GRADO EN ESTUDIOS INGLESES
TRABAJO DE FIN DE GRADO
CURSO: 2024/2025
A CULTURAL BRIDGE BETWEEN EAST AND WEST: HOW THE
BEAT GENERATION REIMAGINED JAPANESE HAIKU INTO AN
AMERICAN FORM
ALUMNO: MIGUEL GÓMEZ MATEOS
TUTOR: MARÍA DE LOS ÁNGELES TODA IGLESIA
FIRMADO:
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ABSTRACT
The disse a ion explo es he c oss-cul u al adap a ion o he Japanese haiku wi hin he
con ex o he Ame ican Bea Gene a ion, illus a ing how a adi ional Eas e n poe ic o m
was eimagined and u ned in o a di e en li e a y and philosophical se ing. T acing he
o igins om classical de ini ions by Bashō and Shiki o i s popula iza ion in he Wes by R.H.
Bly h, he s udy i s es ablishes he poe ic and philosophical ounda ions o haiku, including
some o i s o mal ea u es (kigo, ki eji, and syllabic s uc u e).
The analysis hen shi s o examine how key igu es o he Bea Gene a ion—Ga y
Snyde , Jack Ke ouac, u h weiss, and Diane di P ima—engaged wi h haiku as a medium o
poe ic inno a ion and spi i ual explo a ion. Th ough close eadings o selec ed haikus, he
disse a ion highligh s each poe ’s dis inc i e app oach. In doing so, his esea ch challenges
he no ion ha English-language haiku is a dilu ed imi a ion o i s Japanese coun e pa ,
a guing ha Bea poe s ede ined haiku’s pa ame e s, making i a esou ce o cul u al
blending, a is ic expe imen a ion, and pe sonal e ela ion. Las ly, he disse a ion
demons a es ha he Bea Gene a ion’s use o haiku se ed as bo h a li e a y and
philosophical b idge be ween Eas and Wes , expanding he possibili ies o poe ic exp ession
in he mode n wo ld.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This disse a ion is dedica ed o he memo y o Fe nando Rod íguez-Izquie do. I i
had no been o his wo k, I would ne e ha e ound he cou age o emba k on he demanding
ask o lea ning Japanese o ead haikus in hei o iginal language. His passion o Japanese
poe y has been a cons an sou ce o inspi a ion.
I am also deeply g a e ul o my u o , P o esso Ma ía de los Ángeles Toda Iglesia, o
he guidance and suppo h oughou his p ocess. Special hanks o P o esso Es íbaliz
Enca nación Pinedo o he con ibu ion, pa icula ly o p o iding access o Diane di P ima’s
Haiku.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1
SECTION 1: HAIKU................................................................................................................2
I.1. INTRODUCTION TO HAIKU......................................................................................2
I.2. POETIC FORM..............................................................................................................4
I.3. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON HAIKU.......................................................................6
SECTION 2:THE BEAT GENERATION.............................................................................. 7
II.1. HISTORICAL CONTEXT............................................................................................7
II.2. GARY SNYDER...........................................................................................................9
II.2.1 HAIKU BY GARY SNYDER.............................................................................. 9
II.3. JACK KEROUAC.......................................................................................................13
II.3.1 HAIKU BY JACK KEROUAC.......................................................................... 14
II.4. RUTH WEISS.............................................................................................................16
II.4.1. HAIKU BY RUTH WEISS................................................................................17
II.5. DIANE DI PRIMA......................................................................................................19
II.5.1 HAIKU BY DIANE DI PRIMA......................................................................... 20
CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................... 22
NOTES................................................................................................................................................. 25
WORKS CITED......................................................................................................................26
Gómez 1
INTRODUCTION
A he u n o he 20 h cen u y, Wes e n li e a y ci cles saw a g owing ascina ion wi h
Eas e n aes he ics, pa icula ly Japanese poe y. Mode nis poe s such as Ez a Pound o Amy
Lowell sough new ways o b eak ee om Wes e n e se, inding inspi a ion in he b e i y
o haiku¹. Pound’s imagism, wi h i s emphasis on p ecision and economy o language along
wi h Lowell’s in e es in Japanese o ms b ough haiku u he in o he Anglo-Ame ican
poe ic landscape. This ea ly engagemen wi h haiku se s he s age o a deepe app ecia ion o
Japanese poe ics, which would gain u he a en ion in he a e ma h o Wo ld Wa II.
The end o Wo ld Wa II ma ked a pe iod o p o ound cul u al and in ellec ual
exchange be ween he Eas and he Wes . Among he many igu es who b idged hese cul u al
di isions was Reginald Ho ace Bly h, whose wo ks on Japanese haiku eshaped he landscape
o poe y in pos wa Ame ica. Be ween 1949 and 1952, Bly h published a ou - olume se ies
on haiku poe y ha p esen ed his adi ional Japanese poe ic o m, emphasizing no only i s
cul u al alue wi hin Japan bu also p oposing haiku as a uni e sal means o exp ess human
expe ience:
I looked o wa d o eading haiku om Russia – all he as ene gy, he in ense
bleakness o he Russian soul, con ained, o cons ained, in a h ee-line poem…Wha
an Ea hly Pa adise i will be when he Eskimo blow on hei inge s as hey w i e
haiku abou he sun ha ne e ises, he sun ha ne e se s (Spence, ch.12).
The e o e, his in e p e a ions in oduced philosophical iews on Zen Buddhism, highligh ing
simplici y, immediacy, and he beau y o he o dina y, some o he quali ies ha esona ed
deeply wi h an eme ging gene a ion o Ame ican poe s: he Bea Gene a ion.
The Bea Gene a ion, a li e a y mo emen ha sough o challenge socie al no ms and
explo e al e na i e spi i uali ies, ound in Bly h’s haiku a model o poe ic ebellion. Figu es
such as Ga y Snyde , Jack Ke ouac, u h weiss o Diane di P ima d ew inspi a ion om he
Eas , inco po a ing haiku’s b e i y and i s Zen-like emphasis on he p esen momen in o hei
own composi ions. Th ough hei engagemen wi h haiku, hese poe s de eloped a
c oss-cul u al dialogue ha ede ined Ame ican poe ics and in oduced elemen s o Eas e n
philosophy and aes he ics in o Wes e n li e a y adi ions.
The analysis o Ame ican haiku is s ill an e ol ing ield o s udy as i has o en been
dismissed as an inau hen ic o dilu ed e sion o i s Japanese coun e pa , la gely due o i s
de ia ions om adi ional s uc u al and hema ic elemen s. This led schola s such as Bly h
o iew Ame ican haiku as an incomple e o supe icial engagemen wi h he o m a he han
Gómez 2
a legi ima e poe ic e olu ion. Howe e , his p econcei ed no ion has begun o shi in ecen
yea s, as seen in wo ks such as hose by Fe nando Rod íguez-Izquie do, whose s udies,
shaped by he in luence o R.H. Bly h, ha e con ibu ed o a b oade unde s anding o haiku
as a dynamic and adap able li e a y adi ion. This e ol ing pe spec i e on haiku no only
se es as a ounda ion o he analysis o be p esen ed in his disse a ion bu i also p oposes
a deepe app ecia ion o he c ea i e possibili ies inhe en in Ame ican haiku.
The goals o his disse a ion a e hus o explo e how he adi ional Japanese o m o
haiku has in luenced membe s o he Bea Gene a ion, and o examine he ways in which hey
ein e p e ed i , gi ing ise o new o ms o haiku poe y. The e o e, i in es iga es whe he
hei composi ions adhe ed o cen u ies-old Japanese adi ions o ep esen ed a dis inc ly new
and inno a i e app oach, and i so, wha de ining cha ac e is ics se hem apa . The i s
sec ion p o ides an o e iew o haiku wi hin i s Japanese con ex adhe ing o wo de ini ions
p oposed by specialized schola s. I examines he o m’s cha ac e is ics and he philosophical
iews equen ly con eyed in his poe ic adi ion. The second sec ion analyses how he Bea
poe s adap ed haiku, ocusing i s on Ga y Snyde ’s con ibu ions be o e examining Jack
Ke ouac’s wo k, who would be conside ed as he main con ibu o and enowned igu e.
Addi ionally, his sec ion will discuss u h weiss’s wa e colo haikus, p o iding an analysis o
he composi ions in ela ion o he Japanese haiga adi ion. I will also conside some o he
haikus by Diane di P ima, highligh ing he unde s anding o he o m and he isiona y scope
abou he composi ion o haiku poe y in he English language.
SECTION 1: HAIKU
I.1. INTRODUCTION TO HAIKU
Be o e ge ing in o he analysis o he Ame ican haiku, we should aim o a be e
o e iew o wha a haiku is, conside ing i s classical o m and cha ac e is ics. His o ically,
se e al de ini ions o his poe ic o m ha e been discussed, bu wo in pa icula a e wo h
discussing o a deepe unde s anding o his a . The i s one is by Bly h who p oposes a
de ini ion in he p e ace o his ou - olume wo k on Haiku:
A kind o sa o i, o enligh enmen , in which we see in o he li e o hings. We g asp
he inexp essible meaning o some qui e o dina y hing o ac hi he o en i ely
o e looked. Haiku is he app ehension o a hing by a ealiza ion o ou own o iginal
and essen ial uni y wi h i , he wo d “ ealiza ion” ha ing he li e al meaning he e o
“making eal” in ou sel es (7-8).
Gómez 3
The second de ini ion is by Fe nando Rod íguez-Izquie do, aken om his book El
haiku japonés: his o ia y aducción, g ea ly inspi ed by Bly h’s wo k, eads as he ollowing:
El haiku en su b e edad exp esi a es en e amen e imagen, impac o de un momen o
sen ido en p o undidad. A a és de él el poe a quie e hace e y sen i el núcleo de su
expe iencia. El haiku llega a se así símbolo de una isión in ui i a de la ealidad, que
en ocasiones compo a alo aciones eligiosas o é icas (22).
The wo de ini ions po ayed o e complemen a y pe spec i es ha emphasize
dis inc bu also in e connec ed dimensions o he poe ic o m. Bly h’s de ini ion highligh s
he spi i ual and philosophical co e o haiku, aming i as a momen o p o ound ealisa ion
o enligh enmen also known in Japanese as sa o i. I is well-known om o he o his wo ks
ha Bly h was highly in e es ed in Zen spi i uali y, s a ing “haiku as di ec expe ience, a way
o li ing - no a subs i u e o Ch is iani y o Buddhism, bu hei ul ilmen ” (Spence, ch. 9),
some hing ha he makes clea in his p e ious de ini ion as he ele a es haiku as a medium o
anscenden comp ehension. The emphasis on he “inexp essible meaning” sugges s ha
haiku ope a es in he sub le space be ween wo ds and indi idual pe cep ion, p oposing an
implici dependency be ween bo h. In con as , Rod íguez-Izquie do’s de ini ion shi s he
emphasis o he immediacy and senso ial engagemen o he o m, p o iding exp essions such
as “en i ely image” o “impac o a momen ”. This aligns wi h he idea o haiku as a concise
decla a ion o eali y ha cap u es he essence o expe ience, esona ing wi h he eade on an
in ui i e le el, he e o e making i mo e app oachable o he gene al public. This dual na u e
o haiku, bo h as a pa h o enligh enmen and a dis illed image o eali y will be key in
unde s anding i s adap a ion by he Bea poe s.
I.2. POETIC FORM
Haiku is a Japanese poe ic o m ha consis s o h ee lines and “is made up o 17 jion
(symbol / sounds) a anged in a pa e n o 5-7-5’” (Ha 2). The e has been signi ican deba e
abou whe he his s uc u e co esponds o a adi ional o m o Japanese haiku ha is s ill
ele an o i i is a pa e n in disuse and obsole e in mode n composi ions. Acco ding o
Rod íguez-Izquie do, he la e seems o be he case, as e idenced by inno a ions in he poe ic
o m and a an -ga de mo emen s: “Los que se si úan en la línea inno ado a abie a po Shiki
en sus momen os más angua dis as, y con inuada po Seisensui y Hekigodoo, no se some en
en absolu o a núme o ijo de sílabas” (Rod íguez-Izquie do 142). This e olu ion sugges s ha
haiku is de ined less by igid s uc u e and mo e by i s hema ic and aes he ic p inciples.
Gómez 4
Al hough one migh assume ha haiku canno be e ec i ely adap ed in o Ame ican poe y
due o he signi ican di e ences in syllabic s uc u e be ween Japanese and English, Ha
no es ha “in he Wes e n adap a ion, he syllable coun a ies and is some imes less han he
5-7-5” (Ha 2).
When conside ing he essen ial ea u es o haiku, emphasis should be paid upon he
Japanese app oach o na u e and he dis inc seasons composing a yea : “The cul u e o he
ou seasons is a cul u e, no a ype o poe y, and i is oo ed in how he Japanese iew na u e
as a whole in ela ion o humani y” (Boohe 13). This ela ion p oposed by Boohe is h ough
he use o a seasonal wo d known as kigo. This ype o wo d is highly ega ded in haiku
composi ion as i si ua es he poem a speci ic ime o he yea , c ea ing in his way a deep
connec ion be ween he na u al wo ld and human emo ion. Conside ing he unc ions o he
kigo, a en ion should be paid o he ac ha no only does i se e as a ma ke o seasonali y
bu i also wo ks as a means o e oking a ce ain image y and mood, allowing eade s o
isualise and eel he scene depic ed. Some haiku poe s me iculously selec hese wo ds om
es ablished seasonal wo d lis s, known in Japanese as saijiki: “Se pod ía deci en é minos
gene ales que el haiku cons a de cinco emas: p ima e a, e ano, o oño, in ie no y Año
nue o” (Rod íguez-Izquie do 138).
Howe e , ep esen ing kigo in English is mo e complex han i may ini ially appea
due o undamen al di e gences be ween he Japanese and English languages. As Boohe
explains, “Kigo can also be ei he a single wo d o a cha ac e o a compound se , whe e wo
o mo e wo ds indica e he seasonal e e ence” (Boohe 24). This lexibili y in Japanese
allows o a kanji o Japanese ideog am o exp ess a seasonal image y, whe eas English o en
lacks a di ec equi alen , equi ing adap a ion o c ea i e in e p e a ion o p ese e he haiku’s
essence.
Apa om kigo, he ichness o he Japanese language o e s ano he ype o wo d
which ends o be dis ega ded wi hin English. This is called ki eji, o “cu ing wo d”, which
se es as a e bal punc ua ion ma k ha enhances he poem's impac . The ki eji o en appea s
a he end o one o he h ee lines and c ea es a pause o b eak, di iding he poem in o wo
jux aposed ideas o images o as Rod íguez-Izquie do p oposes: “El ki eji es una especie de
pun uación poé ica que iene el in de señala o pone én asis en los es ados anímicos del
poe a” (139). None heless, as English lacks a di ec equi alen , ansla o s mus ec ea e hei
e ec h ough punc ua ion (e.g., dashes, ellipses, o colons), line b eaks, o s ong wo ds ha
e oke a simila pause o shi in one.
Gómez 5
The poe ic ea u es discussed p e iously can be mo e ully unde s ood and app ecia ed
by examining Da id Landis’s ansla ion o he amous poem by Ma suo Bashō, widely
ega ded as he g ea es ep esen a ion o haiku:
old pond—
a og jumps in,
wa e ’s sound
u uike ya / kawazu obikomu / mizu no o o (Ma suo 54)
As we obse e in he English ansla ion, he syllable coun does no ollow he
adi ional 5-7-5 pa e n commonly associa ed wi h haiku in he Japanese language, which
highligh s he challenges and some imes he impossibili y o p ese ing he syllabic s uc u e
in ansla ion. Howe e , he kigo, o seasonal wo d, has been p ese ed, as he noun “ og”
appea s in bo h he Japanese and English e sions. F ogs a e adi ionally associa ed wi h
sp ing in Japanese poe y, as hei c oaking ma ks he a i al o wa me wea he .
Ne e heless, he Japanese ki eji “ya” which acco ding o Rod íguez-Izquie do: “exp esa
admi ación, ince idumb e, in e ogación” (Rod íguez-Izquie do 139), has been eplaced in
English by a dash. This punc ua ion ma k p ese es he pause in ended by Bashō bu does no
ully con ey he sense o admi a ion o unce ain y inhe en in he Japanese pa icle.
Thus, he poe ic o m o haiku, de ined by i s b e i y, simplici y, and deep connec ion
o na u e, does no only shape i s aes he ic essence bu also se es as a lens h ough which
di e en philosophical pe spec i es can be examined. O e ime, schola s and poe s ha e
explo ed how haiku e eals i s in insic ies o b oade Japanese philosophical adi ions. As
he ollowing sec ion will discuss, hese pe spec i es ha e been cen al o he s udy and
e olu ion o adi ional haiku.
I.3. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON HAIKU
In he p e ious example by Bashō, we obse e how he poe embodies a p o ound
union be ween na u e and he sel , so i is he case ha he e a e no no iceable emnan s o he
poe himsel . The poe unc ions as he eyes o na u e, a simple means o achie e a p ecise
ep esen a ion o wha he li ing wo ld po ays: “When we a e in his condi ion, we can look
a any hing and e e y hing and see wi h i s eyes, hea wi h i s ea s, ly wi h i s wings” (Bly h
164). In his way, Bly h does no only p opose an in e ac ion wi h he na u al wo ld, bu he
Gómez 12
i e side o a lakeside loca ion whe e he poe engages in he ac i i y o ishing. The use o
he i s -pe son pe spec i e in he inal line: “I ge used o i ”, si ua es he poe wi hin he
momen , echoing Shiki’s app oach, whe e haiku could se e as a means o exp essing he
poe ’s pe sonal pe cep ion and e ol ing emo ional s a es, a he han me ely p esen ing an
objec i e scene.
In con as , he second haiku p esen s a dea h ha is nei he in en ional no an icipa ed.
He e, he objec “a d owned mouse” is disco e ed a he han engaged wi h. The ime is
explici ly ma ked by he wo d “mo ning” and, unlike he p e ious haiku, his one clea ly
iden i ies he place: a domes ic o u al se ing, whe e a wa e bucke has been le ou side and
has inad e en ly become a si e o dea h. The mouse’s loa ing body, posi ioned “ ace down”,
con as s sha ply wi h he ac i e s uggle o he li ing g asshoppe s om he p e ious haiku.
Howe e , he poe ’s eac ion emains uns a ed, lea ing oom o pe sonal in e p e a ion: does
he eel shock, esigna ion, o e en eels indi e en abou he si ua ion?
In addi ion, he con as be ween hese haikus ex ends o hei s uc u al composi ion.
Bo h main ain he h ee-line o m cha ac e is ic o haiku, bu nei he adhe es s ic ly o he
5-7-5 syllabic s uc u e. The use o he dash in he i s poem esembles he e ec o ki eji
om adi ional haikus, while he al e a ion o he no mal sen ence o de in he second haiku
slows he eading pace, making he eade e lec upon he agic e en ha has jus happened.
In bo h cases, he inal line unc ions as a momen o ealisa ion; in he i s , i ma ks he
poe ’s shi in pe spec i e abou he ac he is commi ing, whe eas in he second, i con eys an
image o dea h wi h a ha sh ending.
Despi e some imes being o e looked, Snyde ’s haiku in i es u he e lec ion on he
composi ion o English haiku. R.H. Bly h p aised him as “by a he mos in e es ing o hem
all [ he bea niks]” (Spence, ch.12), ecognising his abili y o in eg a e haiku p inciples in o
English-language poe y. Th ough his app oach, Snyde demons a es ha a haiku can adhe e
o adi ional Japanese o ms while s ill allowing o necessa y adap a ions, pa icula ly hose
conce ning kigo and ki eji. His poe y e lec s a deep engagemen wi h na u e and Zen
philosophy, cap u ing he essence o ansience and simplici y ha cha ac e ise classical
haiku. Snyde ’s engagemen wi h haiku no only ein o ced i s adap abili y in o English bu
also se he s age o Jack Ke ouac, whose ee and mo e spon aneous app oach would e ol e
in o a new o m. Snyde , in u n, ound himsel “always as ounded by Ke ouac’s acili y”
(Haku ani, Ame ican Haiku 130).
Gómez 13
II.3. JACK KEROUAC
Jack Ke ouac (1922-1969), a key igu e o he Bea Gene a ion, is widely known o
his spon aneous p ose and deeply pe sonal explo a ions o spi i uali y, eedom, and his
nume ous ips h ough Ame ica. While he is mos ly amous o his no el On he Road
(1957), he also had a p o ound engagemen wi h haiku, a poe ic o m he bo h admi ed and
ein e p e ed o a Wes e n audience. In luenced by Ga y Snyde , om whom he lea n how o
compose an English haiku, Ke ouac was also highly ega ded as a haiku poe . Allen Ginsbe g
ema ked: “He is he only one in he Uni ed S a es ha knows how o w i e a haiku”
(Haku ani, Ame ican Haiku 130).
Bo n in Lowell, Massachuse s, o a F ench-Canadian amily, Ke ouac was aised
speaking joual, a dialec o Canadian F ench, which shaped his la e ascina ion wi h language
and hy hm. A e a ending Columbia Uni e si y on a oo ball schola ship, he le be o e
comple ing his deg ee, emba king ins ead on he a els ha would de ine his li e a y ca ee .
These expe iences ueled his de elopmen o spon aneous p ose, a echnique shaped by jazz
imp o isa ion and s eam-o -consciousness w i ing. In addi ion, beyond his associa ion wi h
Bea li e a u e, Ke ouac’s wo k was also in o med by his spi i ual pu sui s, pa icula ly his
imme sion in Buddhism. His in e es in Zen eachings, medi a ion, and Eas e n philosophy
no only in luenced his p ose bu also became cen al o his poe ic expe imen s, especially his
engagemen wi h haiku.
Despi e his se e al composi ions and in luence, academic esea ch on Ke ouac’s haiku
emains ela i ely limi ed in compa ison wi h s udies o his p ose. While some o his
p e iously men ioned no els such as On he Road (1957) o The Dha ma Bums (1958) ha e
been ex ensi ely analysed in ela ion o Bea aes he ics o masculini y, his haiku ha e
ecei ed less c i ical a en ion. Al hough schola s such as Richa d A. Iadonisi (2014) o
Yoshinobu Haku ani (2021) ha e explo ed and sub ly analyzed se e al haikus om Ke ouac,
conside ing he end o Ame ican Haiku. These s udies highligh Ke ouac’s inno a i e
app oach in adap ing haiku o an Ame ican li e a y con ex , a p ocess ha in ol ed bo h
adhe ence o and depa u es om adi ional haiku con en ions.
Ke ouac’s isions o haiku we e shaped signi ican ly by Ga y Snyde , pa icula ly “in
e ms o echnique and he use o image y” (Haku ani, Mode n Haiku 21). Snyde ’s deep
engagemen wi h Japanese aes he ics and Zen philosophy p o ided Ke ouac wi h a amewo k
o in eg a ing adi ional haiku p inciples in o his own poe ic p ac ice. None heless, while
Snyde ook inspi a ion om he imagis mo emen and pa icula ly Ez a Pound, Ke ouac
Gómez 14
was less ocused on hem and ins ead “was eno mously in e es ed in he wo ks o schola s on
Japanese poe ics and haiku in pa icula ” (Haku ani, Mode n Haiku 21). This in ellec ual
commi men , combined wi h Snyde ’s guidance, con ibu ed o Ke ouac’s de elopmen o a
dis inc haiku s yle ha balanced spon aneous exp ession wi h p ecise, image-d i en
composi ions.
II.3.1 HAIKU BY JACK KEROUAC
When analyzing Jack Ke ouac’s app oach o haiku, Book o Haikus (2003) edi ed by
Regina Wein eich se es as a undamen al esou ce. This compila ion p o ides a selec ion o
haikus om di e en no ebooks da ing om 1956 o 1966, highligh ing his adap a ion o he
adi ional Japanese o m in o wha he e med he Ame ican haiku. The ollowing haikus will
be analysed acco ding o he pa e ns ou lined by Boohe . The i s haiku, d awn om
Wein eich’s compila ion, lacks an assigned i le and an exac da e o composi ion:
In back o he Supe ma ke ,
in he pa king lo weeds,
Pu ple lowe s
F om an ini ial eading, his haiku exempli ies Ke ouac’s abili y o ind beau y in
o e looked places, a cha ac e is ic ea u e o his Ame ican haiku composi ions. Following
Boohe ’s analy ical amewo k, he haiku’s objec is he “Pu ple lowe s”, a na u al elemen
eme ging in an u ban se ing. The place is es ablished in he opening lines: “ he back o he
Supe ma ke , in he pa king lo weed”, depic ing a scene om e e yday li e which is o en
dis ega ded. A e conside ing he signi icance o objec and place, i is also impo an o no e
Ke ouac’s emphasis on speci ic le e s, as seen in his ea men o “ he “s” in “Supe ma ke ”
and he “p” in “Pu ple” which he highligh s o hei poe ic impo ance” (Iadonisi 291). While
his echnique does no exis in Japanese due o he language’s lack o capi aliza ion, i may
ha e been in luenced by Emily Dickinson. Ke ouac himsel acknowledged his amilia i y
wi h he wo k, sugges ing in a le e o Philip Whalen ha “ he e a e a million haikus in one
good p ose wo k and a million haikus in he G ea Emily Dickinson oo — ha hyme e en!”
(Cha e s 542). His explici ecogni ion o Dickinson’s li e a y g ea ness indica es a deep
engagemen wi h he poe y, which may ha e in luenced his own s ylis ic choices.
As Ke ouac’s app oach o haiku o en depa s om adi ional Japanese con en ions,
he ime o his haiku can no be speci ied as he e is no ins ance o a empo al ma ke o kigo.
Gómez 15
While he men ioning o “Pu ple lowe s” migh sugges a ce ain ime o he yea , i emains
ambiguous and does no se e as a po en ial English kigo. In e ms o ki eji, he haiku s ill
employs a s uc u al and concep ual pause which esembles his Japanese s ylis ic ea u e. The
line b eak be ween he second and hi d lines unc ions as a na u al caesu a, c ea ing a shi in
ocus and pe cep ion, allowing he eade o e lec on he jux aposi ion o an u ban se ing
wi h a na u al elemen . Mo eo e , his jux aposi ion di ec ly con as s wi h he one p o oked
by Ga y Snyde in he haiku “Wa m nigh s”. In Snyde ’s haiku, he “high je s c ossing he
s a s” sugges he dominance o human echnology o e na u e whe eas Ke ouac’s haiku
“i onically sugges s he sup emacy o na u e o e humani y, con aining an image o na u al
beau y in an unna u al en i onmen ” (Haku ani 114). This con as highligh s he di e ing
philosophical pe spec i es o he wo poe s: while Snyde ’s haiku e lec s humani y’s
in usion upon he na u al wo ld, Ke ouac’s poem sugges s na u e’s quie pe sis ence e en
wi hin human made spaces.
The nex haiku o be conside ed in ou analysis has been aken om a 1960’s
no ebook also compiled in Book o Haikus:
One lowe
on he cli side
Nodding a he canyon
In his haiku, Ke ouac employs he image o a single lowe as he ocal objec ,
sugges ing bo h agili y and esilience, echoing he Buddhis accep ance o ansience
p e iously discussed by Boye . I s placemen “on he cli side” u he ein o ces hese
hemes, as he e is a jux aposi ion e ec be ween he small, delica e lowe and he immense,
seemingly indi e en canyon. Mo eo e , he e b “nodding” in oduces mo emen o he
poem and e en hough he e is no seasonal wo d o kigo, we may conside mo ion o unc ion
as he empo al ma ke o he haiku.
The singula i y o he lowe in his haiku emphasizes a deep sense o soli ude, a
heme cen al o he au ho ’s la e wo ks, pa icula ly Big Su (1962). W i en a ound he same
ime as his haiku, he no el cap u es his s uggle wi h isola ion, disillusionmen , and he
p essu e o mee he expec a ions o bo h his publishe s and he li e a y wo ld. His e ea o a
emo e cabin in Bixby Canyon suddenly becomes a si e o exis en ial c isis, mi o ing he
p eca ious posi ion o he lonely lowe on he cli side. The passage “You see one single
lowe nodding on a cli side a ac oss he canyon” (ch.6) om which his haiku may ha e
Gómez 16
been inspi ed, p o ides no me ely an objec i e obse a ion o na u e bu a poe ic
esemblance o Ke ouac’s own expe ience in he wilde ness. This in e play be ween landscape
and pe sonal emo ions ein o ces he idea ha Ke ouac's haiku u he de elops upon pe sonal
and philosophical e lec ions.
Ke ouac’s engagemen wi h haiku hus eme ges as a syn hesis o Zen awa eness,
li e a y expe imen a ion, and pe sonal in ospec ion. In luenced by Japanese aes he ics, and
guided by oices such as Ga y Snyde , he de eloped a unique Ame ican o m ha eplaced
adi ional ma ke s such as kigo o ki eji wi h in ui i e pauses, emo ions and u ban se ings.
Whe he obse ing a lowe in a supe ma ke pa king lo o a soli a y lowe on a canyon
cli , Ke ouac uses haiku o con ey he ension be ween impe manence and pe sis ence, he
ex e nal wo ld and in e nal expe ience. Ne e heless, his haiku we e no he only ones being
composed wi hin he li e a y ci cles o he Bea Gene a ion. As F ida Fo sg en no es, Ke ouac
“spen nigh s w i ing and eading hei wo k o each o he ” (165) e e ing o his c ea i e
exchanges wi h ellow poe u h weiss, whose own app oach o haiku will be explo ed in he
ollowing sec ion.
II.4. RUTH WEISS
u h weiss (1928-2020) was a Ge man-bo n poe who, a e escaping wi h he amily
om Nazi Ge many, mo ed o he Uni ed S a es, whe e he c ea i e spi i ound a place o
de elop. In 1950s San F ancisco, she became an essen ial igu e o he Bea Gene a ion,
al hough he con ibu ions we e o en o e shadowed by he male con empo a ies. weiss w o e
he name in lowe case le e s, a s ylis ic choice she explained as “he own ebellion agains
law and o de , as in Ge man all nouns a e capi alized” (G ace and Johnson 69). This ges u e
e lec ed he ejec ion o an opp essi e sys em. Th ough poe y eadings ha used jazz
imp o isa ion wi h spoken wo ds, weiss c ea ed a unique space o he sel in he cul u al
landscape o he ime, always commi ing o eedom o exp ession.
As no ed in B eaking he Rule o Cool, a key esou ce o unde s anding he
con ibu ions o u h weiss, se e al o he wo ks ha e been u ned in o ilms, including he
poem The B ink (1961), an adap a ion ha e lec s he commi men o explo ing poe y
beyond w i en wo ds. In addi ion o The B ink, he wo ks include o he in luen ial ex s such
as Galle y o Women (1959), Dese Jou nal (1977), and Can’ S op he Bea (2011), all o
which demons a e he unique oice and deep engagemen wi h hemes o iden i y, esis ance,
o he mix u e be ween music and language. As p o esso Enca nación-Pinedo no es: “weiss’s
Gómez 17
poe y condenses language in an a emp o ge id o less meaning ul uni s” (372). This
u he unde sco es he pu sui o p ecision and dep h in bo h w i en and pe o med o ms.
The pa icula dimension o u h weiss’s wo k on which his disse a ion will ocus is
he engagemen wi h haiku. In luenced by he Bea Gene a ion’s ascina ion wi h Zen
Buddhism and Japanese li e a y o m, weiss app oached haiku no simply as a poe ic exe cise
bu as a means o achie ing mind ulness and spi i ual awa eness. As we u n now o a close
eading o he haiku, we will see how she hono ed adi ional s uc u es while imbuing hem
wi h he own imp o isa ional spi i , me ging Eas e n conciseness wi h he dynamism and
ene gy ha cha ac e ized he wo k.
II.4.1. HAIKU BY RUTH WEISS
The combina ion o image and e se in he haiku adi ion inds an echo in he wo k o
u h weiss, whose wa e colo haikus ecall he classical Japanese a o m known as haiga. As
Rod íguez-Izquie do poin s ou : “En japonés ≪esc ibi ≫ y ≪pin a ≫ son concep os que se
exp esan median e el mismo e bo: kaku, aunque en la esc i u a se exp esen median e
dis in os kanji” (147). T adi ionally, haiga combines haiku poe y wi h b ush pain ing o
callig aphy, emphasising a medi a i e uni y be ween ex and image. In a simila way, weiss’s
wa e colo haikus o e a isual and e bal in e play ha e okes deepe emo ional and na u al
esonance han w i en haiku alone. She p oclaims he aes he ic aims h ough isual
sugges ion, c a ing an expe ience ha is simul aneously senso ial and in ellec ual. He wo k
eimagines he adi ional haiga o m wi hin a mode n, Bea -in luenced con ex , highligh ing
haiku’s po en ial o anscend bounda ies be ween di e en a o ms.
The aim o his disse a ion is howe e o ocus pa icula ly on he analysis o haiku in
i s w i en o m. The ollowing haikus a e d awn om “ u h weiss and Visual A : he
Wa e colo Haiku Se ies A Fool’s Jou ney and Banzai!” by F ida Fo sg en. The i s haiku o
be conside ed o analysis belongs o he wo k A Fool’s Jou ney “w i en in he six ies… he
poems ell he s o y o he physical and exis en ial a els o a meande ing soul wi h he
cha ac e is ic sho , hy hmic haiku language” (Fo sg en 166):
laye by laye
she peels he onion she is
and laughs wi h he ea s (166)
Gómez 18
Following he analy ical model es ablished by Boohe , we can examine he objec ,
ime and place. The “onion” unc ions bo h as a li e al objec and a me apho ical image o he
sel . While he se ing is p ima ily symbolic and in e nal, sugges ing in ospec i e
explo a ion, he ac ion also akes place on he ou e le el, in ol ing he physical ac o peeling
he onion and shedding ea s because o he smell. The e o e, he e is no explici seasonal
wo d o English-like kigo, no di ec empo al se ing, a ea u e consis en wi h many Bea
haiku adap a ions, which o en p io i ize emo ional o philosophical insigh s o e seasonal
image y.
In e ms o o m and s uc u e, i ollows he h ee-line s uc u e ypical o haiku and
he 5-7-5 syllable pa e n, aligning wi h he Japanese adi ion. weiss he sel in an in e iew
by Nancy G ace poses he ollowing: “Se en een syllables is he Japanese o m o haiku, bu I
use i mos o he ime in he English [ o m] anyway, as do mos people who w i e haiku”
(G ace and Johnson 65), p o ing ha she was well acquain ed wi h he o iginal o m o haiku
and wan ed o p ese e i in he poe y. Ne e heless, he e is no ki eji as in Japanese, bu
he e is a na u al shi be ween he second and hi d lines: a mo e om he ac ion o peeling
o he emo ional esponse o laugh e h ough ea s.
F om he pe spec i e o Shiki’s shasei (ske ch om li e), his haiku p esen s a deep
pe sonal in ol emen . The p onoun “she” likely e e s o he poe he sel , blending a ealis ic
si ua ion wi h pe sonal in ospec ion. Unlike Snyde ’s na u e-o ien ed haiku o Ke ouac’s
spon aneous obse a ions o e e yday momen s, weiss di ec ly engages in o a mo e emo ional
eali y accep ing bo h joy and sadness wi hin he same momen .
The second haiku is aken om Banzai!, a collec ion ha “consis s o 25 haiku poems
w i en and pain ed in he ea ly 1980s” (Fo sg en 171):
ai ai ai ai ai
wind in he ees
each lea b ea hes
hea he e hea he e hea (171)
Again, analysing he objec , ime, and place: he objec is “ai ”, epea ed in he
opening e ain, e oking he sound o wind and es ablishing a na u al a mosphe e. Al hough
no speci ic place is s a ed, he e e ence o ees implies a wooded se ing whe e lea es mo e
gen ly in he b eeze. As he e is no kigo o seasonal e e ence, he ime is no ma ked, bu he
p esence o lea es and wind could sugges a ansi ional season such as sp ing o au umn.
Gómez 19
Fo mally, his poem depa s om he h ee-line s uc u e associa ed wi h adi ional
haiku, also ejec ing he 5-7-5 pa e n en i ely, emb acing he ee con en ions o Ame ican
haiku. As he e is no punc ua ion, he epe i ion se es as a hy hmic de ice ha mimics he
unc ion o ki eji, pa icula ly be ween he i s and second lines, and again be ween he hi d
and ou h. Fu he mo e, apa om he epe i ion o “ai ”, he e is an homophonic al e na ion
be ween he wo ds “hea ” and “he e” which ein o ces he poem’s ocus on sound and
pe cep ion.
On a deepe le el, he haiku p oposes an in i a ion o senso ial medi a ion. The
ansi ion om “ai ” o “wind” o “b ea h” and inally o “hea / he e” mo es om he
ex e nal o he in e nal, om he in isible elemen s ha su ound us o an ac o conscious
awa eness. The inal e ain, wi h i s play on homophones, blu s he bounda y be ween
audi o y pe cep ion and spa ial p esence. Th ough his echnique, he poem cap u es a lee ing
momen bu also a i ms he beau y o p esence, whe e a en ion o he smalles sensa ions
becomes an exp ession o being ully ali e.
Compa ed o o he Bea haiku examined in his disse a ion, weiss’s haiku ep esen s a
u he s ep in o abs ac ion and he engagemen o he senses. E en hough no ully adhe ing
o he adi ional o m o Japanese haiku, and aiming o a ein e p e a ion o i , he wo k
di e ges no ably om Snyde ’s na u alism and Ke ouac’s spon aneous u ban image y.
Mo eo e , weiss mo es om he w i en ex in o a mo e elabo a e wo k ha includes
pain ing, and ha is mo e di ec ly ela ed o Japanese haiga. He emphasis on epe i ion and
phone ic play also in oduces a new senso ial dimension ha is la gely absen in he o he
poe s’ wo k. By doing so, weiss o e s a uniquely embodied o m o haiku ha aligns wi h he
spi i ual immediacy sough by he Bea s, while simul aneously pushing he bounda ies o his
a o m. He impac ex ends beyond he poe y i sel , con ibu ing o he b oade
dissemina ion o Ame ican haiku. This legacy con inues h ough he “ u h weiss Founda ion”,
which honou s he commi men o poe ic expe imen a ion and suppo s haiku- ela ed p ojec s,
including a dedica ed haiku con es held in 2024.
II.5. DIANE DI PRIMA
Diane di P ima (1934 - 2020) was a dis inguished Ame ican poe , conside ed “one o
he ew women o he Bea mo emen o a ain p ominence” (“Diane di P ima”). Bo n in
B ooklyn, New Yo k, she b ie ly a ended Swa hmo e College be o e lea ing o pu sue a
li e a y li e in Manha an’s G eenwich Village, whe e she became imme sed in he bohemian
Gómez 20
a is ic scene o he 1950s. Once he e, she engaged wi h key igu es o he Bea mo emen
such as Allen Ginsbe g and Jack Ke ouac, and collabo a ed wi h Ami i Ba aka “ o co-edi he
li e a y magazine The Floa ing Bea om 1961 o 1969” (“Diane di P ima”). Di p ima’s wo k
is ma ked by i s blend o spi i ual insigh , poli ical consciousness, and expe imen al o m,
mos no ably ound in collec ions such as This Kind o Bi d Flies Backwa d (1958),
Re olu iona y Le e s (1971), and he epic eminis poem Loba (1978), which posi ioned he
a he in e sec ion o Bea , eminis , and a an -ga de poe ics.
In addi ion o he li e a y p oduc ion, di P ima played a signi ican ole in shaping he
ins i u ional landscape o Ame ican poe y du ing he mid-20 h cen u y. She co- ounded he
New Yo k Poe s Thea e and he Poe s P ess, con ibu ing o he de elopmen o al e na i e
publishing spaces ha suppo ed expe imen al w i ing ou side mains eam academic ci cles.
She also pu sued se ious s udy o Buddhism unde eache s such as Suzuki Roshi o T ungpa
Rimpoche. In o de o ge a be e unde s anding o hese o ien al philosophies “she o en
a ended medi a ion e ea s and she s udied and wo ked on ansla ions o bo h Sansk i and
Tibe an ex s” (“S a emen om he Family”). Di P ima’s wo k e lec s his spi i ual
engagemen , wea ing Buddhis concep s wi h pe sonal in ospec ion, which aligns he
hema ically wi h con empo a ies like Ga y Snyde .
Di P ima’s engagemen wi h haiku, e en hough less equen ly discussed in he
academic ci cles, po ays a deepe in e es in concise and mo e con empla i e poe ic o ms.
This is mos clea ly exempli ied in he 2019 publica ion Haiku, a p ojec which was o iginally
concei ed in 1964 in collabo a ion wi h a is Geo ge He ms. The collec ion ea u es
hi y- wo haikus accompanied by He ms's illus a ions, o e ing eade s a mo e isual
edi ion. While di P ima’s haikus ha e gone unno iced, u he analysis will showcase how
some o he haikus adhe e o classical con en ions emphasising a deep unde s anding o he
o m’s spi i , highligh ing immediacy and a na u al image y o en accompanied wi h po en ial
English kigo.
II.5.1 HAIKU BY DIANE DI PRIMA
The haikus by Diane di P ima selec ed o analysis ha e solely been aken om he
p e iously discussed wo k Haiku (2019). Apa om he se o illus a ions, i is hus ele an
o conside i s s uc u e. The ac ha i is o ganized by seasons p o ides us u he no ions o
conside in he analysis. The i s haiku belongs o he season o au umn and eads like his:
ain came in all nigh
Gómez 21
da k sky, eas wind, his mo ning;
I pick up he phone (20)
F om a i s eading, he objec , ime, and place can be deduc ed. The cen al objec
would be “ he phone”, which appea s p ecisely in he las e se. I is he pe sonal p onoun “I”
and he “ac o picking up he phone” ha in oduces a sub le human ac ion in o an o he wise
na u al scene, as he poe men ions “ ain”, he “sky” and “wind”. In e ms o ime, wo
dis inc ime ames jux aposing mus be acknowledged, hese being “all nigh ” and “ his
mo ning”. This u he c ea es a ension be ween wha has happened and wha is happening
igh now. The place o his haiku is p obably indoo s, likely a home, and he e is an
obse able ansi ion om he ou side wo ld ( ain, sky, wind) o a domes ic space.
Fo mally, jus as he i s haiku by u h weiss, his haiku adhe es o classical Japanese
h ee-lines con en ion and o he 5-7-5 pa e n. Mo eo e , he po en ial English kigo, o
seasonal wo d, is embedded in he image y o “eas wind” and he pe sis en “ ain”, which,
conside ing he con ex as a whole, is e iden ial o he au umn season. This haiku also
employs a s uc u al ki eji-like pause a he end o he second line. The semicolon heigh ens
he shi om he ex e nal scene, p esen ed by na u e and he wea he , o he in e nal ac ion o
picking he phone.
Ano he eading o his haiku could be as a quie medi a ion on emo ional
ulne abili y and a desi e o connec ion. The pe sis en ain h ough he nigh , he da k sky,
and he windy mo ning pain s an a mosphe e ha is ma ked by melancholy and unease. The
na u al se ing mi o s an inne s a e, p obably shaped by soli ude o wo y. In his mood, he
ac o picking up he phone becomes a meaning ul ges u e, maybe signaling he speake ’s
decision o each ou o someone o o b eak he silence. The e o e, he haiku sub ly shi s
om an obse a ion o he ex e nal wo ld o a e ela ion o inne emo ion, illus a ing how
na u al image y can be in e wined wi h deeply pe sonal expe iences.
The second haiku conside ed o analysis belongs o he season o summe :
a e a long sleep
amazed I see in he sky
his sign: a ull sun (18)
The cen al objec o his haiku is “a ull sun”, appea ing in he inal e se and
unc ioning as he ocal poin o he speake ’s a en ion. The “sun” is no simply po ayed as
