku exemplifies Kerouac’s ability to find beauty in overlooked places, a characteristic feature of his American haiku compositions. Following Booher’s analytical framework, the haiku’s object is the “Purple flowers”, a natural element emerging in an urban setting. The place is established in the opening lines: “the back of the Supermarket, in the parking lot weed”, depicting a scene from everyday life which is often disregarded. After considering the significance of object and place, it is also important to note Kerouac’s emphasis on specific letters, as seen in his treatment of “the “s” in “Supermarket” and the “p” in “Purple” which he highlights for their poetic importance” (Iadonisi 291). While this technique does not exist in Japanese due to the language’s lack of capitalization, it may have been influenced by Emily Dickinson. Kerouac himself acknowledged his familiarity with her work, suggesting in a letter to Philip Whalen that “there are a million haikus in one good prose work and a million haikus in the Great Emily Dickinson too — that rhyme even!” (Charters 542). His explicit recognition of Dickinson’s literary greatness indicates a deep engagement with her poetry, which may have influenced his own stylistic choices. As Kerouac’s approach to haiku often departs from traditional Japanese conventions, the time of this haiku can not be specified as there is no instance of a temporal marker or kigo. Gómez 15 While the mentioning of “Purple flowers” might suggest a certain time of the year, it remains ambiguous and does not serve as a potential English kigo. In terms of kireji, the haiku still employs a structural and conceptual pause which resembles this Japanese stylistic feature. The line break between the second and third lines functions as a natural caesura, creating a shift in focus and perception, allowing the reader to reflect on the juxtaposition of an urban setting with a natural element. Moreover, this juxtaposition directly contrasts with the one provoked by Gary Snyder in the haiku “Warm nights”. In Snyder’s haiku, the “high jets crossing the stars” suggest the dominance of human technology over nature whereas Kerouac’s haiku “ironically suggests the supremacy of nature over humanity, containing an image of natural beauty in an unnatural environment” (Hakutani 114). This contrast highlights the differing philosophical perspectives of the two poets: while Snyder’s haiku reflects humanity’s intrusion upon the natural world, Kerouac’s poem suggests nature’s quiet persistence even within human made spaces. The next haiku to be considered in our analysis has been taken from a 1960’s notebook also compiled in Book of Haikus: One flower on the cliff side Nodding at the canyon In this haiku, Kerouac employs the image of a single flower as the focal object, suggesting both fragility and resilience, echoing the Buddhist acceptance of transience previously discussed by Boyer. Its placement “on the cliff side” further reinforces these themes, as there is a juxtaposition effect between the small, delicate flower and the immense, seemingly indifferent canyon. Moreover, the verb “nodding” introduces movement to the poem and even though there is no seasonal word or kigo, we may consider motion to function as the temporal marker of the haiku. The singularity of the flower in this haiku emphasizes a deep sense of solitude, a theme central to the author’s later works, particularly Big Sur (1962). Written around the same time as this haiku, the novel captures his struggle with isolation, disillusionment, and the pressure to meet the expectations of both his publishers and the literary world. His retreat to a remote cabin in Bixby Canyon suddenly becomes a site of existential crisis, mirroring the precarious position of the lonely flower on the cliff side. The passage “You see one single flower nodding on a cliff side far across the canyon” (ch.6) from which this haiku may have Gómez 16 been inspired, provides not merely an objective observation of nature but a poetic resemblance to Kerouac’s own experience in the wilderness. This interplay between landscape and personal emotions reinforces the idea that Kerouac's haiku further develops upon personal and philosophical reflections. Kerouac’s engagement with haiku thus emerges as a synthesis of Zen awareness, literary experimentation, and personal introspection. Influenced by Japanese aesthetics, and guided by voices such as Gary Snyder, he developed a unique American form that replaced traditional markers such as kigo or kireji with intuitive pauses, emotions and urban settings. Whether observing a flower in a supermarket parking lot or a solitary flower on a canyon cliff, Kerouac uses haiku to convey the tension between impermanence and persistence, the external world and internal experience. Nevertheless, his haiku were not the only ones being composed within the literary circles of the Beat Generation. As Frida Forsgren notes, Kerouac “spent nights writing and reading their work to each other” (165) referring to his creative exchanges with fellow poet ruth weiss, whose own approach to haiku will be explored in the following section. II.4. RUTH WEISS ruth weiss (1928-2020) was a German-born poet who, after escaping with her family from Nazi Germany, moved to the United States, where her creative spirit found a place to develop. In 1950s San Francisco, she became an essential figure of the Beat Generation, although her contributions were often overshadowed by her male contemporaries. weiss wrote her name in lowercase letters, a stylistic choice she explained as “her own rebellion against law and order, as in German all nouns are capitalized” (Grace and Johnson 69). This gesture reflected her rejection of an oppressive system. Through poetry readings that fused jazz improvisation with spoken words, weiss created a unique space for herself in the cultural landscape of the time, always committing to freedom of expression. As noted in Breaking the Rule of Cool, a key resource for understanding the contributions of ruth weiss, several of her works have been turned into films, including her poem The Brink (1961), an adaptation that reflects her commitment to exploring poetry beyond written words. In addition to The Brink, her works include other influential texts such as Gallery of Women (1959), Desert Journal (1977), and Can’t Stop the Beat (2011), all of which demonstrate her unique voice and deep engagement with themes of identity, resistance, or the mixture between music and language. As professor Encarnación-Pinedo notes: “weiss’s Gómez 17 poetry condenses language in an attempt to get rid of less meaningful units” (372). This further underscores her pursuit of precision and depth in both written and performed forms. The particular dimension of ruth weiss’s work on which this dissertation will focus is her engagement with haiku. Influenced by the Beat Generation’s fascination with Zen Buddhism and Japanese literary form, weiss approached haiku not simply as a poetic exercise but as a means of achieving mindfulness and spiritual awareness. As we turn now to a closer reading of her haiku, we will see how she honored traditional structures while imbuing them with her own improvisational spirit, merging Eastern conciseness with the dynamism and energy that characterized her work. II.4.1. HAIKU BY RUTH WEISS The combination of image and verse in the haiku tradition finds an echo in the work of ruth weiss, whose watercolor haikus recall the classical Japanese art form known as haiga. As Rodríguez-Izquierdo points out: “En japonés ≪escribir≫ y ≪pintar≫ son conceptos que se expresan mediante el mismo verbo: kaku, aunque en la escritura se expresen mediante distintos kanji” (147). Traditionally, haiga combines haiku poetry with brush painting or calligraphy, emphasising a meditative unity between text and image. In a similar way, weiss’s watercolor haikus offer a visual and verbal interplay that evokes deeper emotional and natural resonance than written haiku alone. She proclaims her aesthetic aims through visual suggestion, crafting an experience that is simultaneously sensorial and intellectual. Her work reimagines the traditional haiga form within a modern, Beat-influenced context, highlighting haiku’s potential to transcend boundaries between different art forms. The aim of this dissertation is however to focus particularly on the analysis of haiku in its written form. The following haikus are drawn from “ruth weiss and Visual Art: the Watercolor Haiku Series A Fool’s Journey and Banzai!” by Frida Forsgren. The first haiku to be considered for analysis belongs to the work A Fool’s Journey “written in the sixties…the poems tell the story of the physical and existential travels of a meandering soul with the characteristic short, rhythmic haiku language” (Forsgren 166): layer by layer she peels the onion she is and laughs with her tears (166) Gómez 18 Following the analytical model established by Booher, we can examine the object, time and place. The “onion” functions both as a literal object and a metaphorical image for the self. While the setting is primarily symbolic and internal, suggesting introspective exploration, the action also takes place on the outer level, involving the physical act of peeling the onion and shedding tears because of the smell. Therefore, there is no explicit seasonal word or English-like kigo, nor direct temporal setting, a feature consistent with many Beat haiku adaptations, which often prioritize emotional or philosophical insights over seasonal imagery. In terms of form and structure, it follows the three-line structure typical of haiku and the 5-7-5 syllable pattern, aligning with the Japanese tradition. weiss herself in an interview by Nancy Grace poses the following: “Seventeen syllables is the Japanese form of haiku, but I use it most of the time in the English [form] anyway, as do most people who write haiku” (Grace and Johnson 65), proving that she was well acquainted with the original form of haiku and wanted to preserve it in her poetry. Nevertheless, there is no kireji as in Japanese, but there is a natural shift between the second and third lines: a move from the action of peeling to the emotional response of laughter through tears. From the perspective of Shiki’s shasei (sketch from life), this haiku presents a deep personal involvement. The pronoun “she” likely refers to the poet herself, blending a realistic situation with personal introspection. Unlike Snyder’s nature-oriented haiku or Kerouac’s spontaneous observations of everyday moments, weiss directly engages into a more emotional reality accepting both joy and sadness within the same moment. The second haiku is taken from Banzai!, a collection that “consists of 25 haiku poems written and painted in the early 1980s” (Forsgren 171): air air air air air wind in the trees each leaf breathes hear here hear here hear (171) Again, analysing the object, time, and place: the object is “air”, repeated in the opening refrain, evoking the sound of wind and establishing a natural atmosphere. Although no specific place is stated, the reference to trees implies a wooded setting where leaves move gently in the breeze. As there is no kigo or seasonal reference, the time is not marked, but the presence of leaves and wind could suggest a transitional season such as spring or autumn. Gómez 19 Formally, this poem departs from the three-line structure associated with traditional haiku, also rejecting the 5-7-5 pattern entirely, embracing the freer conventions of American haiku. As there is no punctuation, the repetition serves as a rhythmic device that mimics the function of kireji, particularly between the first and second lines, and again between the third and fourth. Furthermore, apart from the repetition of “air”, there is an homophonic alternation between the words “hear” and “here” which reinforces the poem’s focus on sound and perception. On a deeper level, the haiku proposes an invitation to sensorial meditation. The transition from “air” to “wind” to “breath” and finally to “hear / here” moves from the external to the internal, from the invisible elements that surround us to an act of conscious awareness. The final refrain, with its play on homophones, blurs the boundary between auditory perception and spatial presence. Through this technique, the poem captures a fleeting moment but also affirms the beauty of presence, where attention to the smallest sensations becomes an expression of being fully alive. Compared to other Beat haiku examined in this dissertation, weiss’s haiku represents a further step into abstraction and the engagement of the senses. Even though not fully adhering to the traditional form of Japanese haiku, and aiming for a reinterpretation of it, her work diverges notably from Snyder’s naturalism and Kerouac’s spontaneous urban imagery. Moreover, weiss moves from the written text into a more elaborate work that includes painting, and that is more directly related to Japanese haiga. Her emphasis on repetition and phonetic play also introduces a new sensorial dimension that is largely absent in the other poets’ work. By doing so, weiss offers a uniquely embodied form of haiku that aligns with the spiritual immediacy sought by the Beats, while simultaneously pushing the boundaries of this art form. Her impact extends beyond her poetry itself, contributing to the broader dissemination of American haiku. This legacy continues through the “ruth weiss Foundation”, which honours her commitment to poetic experimentation and supports haiku-related projects, including a dedicated haiku contest held in 2024. II.5. DIANE DI PRIMA Diane di Prima (1934 - 2020) was a distinguished American poet, considered “one of the few women of the Beat movement to attain prominence” (“Diane di Prima”). Born in Brooklyn, New York, she briefly attended Swarthmore College before leaving to pursue a literary life in Manhattan’s Greenwich Village, where she became immersed in the bohemian Gómez 20 artistic scene of the 1950s. Once there, she engaged with key figures of the Beat movement such as Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, and collaborated with Amiri Baraka “to co-edit the literary magazine The Floating Bear from 1961 to 1969” (“Diane di Prima”). Di prima’s work is marked by its blend of spiritual insight, political consciousness, and experimental form, most notably found in collections such as This Kind of Bird Flies Backward (1958), Revolutionary Letters (1971), and the epic feminist poem Loba (1978), which positioned her at the intersection of Beat, feminist, and avant-garde poetics. In addition to her literary production, di Prima played a significant role in shaping the institutional landscape of American poetry during the mid-20th century. She co-founded the New York Poets Theatre and the Poets Press, contributing to the development of alternative publishing spaces that supported experimental writing outside mainstream academic circles. She also pursued serious study of Buddhism under teachers such as Suzuki Roshi or Trungpa Rimpoche. In order to get a better understanding of these oriental philosophies “she often attended meditation retreats and she studied and worked on translations of both Sanskrit and Tibetan texts” (“Statement from the Family”). Di Prima’s work reflects this spiritual engagement, weaving Buddhist concepts with personal introspection, which aligns her thematically with contemporaries like Gary Snyder. Di Prima’s engagement with haiku, even though less frequently discussed in the academic circles, portrays a deeper interest in concise and more contemplative poetic forms. This is most clearly exemplified in her 2019 publication Haiku, a project which was originally conceived in 1964 in collaboration with artist George Herms. The collection features thirty-two haikus accompanied by Herms's illustrations, offering readers a more visual edition. While di Prima’s haikus have gone unnoticed, further analysis will showcase how some of her haikus adhere to classical conventions emphasising a deep understanding of the form’s spirit, highlighting immediacy and a natural imagery often accompanied with potential English kigo. II.5.1 HAIKU BY DIANE DI PRIMA The haikus by Diane di Prima selected for analysis have solely been taken from the previously discussed work Haiku (2019). Apart from the set of illustrations, it is thus relevant to consider its structure. The fact that it is organized by seasons provides us further notions to consider in the analysis. The first haiku belongs to the season of autumn and reads like this: rain came in all night Gómez 21 dark sky, east wind, this morning; I pick up the phone (20) From a first reading, the object, time, and place can be deducted. The central object would be “the phone”, which appears precisely in the last verse. It is the personal pronoun “I” and the “act of picking up the phone” that introduces a subtle human action into an otherwise natural scene, as the poet mentions “rain”, the “sky” and “wind”. In terms of time, two distinct timeframes juxtaposing must be acknowledged, these being “all night” and “this morning”. This further creates a tension between what has happened and what is happening right now. The place of this haiku is probably indoors, likely a home, and there is an observable transition from the outside world (rain, sky, wind) to a domestic space. Formally, just as the first haiku by ruth weiss, this haiku adheres to classical Japanese three-lines convention and to the 5-7-5 pattern. Moreover, the potential English kigo, or seasonal word, is embedded in the imagery of “east wind” and the persistent “rain”, which, considering the context as a whole, is evidential of the autumn season. This haiku also employs a structural kireji-like pause at the end of the second line. The semicolon heightens the shift from the external scene, presented by nature and the weather, to the internal action of picking the phone. Another reading of this haiku could be as a quiet meditation on emotional vulnerability and a desire for connection. The persistent rain through the night, the dark sky, and the windy morning paints an atmosphere that is marked by melancholy and unease. The natural setting mirrors an inner state, probably shaped by solitude or worry. In this mood, the act of picking up the phone becomes a meaningful gesture, maybe signaling the speaker’s decision to reach out to someone or to break the silence. Therefore, the haiku subtly shifts from an observation of the external world to a revelation of inner emotion, illustrating how natural imagery can be intertwined with deeply personal experiences. The second haiku considered for analysis belongs to the season of summer: after a long sleep amazed I see in the sky this sign: a full sun (18) The central object of this haiku is “a full sun”, appearing in the final verse and functioning as the focal point of the speaker’s attention. The “sun” is not simply portrayed as