Wha is behind he p oduce GHG emissions oo p in o ex ile and
clo hing in he EU-27? An en i onmen ally ex ended mul i- egional
inpu -ou pu analysis
Luis Yamuza-Blanco
a,*
, Fabio Monsal e
b
, Rocío Rom´
an-Collado
a,c
, Ma ía Te esa Sanz-Díaz
a
a
Uni e sidad de Se illa, Calle San Fe nando 4, 41004 Se illa, Spain
b
Uni e sidad de Cas illa–La Mancha, A . de Espa˜
na s/n, 02001, Albace e, Spain
c
Uni e sidad Au ´
onoma de Chile, A . Ped o de Valdi ia 425, 7500912 P o idencia, Chile
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
En i onmen ally Ex ended Mul i-Regional
Inpu -Ou pu
P oduce Foo p in Analysis
Tex ile and Clo hing Indus y
G eenhouse Gas Emissions
Exiobase
ABSTRACT
The ex ile and clo hing indus y is globally ecognized as he ou h highes con ibu o o en i onmen al
p essu e, equi ing subs an ial olumes o aw ma e ials and esou ces om a ious sec o s. Mo eo e , i con-
ibu es app oxima ely 4 % o global g eenhouse gas emissions annually. The inal p oduce s in his indus y bea
a po ion o he esponsibili y and ha e he abili y o di ec ly add ess and mi iga e he sus ainabili y issues and
en i onmen al impac s ha occu h oughou hei supply chains. Agains his backg ound, he a icle aims o
analyse he g eenhouse gas emissions oo p in o he Eu opean Union-27’s inal ex ile and clo hing p oduce s
om 1995 o 2022. The me hodology applied combines an En i onmen ally Ex ended Mul i-Regional Inpu -
Ou pu analysis wi h a p oduce oo p in analysis, u ilizing he Exiobase da abase. These me hods enable he
acking o emissions bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly gene a ed h oughou he p oduc ion chain o inal goods, and
he alloca ion o hese emissions o he coun y o esidence o he inal p oduce . The esul s indica e ha he
emissions oo p in o p oduce s in he Eu opean Union-27’s ex ile and clo hing indus y dec eased by
app oxima ely 50 % du ing he pe iod. Howe e , while he domes ic p oduce oo p in saw a educ ion o 61 %,
he impo ed emissions dec eased by only 27 %. This disc epancy highligh s a ious ine iciencies, demon-
s a ing ha impo ing has a g ea e emissions impac han domes ic p oduc ion. Addi ionally, a decoupling
analysis is conduc ed o examine he deg ee o disassocia ion be ween g eenhouse gas emissions and he in-
e media e inpu s used h oughou he Eu opean Union-27’s ex ile and clo hing supply chain. In his espec ,
some supplie pa ne s ha e posi i ely con ibu ed o deca boniza ion, unde sco ing he need o s a egic ade
ela ions.
1. In oduc ion
The ex ile and clo hing (T&C) indus y is globally ecognized as he
ou h highes con ibu o o en i onmen al p essu e (Amica elli e al.,
2022; EEA (Eu opean En i onmen Agency), 2023) and a signi ican
sou ce o g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Diddi e al., 2019; Hole and
Hole, 2019; Saha e al., 2021; Uni ed Na ions, 2023), annually
con ibu ing app oxima ely 4 % o global emissions (EMF (Ellen Mac-
a hu Founda ion), 2021). These GHG emissions ha e a de imen al
impac on he en i onmen , being he main d i e o clima e change
(Pe e s e al., 2015; Nimka , 2018), which esul s in ising a e age
empe a u es and mo e ex eme clima e e en s (EP (Eu opean Pa lia-
men ), 2023a).
The gene a ion o GHG emissions in he T&C indus y p edominan ly
occu s du ing he ene gy-in ensi e phases, such as he manu ac u ing o
na u al ib es (Be on e al., 2014; EMF (Ellen Maca hu Founda ion),
2017) and syn he ic ib es (Claudio, 2007; EMF (Ellen Maca hu
Founda ion), 2017), he manu ac u ing p ocess (Huang e al., 2017),
Abb e ia ions: T&C, Tex ile and clo hing; EU, Eu opean Union; EU-27, 27 Membe S a es o he Eu opean Union; GHG, G eenhouse gas; EEMRIO, En i onmen ally
Ex ended Mul i-Regional Inpu -Ou pu ; MRIO, Mul i-Regional Inpu -Ou pu ; PF, P oduce oo p in ; ENI, Emissions o Na ional Indus y; E ONI, Emissions om
O he Na ional Indus ies; EI, Emissions Impo ed; DPF, Domes ic P oduce Foo p in .
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (L. Yamuza-Blanco), [email p o ec ed] (F. Monsal e), [email p o ec ed] (R. Rom´
an-Collado), [email p o ec ed] (M.T. Sanz-
Díaz).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Ecological Economics
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ecolecon
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2025.108697
Recei ed 14 No embe 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 27 May 2025; Accep ed 28 May 2025
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
A ailable online 11 June 2025
0921-8009/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
and dis ibu ion ac i i ies (Be on e al., 2014). While he indus y is
ene gy in ensi e by na u e (Palamu cu, 2010), he hea y eliance on
ossil-based ene gy in de eloping coun ies (Oz u k, 2005; Liang e al.,
2023), coupled wi h ine icien ene gy use (Haseeb e al., 2020), exac-
e ba es he en i onmen al p essu es and GHG emissions o he indus y
in hese egions. No ably, T&C p oduc s manu ac u ed in China ha e a
ca bon oo p in 40 % la ge han hose p oduced in he EU (Im an e al.,
2023).
The p oduc ion p ocess in he T&C indus y equi es subs an ial
olumes o aw ma e ials and esou ces om o he sec o s. This demand
o in e media e inpu s esul s in en i onmen al impac s along he T&C
supply chains, including he gene a ion o GHG emissions, which appea
o be o e looked by he inal p oduce s o manu ac u e s ha c ea e
inished p oduc s eady o he end consume s. Howe e , hese p o-
duce s bea a po ion o he esponsibili y o mi iga ing said en i on-
men al impac s and ha e he abili y o di ec ly add ess he sus ainabili y
issues ha occu h oughou hei supply chains (Wiebe, 2018). The e is
hus a need o accoun o bo h he di ec GHG emissions o he T&C
indus y and he indi ec emissions induced by he demand o in e -
media e inpu s.
The T&C supply chains a e long, complex and dynamic (Kozlowski
e al., 2016), in ol ing nume ous phases om aw ma e ial manu ac u e
o disposal ac i i ies (Shen and Smi h, 2015; Kozlowski e al., 2016;
Amu ha, 2017), wi h se e al ac o s pa icipa ing a di e en le els
(H ouga and Michel, 2023). This makes i a challenge o manage
aceabili y and anspa ency (Gi i and Shanka Rai, 2013; Malik e al.,
2021), while he abili y o apidly upda e en i onmen al s anda ds,
egula ions and policies is c ucial (Zo , 2023).
The T&C indus y in de eloped coun ies is cha ac e ized by
ou sou cing and signi ican impo s (Dun o d, 2004; Gi nea a and
Dob in, 2015). P oduc ion is p ima ily loca ed in de eloping coun ies
(Pal and Gande , 2018; de Oli ei a Ne o e al., 2020), d i en by he
labou -in ensi e na u e o he indus y and he pu sui o lowe wage
cos s (Olsen e al., 2004; Keenan e al., 2004; Kuma e al., 2022). The
Eu opean Union (EU) has ollowed his ou sou cing end (S engg, 2001;
EURATEX, 2020; Valodka e al., 2020; EURATEX, 2022), wi h impo s o
T&C p oduc s amoun ing o 177 billion eu os in 2022, compa ed o
expo s o 103 billion eu os (Eu os a , 2024). The main supplie pa ne s
o he 27 EU Membe S a es (EU-27) a e China (34.79 %), Bangladesh
(13.10 %), Tu key (9.97 %), India (5.89 %) and Indonesia (2.25 %).
The EU is commi ed o add essing he en i onmen al impac s o he
T&C indus y and enhancing i s sus ainabili y, as e lec ed in he Eu-
opean G een Deal, he Ci cula Economy Ac ion Plan, and he Eu opean
Indus ial S a egy (EC (Eu opean Commission), 2024a, 2024b, 2024c).
One key a ea o imp o emen is ai pollu ion and GHG emissions, wi h
he EU a ge ing le els ha a e no ha m ul o heal h and na u al eco-
sys ems (EC (Eu opean Commission), 2024d). In he same ein, he EU
aims o lessen he en i onmen al impac o T&C supply chains (EP
(Eu opean Pa liamen ), 2023b, 2023c) and ex end he li e cycle o T&C
p oduc s (EC (Eu opean Commission), 2024e), ega dless o whe e
p oduc ion occu s (EC (Eu opean Commission), 2024 ), he eby making
p oduc ion mo e sus ainable and en i onmen ally iendly (EC (Eu o-
pean Commission), 2024g).
To achie e he EU’s objec i es o his indus y, a de ailed unde -
s anding is needed o how he esponsibili y o emissions is dis ibu ed
among di e en ac o s along he EU-27’s T&C supply chain. Acco ding
o scien i ic li e a u e, he e a e wo p ima y app oaches o s udy his
issue: Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) and Mul i-Regional Inpu -Ou pu
(MRIO) modelling, which includes Consump ion Based Analysis (CBA)
and P oduce Foo p in (PF). LCA assesses he en i onmen al impac o
speci ic p oduc s om c adle o g a e (Wiedmann and Minx, 2008).
Mos p e ious s udies on emissions oo p in applica ions in he T&C
indus y use LCA me hodology (Manda e al., 2015; Se we a e al., 2019;
Paye , 2021; Zhao e al., 2021; S idsland e al., 2023). CBA accoun s o
he emissions gene a ed di ec ly and indi ec ly in he p oduc ion p o-
cesses o inal goods demanded by a coun y (Minx e al., 2009).
Al hough CBA has been less widely used in he T&C indus y, he e a e
no able applica ions wi hin he EU con ex . Fo ins ance, Bonilla e al.
(2015) assess he consump ion oo p in o he T&C alue chain, iden-
i ying s a egies o minimize i ; Pe e s e al. (2021) calcula e en i on-
men al and social indica o s o assess he impac s o he global clo hing
and oo wea alue chain; Mai e al. (2016) examine he sus ainabili y
implica ions o mee ing Wes e n Eu opean demand o T&C p oduc s;
and Valodka and Snieska (2020) and Valodka e al. (2020) s udy he
consump ion oo p in o clo hing p oduc s om China, India and
Tu key. Addi ionally, Malik e al. (2021) in es iga e he nega i e social
spillo e e ec s o ex ile p oduc ion o sa is y EU consump ion. Las ly,
PF acks emissions gene a ed di ec ly and indi ec ly along he p o-
duc ion chain o inal goods and alloca es hem o he inal p oduce ’s
coun y o esidence, ega dless o whe e hese goods a e expo ed o
consumed (L´
opez e al., 2019; O iz e al., 2020a; O iz e al., 2020b).
Also known as “sales-based in en o y” o “ inal-p oduc -based emis-
sions accoun ing” (Kanemo o e al., 2012; Wiebe, 2018), i is based on
he p oduce ’s global esponsibili y (L´
opez e al., 2019) and can be used
o de e mine whe e he emissions ho spo s occu along he global p o-
duc ion chain (Wiebe, 2018). To ou knowledge, he e a e no s udies o
da e ha analyse he PF o he T&C indus y, in any egion.
Gi en he EU’s ision o imp o ing his indus y, i is pe inen o
analyse he supply chains o he EU-27’s inal p oduce s and iden i y he
GHG emissions ho spo s, in o de o p opose ac ionable measu es. The
EU has egula o y con ol o e manu ac u e s wi hin i s e i o y and
can implemen ac ions o educe GHG emissions om hei p oduc ion
p ocesses. This a icle aims o analyse he GHG emissions oo p in o
he EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s and i s e olu ion om 1995 o 2022,
conside ing all emissions gene a ed ac oss he supply chain. This wide-
anging analysis o he EU-27’s T&C indus y can p o ide a de ailed
unde s anding o he emissions s uc u e o he inal p oduce s and he
speci ic measu es hey should ake o imp o e hei p oduc ion chains.
The no el y o his pape is ha i calcula es he PF o he T&C in-
dus y - o ou knowledge, he i s such applica ion in he li e a u e- and
i ca ies ou a long- e m analysis o he EU-27 as a whole, in ol ing he
de la ion o a comp ehensi e MRIO da abase wi h he mos a ailable
in o ma ion. In addi ion, his pape p esen s a no el applica ion o a
decoupling analysis o s udy he le el o disassocia ion be ween GHG
emissions gene a ion calcula ed wi h he PF app oach and in e media e
inpu s u ilized h oughou he supply chain o he EU-27’s inal T&C
p oduce s.
A e his in oduc ion, he s uc u e o he pape is as ollows. The
nex sec ion desc ibes he me hodology and da abase u ilized. The e-
sul s and discussion sec ion examines he ou comes o he esea ch and
compa es hem wi h hose ob ained by p e ious s udies. Finally, he
conclusions sec ion summa izes he indings o he analysis.
2. Me hods and da a
2.1. En i onmen ally ex ended mul i- egional inpu -ou pu model and he
p oduce oo p in
The me hodology used in his pape is he En i onmen ally Ex ended
Mul i-Regional Inpu -Ou pu (EEMRIO) model, as i enables an analysis
o he mul ila e al ade ansac ions be ween indus ies o di e en
coun ies (And ew e al., 2009; Mille and Blai , 2009; Wiedmann, 2009;
Gao e al., 2020).
The EEMRIO, which is a combina ion o inpu -ou pu ables wi h
consis en en i onmen al da a (Minx e al., 2009), has coun less appli-
ca ions (Suh, 2009; Hoeks a, 2010) and can be used o assess he
en i onmen al impac s o coun ies, indus ial sec o s, p oduc g oups
o companies (Wiedmann and Minx, 2008). I yields in eg al and solid
es ima es (Mille and Blai , 2009), minimizes he chance o double
coun ing (Pandey e al., 2011), and is no labou - o da a-in ensi e
(Wiedmann, 2009).
The ini ial equa ion o he MRIO model can be exp essed in ma ix
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
2
e ms as ollows (Mille and Blai , 2009):
X=AX+Y (1)
whe e X is a ec o ha ep esen s he o al ou pu o each sec o , A is a
ma ix o echnical coe icien s which shows he in e media e inpu s
ha each sec o needs o p oduce one uni o i s p oduc s and Y is a
ec o o inal demand.
Isola ing X om eq. (1), he basic equa ion o he Leon ie model can
be ob ained:
X= (I−A)−1•Y=L•Y (2)
Fo es ima ing emissions, he en i onmen al ex ension o eq. (2) is
used, which indica es he emissions gene a ed by inal demand (Mille
and Blai , 2009; Bha e al., 2024):
E=e• (I−A)−1•Y=e•L•Y (3)
whe e e is he emission coe icien which is ob ained by di iding he
emissions by he ou pu and indica es he amoun o emissions ha a e
di ec ly and indi ec ly eleased o p oduce one uni o p oduc ion.
Mul iplying his emission coe icien by L= (I−A)−1 gi es he emis-
sions mul iplie . Y is he ma ix o inal demand. Consequen ly, E is a
ma ix ha ep esen s all he di ec and indi ec emissions gene a ed o
sa is y he o al inal demand.
The PF is calcula ed by modi ying he inal demand ma ix in eq. (3);
speci ically, he Y ma ix is summed ho izon ally and placed on he main
diagonal (
Y). The diagonalized ma ix
Y compu es he o al inal de-
mand wi hou dis inc ion be ween domes ic and o eign inal demand o
be ween he coun ies ha ul ima ely consume he inal p oduc ion
(O iz e al., 2020a; O iz e al., 2020b).
E=e• (I−A)−1•
Y=e•L•
Y (4)
The PF can be es ima ed by summing he columns o he ma ix E as
ollows:
PFs=∑
,i,j
E s
ij (5)
The supe sc ip on he le co esponds o he expo ing egion and
he supe sc ip on he igh e e s o he impo ing egion. The e o e,
mul ila e al expo s and impo s o in e media e and inal goods a e
included. The subsc ip on he le co esponds o sec o i o egion and
he subsc ip on he igh co esponds o sec o j o egion s. In his case,
sec o j is he EU-27’s T&C indus y.
As in Rom´
an-Collado e al. (2021), eq. (5) can be disagg ega ed as
ollows:
PFs=ENIs+E ONIs+EIs(6)
The Emissions o Na ional Indus y (ENI) a e hose emissions
embodied in he inal goods o he e e ence sec o o a speci ic coun y
(s) ha a e p oduced by he same e e ence sec o , he e o e =s and i
=j:
ENIs
j=E s
ij (7)
The Emissions om O he Na ional Indus ies (E ONI) a e hose
emissions embodied in he inal goods o he e e ence sec o o a spe-
ci ic coun y (s) ha a e p oduced by o he indus ies o he same
coun y, he e o e =s and i ∕= (j)
E ONIs
j=∑
n
i=1
E s
ij (8)
The Emissions Impo ed (EI) a e hose emissions embodied in he
inal goods o he e e ence sec o o a speci ic coun y ha a e p oduced
by o he coun ies, he e o e ∕= (s)
EIs
j=∑
m
=1(∑
n
i=1
E s
ij )(9)
Based on hese componen s, he Domes ic P oduce Foo p in (DPF)
can be de ined as he sum o emissions gene a ed by na ional indus ies:
DPFs=ENIs+E ONIs(10)
2.2. Decoupling analysis
The e m “decoupling” was i s in oduced by he OECD in 2002 o
e e o b eaking he link be ween economic g ow h and ene gy con-
sump ion (Wang e al., 2019). The e a e wo main ypes o decoupling,
ela i e and absolu e, depending on whe he wha e e is being
measu ed a ies ela i e o economic g ow h (UNEP (Uni ed Na ions
En i onmen al P og am), 2011; Wu e al., 2023). Tapio (2005) la e
imp o ed he decoupling heo y wi h he in oduc ion o a decoupling
index, which opened up he concep o a wide a ie y o applica ions
(Wang and Su, 2020). Tapio’s index is gene ally conside ed supe io o
o he app oaches because i exhibi s consis en decoupling ends, is no
cons ained by he du a ion o he pe iod, and allows o a wide ange o
decoupling s a es (Wu e al., 2018).
Tapio’s (2005) decoupling index is used o e alua e whe he an
en i onmen al impac can be decoupled om economic g ow h. This
index is based on he concep o elas ici y, whe e en i onmen al elas-
ici y is de ined as he pe cen age change in an en i onmen al impac
esul ing om a 1 % change in he chosen economic d i ing o ce.
Following p e ious applica ions (Sany´
e-Mengual e al., 2019; Wang and
Su, 2020; Oz u k e al., 2021; Zhang and Han, 2022; Liang e al., 2023;
Baajike e al., 2024), he cu en pape p oposes a no el applica ion o
his decoupling index, whe e he en i onmen al impac unde exami-
na ion is GHG emissions and he economic indica o is he in e media e
inpu s in ol ed in he economic ac i i y o he p oduce s’ supply chain.
These in e media e inpu s a e selec ed as he economic indica o o he
decoupling index due o hei signi ican ole in he ou sou cing p ocess
o he EU-27’s T&C indus y in ecen decades. Calcula ing he sensi-
i i y o emissions o changes in inpu s om supplie pa ne s will
enable he iden i ica ion o he mos e icien supplie s in e ms o GHG
emissions p oduced. This in o ma ion can con ibu e o he deca bon-
iza ion o he EU-27’s T&C indus y alue chain.
The calcula ion o he decoupling index o he pe iod 1995–2022
in ol es se e al s eps. The i s s ep is o calcula e he yea -on-yea
change in he GHG emissions o he EU-27’s T&C indus y (%GHGs
T)
and o he inpu s (%Inpu ss
T), bo h a ibu ed o he supplie pa ne (s).
These a iables a e compu ed using he PF app oach and a e measu ed
in mone a y uni s (cons an 2008 p ices). Second, he geome ic a e age
o hese wo a iables is calcula ed o he en i e pe iod, deno ed as
TGHGs and TInpu ss, espec i ely. Finally, he decoupling index (DIs) is
calcula ed as ollows:
DIs=TGHGs
TInpu ss=
∏
n
T=1
%GHGs
T
n
√
∏
n
T=1
%Inpu ss
T
n
√(11)
Following Ga cía-Alaminos e al. (2020) and Wang e al. (2024), he
decoupling s a es can be classi ied as ollows:
DIsTGHGsTInpu ss
Decoupling
S ong <0<0>0
Weak 0–0.8 >0>0
Recessi e >1.2 <0<0
Nega i e decoupling
S ong <0>0<0
Weak 0–0.8 <0<0
Recessi e >1.2 >0>0
Coupling 0.8–1.2 ∈ℝ∈ℝ
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
3
The decoupling s a es can be desc ibed as ollows. The e a e h ee
desi able s a es o decoupling, inso a as hey ei he con ibu e o
educing he en i onmen al impac o inc easing i a a lowe a e han
he g ow h in he economic indica o . S ong decoupling (DIs<0)im-
plies ha GHG emissions all o e he analysed pe iod, while he inpu s
inc ease. Weak decoupling (0 <DIs<0.8)happens when bo h GHG
emissions and inpu s inc ease, bu he pe cen age change in GHG
emissions is smalle han he co esponding change in inpu s. Recessi e
decoupling (DIs>1.2)happens when GHG emissions and inpu s bo h
all, and he pe cen age change in GHG emissions is g ea e han he
co esponding change in inpu s. The e a e h ee non-desi able s a es o
decoupling, inso a as hey ei he con ibu e o inc easing he en i on-
men al impac o educe i a a lowe a e han he dec ease egis e ed by
he economic indica o . S ong nega i e decoupling (DIs<0)occu s
when GHG emissions inc ease o e he analysed pe iod, whe eas he
inpu s all. Weak nega i e decoupling (0 <DIs<0.8)happens when
bo h GHG emissions and inpu s all, bu he pe cen age change in inpu s
is g ea e han he co esponding change in GHG emissions. Recessi e
nega i e decoupling (DIs>1.2)occu s when bo h GHG emissions and
inpu s inc ease, bu he pe cen age change in GHG emissions is g ea e
han he co esponding change in inpu s. Decoupling index alues be-
ween 0.8 and 1.2 indica e comple e coupling be ween he pe cen age
change in GHG emissions and in inpu s.
2.3. Da abase
This pape elies on he Exiobase 3.9.4 da abase (S adle e al.,
2018), which p o ides a ime se ies o MRIO ables o 49 egions and
163 indus ies, as well as a a ie y o sa elli e da ase s (Tukke and
Die zenbache , 2013). The da a selec ed a e annual and co e he pe iod
om 1995 o 2022.
Exiobase has been chosen because i p o ides de ailed co e age o
84.04 % o he impo s om he supplie pa ne s o he EU-27’s T&C
indus y, i s obus ness is suppo ed by li e a u e (S adle e al., 2018),
and i co e s a long ime pe iod. Rega ding he uni s used, he GHG
emissions a e exp essed in millions o kilog ams and he p oduc ion da a
a e exp essed in millions o eu os.
The T&C indus y analysed comp ises manu ac u e o ex iles (47),
manu ac u e o wea ing appa el, d essing and dyeing o u (48) and
anning and d essing o lea he , manu ac u e o luggage, handbags,
saddle y, ha ness and oo wea (49). Acco ding o he Eu opean Clas-
si ica ion o Economic Ac i i ies (NACE-2) (Eu os a , 2008) and Exio-
base da a conco dances (EXIOBASE, 2023), his esea ch co e s he
whole T&C indus y, which ensu es he quali y o he analysis and e-
sul s. The analysis ocuses on he cu en EU-27, ega dless o he
coun ies ha joined o le he EU du ing he s udied pe iod.
The MRIO ables om Exiobase ha e been de la ed o 2008 cons an
p ices o emo e he e ec o p ice changes. Following he example o
Dua e and Se ano (2021), Yuan e al. (2022a) and Yuan e al. (2022b),
and due o he da a limi a ions o Exiobase, he de la ion p ocess com-
bines sec o ial Wo ld Inpu -Ou pu Da abase (WIOD) de la o s o
deseg ega ed ca ego ies om 1995 o 2014 (Timme e al., 2015) and
coun y GDP de la o s om he Wo ld Bank and OECD Na ional Ac-
coun s om 2015 o 2022 (Wo ld Bank, 2024) (Appendix A).
The calcula ion o he GHG emissions da a has been done in wo
s eps. Fi s , sa elli e da ase s o Exiobase ha e been added o CO
2
, CH
4
and N
2
O componen s. Second, he ollowing calcula ion has been
applied (IPCC (In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change), 2014):
GHG =1•CO2+28 •CH4+265 •N2O.
3. Resul s and discussion
Calcula ing he PF allows he acking o he GHG emissions di ec ly
and indi ec ly gene a ed along he p oduc ion chain o inal goods, and
hei alloca ion o he inal p oduce ’s coun y o esidence. The p esen
analysis is ocused on he p oduc ion chain o he EU-27’s inal T&C
p oduce s du ing he pe iod om 1995 o 2022.
Du ing his pe iod, he PF o he EU-27’s T&C indus y dec eased by
app oxima ely 50 %, as shown in Fig. 1. A close examina ion e eals
h ee dis inc subpe iods. In he i s subpe iod, om 1995 o 2008, GHG
emissions dec eased by 42 %, al hough he e was an inc ease ollowing
he emo al o wo ld ade quo as on T&C p oduc s in 2002 (Islam e al.,
2016; Valodka e al., 2020; Hong e al., 2024). In he second subpe iod,
om 2008 o 2020, GHG emissions dec eased by 53 %, wi h he sig-
ni ican educ ion in he ea ly yea s igge ed by he 2008 inancial c isis
(Cu an and Zignago, 2010). Finally, in he hi d subpe iod, om 2020
o 2022, GHG emissions inc eased by 83 %, despi e a dec ease a ound
he ime o he COVID-19 c isis (Blanche on, 2021; Zhao and Kim, 2021;
Leal Filho e al., 2022).
A e his o e iew, he esul s and discussion a e di ided in o h ee
subsec ions. The i s and second subsec ions p esen a de ailed analysis
o he DPF and he EI, espec i ely. The hi d subsec ion p esen s he
esul s o he EU-27’s T&C supply chain decoupling analysis.
3.1. Domes ic p oduce oo p in o he EU-27’s T&C indus y
The DPF o he EU-27’s T&C indus y shows a educ ion o app ox-
ima ely 61 % in GHG emissions du ing he pe iod analysed. I he e o e
accoun s o a smalle p opo ion o he PF, d opping om 68 % in 1995
o 53 % in 2022, in cons an e ms.
The DPF can be di ided in o ENI (emissions om he EU-27’s T&C
indus y) and E ONI (emissions om o he indus ies in he EU-27), as
shown in eqs. (7, 9, 10). Bo h componen s o he DPF ha e become
cleane in e ms o GHG emissions; howe e , he in e media e inpu s
used by he EU-27’s T&C indus y ha e been mo e pollu ing in e ms o
GHG emissions han he indus y’s own ac i i y. S a ing wi h ENI, as
shown in Fig. 2, hese emissions ha e been educed by 68 % du ing he
pe iod analysed, and he e o e ca y less weigh in explaining he DPF,
d opping om a sha e o 9 % in 1995 o 6 % in 2022, in cons an e ms.
The educ ion o GHG emissions in he EU-27’s T&C indus y is ela ed
o imp o emen s in e iciency (EC (Eu opean Commission), 2015; EC
(Eu opean Commission), 2017a, 2017b; EC (Eu opean Commission),
2019; EC (Eu opean Commission), 2020), he op imiza ion o ene gy
consump ion (EC (Eu opean Commission), 2003; EPC (Eu opean
Pa liamen and Council), 2008; Di ec i e 2010/75/EU o he Eu opean
Pa liamen and o he Council, 2010; Di ec i e 2012/27/EU o he Eu-
opean Pa liamen and o he Council, 2012), and he ou sou cing
s a egies ha ha e shi ed emissions ab oad (Taplin, 2006; Gi nea a
and Dob in, 2015; Valodka e al., 2020). The EU-27 has he leas
emission-in ensi e T&C indus y o all he egions s udied and, du ing
he analysed pe iod, has managed o educe he gene a ion o ENI pe
uni o p oduc ion by 66 %, in cons an e ms (Table 1).
Tu ning o E ONI, hese emissions ha e been educed by 60 % du ing
he analysed pe iod. Among he main sou ces o hese emissions, as
shown in Fig. 2, he ossil uel powe gene a ion s ands ou , ep esen ing
33 % o E ONI in 2022. Howe e , his indus y dec eased i s gene a ion
o GHG emissions by 58 % du ing he pe iod analysed, in cons an e ms.
The educ ion o emissions by domes ic ene gy supplies is e lec ed in
imp o emen s in he ca bon in ensi y o he Eu opean phases o he
chain (Sca la e al., 2022), and has ac ed as an inhibi o o emissions
gene a ed in he supply chain o he EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s. In
ac , du ing he pe iod s udied, he use o enewable ene gies inc eased
while he sha e o ossil uels in he ene gy mix o he EU-27’s T&C
indus y dec eased (Tu ak and B odny, 2022; Rom´
an-Collado e al.,
2023). Fu he mo e, all he o he indus ies educed hei GHG emis-
sions du ing he analysed pe iod, highligh ing he signi ican imp o e-
men s in he Eu opean phases o he EU-27’s T&C alue chain.
The emissions educ ion o 88 % in he EU-27’s chemical indus y
seems o be due o in es men s in ene gy e iciency and he imple-
men a ion o N
2
O aba emen echnologies (Baue e al., 2023). Analyses
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
4
Fig. 1. E olu ion o he p oduce oo p in , domes ic p oduce oo p in , and emissions impo ed by he EU-27’s T&C indus y du ing he pe iod 1995–2022.
Fig. 2. Domes ic p oduce oo p in o he EU-27’s T&C indus y, de ailed by indus y, du ing he pe iod 1995–2022.
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
5
o GHG emissions indica e ha he N₂O componen has he g ea es
impac (IPCC (In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change), 2014),
wi h he obse ed imp o emen in emissions demons a ing he e i-
ciency o N
2
O aba emen app oaches. Addi ionally, he EU-27’s ag i-
cul u al sec o e ec i ely educed i s emissions du ing he pe iod
analysed (Mohammed e al., 2020; Ha s´
anyi e al., 2021; Peng e al.,
2024), mainly h ough he in oduc ion o be e p oduc ion echniques
and he imp o emen o ene gy use (Wicki and Wicka, 2022).
3.2. Emissions impo ed by he EU-27’s T&C indus y
As shown in Fig. 1, he EI o he EU-27’s T&C indus y ha e been
educed by 27 % du ing he pe iod analysed. They accoun o a la ge
sha e o he PF, mo ing om 32 % in 1995 o 47 % in 2022, in cons an
e ms. Du ing his pe iod, many Eu opean manu ac u ing ac i i ies we e
o sho ed and ou sou ced o de eloping coun ies (Schw¨
o e , 2013;
Mohiuddin e al., 2019). The EU-27’s T&C indus y ollowed his end,
wi h he p oduc ion o GHG emissions also shi ing o ou side he EU
(Wong and Au, 2007; Valodka e al., 2020), in an e o o educe p o-
duc ion cos s (Adle , 2004; Ma ínez-Mo a and Me ino, 2021) and ac-
cess laxe en i onmen al policies (Assogba i and D´
ees, 2023; Eskande
and Fankhause , 2023). Apa om he en i onmen al impac , he o -
sho ing and ou sou cing o T&C p oduc ion in de eloping coun ies
ha e led o poo wo king condi ions (Ba ien os e al., 2016), nega i e
impac s on human heal h (Al-Tohamy e al., 2022), and wo kplace ac-
ciden s (Malik e al., 2021).
As shown in Fig. 3, he EI can be b oken down by supplie pa ne o
he EU-27’s T&C indus y. In his con ex , he Uni ed S a es, RoW A ica,
and RoW Asia and Paci ic we e he mos pollu ing supplie pa ne s in
e ms o GHG emissions in 1995. By 2022, China, RoW Asia and Paci ic,
and Tu key had become he mos pollu ing supplie s. Du ing he ana-
lysed pe iod, China, India, and Indonesia expe ienced he mos signi i-
can g ow h in GHG emissions, inc easing by 504 %, 1103 %, and 396 %,
espec i ely.
The esul s ob ained a e in line wi h p e ious scien i ic li e a u e:
Mai e al. (2016) indica e ha China, India and Indonesia a e espon-
sible o a g owing sha e o he emissions o Wes e n Eu ope’s T&C
indus y; Valodka e al. (2020) epo ha China, India and Tu key a e
he main supplie pa ne s o EU’s T&C indus y and ha e been gene -
a ing inc easing emissions; and Bonilla e al. (2015) poin ou ha China
and Tu key a e impo an egions o he o sho ing o ce ain phases o
he EU-27’s T&C supply chain.
The EI can be de ailed by indus y, as shown in Fig. 4. The supply
chain o he EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s is pa icula ly dependen on
he p ima y indus ies o China, India and Indonesia (Mai e al., 2016),
and he ene gy sec o s o Russia and China (Table B1, Appendix B).
Al hough he e iciency o he supplie pa ne s’ ene gy sec o s
imp o ed du ing he pe iod analysed, hey p oduced mo e GHG emis-
sions pe uni o p oduc ion han he EU-27 did in 2022, and a e
he e o e a sou ce o ine iciency. In ac , he ene gy gene a ion o
de eloping coun ies is mo e GHG-in ensi e as he ene gy mix depends
mo e on ossil uel esou ces (Oz u k, 2005; Azad and Chak abo y,
2023; Liang e al., 2023) and ene gy use is mo e ine icien (Haseeb
e al., 2020).
The T&C indus ies o China, India, and Indonesia we e he mos
pollu ing in 1995, accoun ing o 85 % o GHG emissions in he EU-27’s
T&C alue chain. By 2022, Tu key and Indonesia had become he mos
pollu ing, ep esen ing 78 % o emissions. The T&C indus ies o Tu key
and Indonesia inc eased hei sha es o GHG emissions in he EU-27’s
T&C alue chain by 4140 % and 30 %, espec i ely. Meanwhile, he es
o he supplie pa ne s demons a ed imp o emen s o e he analysed
pe iod, as shown in Table 1, al hough hey emain signi ican ly mo e
pollu ing han he EU-27’s T&C indus y. These esul s a e in line wi h
p e ious s udies o China, India, Tu key and Indonesia (Mai e al.,
2016; Valodka e al., 2020).
The de elopmen o ou sou cing s a egies is closely linked o an
inc ease in anspo ac i i ies (McCa hy and Anagnos ou, 2004; Wei
e al., 2024), and he e o e in GHG emissions. Despi e signi ican
changes in he anspo op ions be ween Eu opean coun ies and Asia
(Alpkokin e al., 2016), sea anspo emained he main op ion du ing
he pe iod analysed due o i s low cos (Jiang e al., 2020). In ac ,
China’s GHG emissions om shipping g ew om 2.60 million ons CO2
equi alen in 1980 o 39.95 million ons in 2015, and a e expec ed o
con inue inc easing (To and Lee, 2018). Eme ging al e na i es o
anspo be ween hese egions can help educe GHG emissions, such as
he China-Eu ope F eigh T ain (CEFT) (Chen, 2023) o he New In e -
na ional Land-Sea T ade Co ido (ILSTC) (Huang e al., 2023).
The inc ease in he EI o he EU-27’s T&C indus y, coming especially
om de eloping coun ies, seems o be co ela ed wi h he EU’s
con inuing openness o impo s and eimpo s o T&C p oduc s a e
p epa a ion o ans o ma ion in hi d coun ies du ing he analysed
pe iod (EC (Eu opean Commission), 1995a, 1995b; EC (Eu opean
Commission), 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1996d). In acco dance wi h he
EU’s objec i es o GHG emissions, companies and go e nmen s should
seek o ensu e he sus ainabili y o T&C p oduc ion by in es ing in low
ca bon ene gy in as uc u es (Mai e al., 2016) and should e hink
hei s a egy o educe he EI, since hey a e he la ges sou ce o
pollu ing emissions.
Finally, i is impo an o poin ou ha he dependence on ex e nal
supplie s (Hobson, 2016) and he managemen o he supply chains is
among he main challenges o he de elopmen o a ci cula economy in
he T&C indus y (H ouga and Michel, 2023). The EU should he e o e
ake his in o accoun when de eloping policies and implemen ing
ela ed measu es.
3.3. Decoupling analysis o he supply chain o he EU-27’s inal T&C
p oduce s
The decoupling index (see eq. 11) illus a es he sensi i i y o GHG
emissions o changes in in e media e inpu s om supplie pa ne s
du ing he pe iod om 1995 o 2022. This index can be used o iden i y
he mos e icien supplie pa ne in e ms o GHG emissions p oduced,
he eby con ibu ing o he deca boniza ion o he EU-27’s T&C indus y
Fig. 3. Emissions impo ed by he EU-27’s T&C indus y, de ailed by he op
en supplie pa ne s o he yea s 1995 and 2022.
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
6
alue chain. As shown in Fig. 5, he EU-27’s T&C supply chain exhibi s
a ying esul s o he decoupling index. The g aph shows only he
supplie pa ne s ha accoun o mo e han 7 % o EI in 2022.
The EU-27 success ully decoupled GHG emissions om in e media e
inpu s, showing esul s close o s ong decoupling h oughou he
pe iod. Speci ically, he in e media e inpu s equi ed in he EU-27’s
T&C supply chain dec eased by 9 %, while GHG emissions dec eased by
59 %. As a esul , he Eu opean segmen s o he supply chain expe i-
enced a educ ion in emissions du ing he analysed pe iod. This dec ease
in emissions appea s o be linked o ad ancemen s in ene gy e iciency
(T o a, 2019; Nepal e al., 2021), elec ici y gene a ion (Rod igues
e al., 2020), and p oduc ion echniques (B unel, 2014).
Rega ding he supplie pa ne s, a wide a ie y o decoupling s a es
a e ound. The supplie coun ies ha pe o med bes in e ms o
decoupling GHG emissions om in e media e inpu s du ing he ana-
lysed pe iod we e Swi ze land, Sou h Ko ea, RoW Eu ope, Aus alia, he
Uni ed Kingdom, Canada, and he Uni ed S a es. Al hough hese supplie
pa ne s a e less signi ican in e ms o emissions, only accoun ing o
13 % o he EI in 2022, hey ep esen 33 % o he in e media e inpu s
equi ed in he EU-27’s T&C supply chain. These supplie pa ne s a e
loca ed in he h ee desi able s a es o he decoupling index (s ong
decoupling, weak decoupling, and ecessi e decoupling). As such, hey
ei he con ibu e o he deca boniza ion o he EU-27’s T&C indus y
alue chain by educing he PF o he EU-27’s T&C indus y, o hey
inc ease i a a lowe a e han he g ow h in in e media e inpu s.
Consequen ly, i is wo h emphasizing he po en ial en i onmen al
bene i s o enhancing ade ela ions wi h hese supplie pa ne s, due o
hei e iciency in e ms o GHG emissions.
On he o he hand, he supplie pa ne s loca ed in he non-desi able
s a es (s ong nega i e decoupling, ecessi e nega i e decoupling, and
weak nega i e decoupling) ei he con ibu e o inc easing he PF o he
EU-27’s T&C indus y o educe i a a lowe a e han he g ow h in
in e media e inpu s. No ably, Russia, Tu key, and RoW Middle Eas
ha e achie ed s ong nega i e decoupling. The inc ease in GHG emis-
sions, which is pa icula ly wo ying o supplie pa ne s ha educed
hei p oduc ion o inpu s, indica es ha he EI o he EU-27’s T&C
supply chain has become mo e pollu ing, especially in de eloping
coun ies (Mai e al., 2016; Valodka e al., 2020).
The manu ac u ing phases a e inc easingly loca ed ou side he EU
(Gi nea a and Dob in, 2015; Valodka e al., 2020), bu no all supplie
pa ne s inc eased hei weigh in he supply chain o he EU-27’s inal
T&C p oduce s. In gene al, he supplie pa ne s egis e ed a 36 %
educ ion in he p o ision o in e media e inpu s o he EU-27’s T&C
supply chain, whe eas hei associa ed GHG emissions d opped by 28 %
du ing he pe iod analysed. China and India a e wo h highligh ing as
hey p esen weak decoupling, despi e hei sha es in he p oduc ion o
in e media e inpu s inc easing by 3865 % and 1446 %, espec i ely,
du ing he analysed pe iod. The e a e di e en easons behind he
decoupling achie ed in hese coun ies. In he case o China, indus ial
emissions con ols we e implemen ed du ing he analysed pe iod, as
Fig. 4. Emissions impo ed by he EU-27’s T&C indus y, de ailed by indus y, du ing he pe iod 1995–2022.
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
7
well as ene gy s uc u e e o m and he deploymen o enewable ene gy
(Feng and Fang, 2022). In he case o Taiwan, he olun a y GHG
emissions educ ion ag eemen was implemen ed (Chen and Hu, 2012),
along wi h he go e nmen ’s egula o y measu es o imp o e ene gy
e iciency and enewable ene gy sou ces, which seems o ha e had a
e y posi i e e ec (Tsai, 2021).
Table 1
Emission coe icien o he EU-27’s T&C alue chain by egion o he pe iod 1995–2022, exp essed in mega ons o CO₂ equi alen .
Region EU-27 Uni ed Kingdom China India Tu key Indonesia RoW
1995 4.85E-05 0.000102 0.000926 0.000332 1.41E-05 0.000104 6.67E-05
1996 4.93E-05 9.49E-05 0.000404 0.000451 1.38E-05 0.00012 0.000107
1997 4.76E-05 6.96E-05 0.000337 0.000302 1.62E-05 0.000174 8.16E-05
1998 4.51E-05 9.11E-05 0.000332 0.000392 1.78E-05 0.000309 9.4E-05
1999 4.32E-05 8.53E-05 0.000322 0.000292 3.52E-05 0.000227 8.97E-05
2000 4.49E-05 6.82E-05 0.000214 0.000229 4.85E-05 0.000182 6.94E-05
2001 4.25E-05 8.97E-05 0.000199 0.00019 4.44E-05 0.000316 8.29E-05
2002 4.4E-05 7.95E-05 0.000215 0.000162 9.43E-05 0.000214 7.36E-05
2003 4.91E-05 9.15E-05 0.000218 0.000145 8.5E-05 0.000182 8.69E-05
2004 4.48E-05 0.000104 0.000271 0.000158 0.000116 0.00031 8.29E-05
2005 3.5E-05 8.46E-05 0.000238 0.000152 3.8E-05 0.000357 7.33E-05
2006 3.38E-05 0.000104 0.000157 0.000125 3.54E-05 0.000226 6.51E-05
2007 2.89E-05 8.42E-05 0.00019 0.000107 2.25E-05 0.000219 6.9E-05
2008 2.78E-05 9.3E-05 0.000189 0.000137 1.1E-05 0.000209 6.12E-05
2009 2.63E-05 7.28E-05 0.000151 0.000105 4.98E-05 0.000242 6.22E-05
2010 2.5E-05 0.000155 0.000139 8.67E-05 2.31E-05 0.000123 7.72E-05
2011 2.33E-05 9.69E-05 0.000127 0.000144 5.84E-05 0.000148 7.5E-05
2012 2.16E-05 9.25E-05 8.87E-05 0.000158 6.05E-05 0.000189 7.46E-05
2013 2.22E-05 0.000118 8.48E-05 9.74E-05 6.28E-05 0.000188 9.16E-05
2014 2E-05 0.000135 6.77E-05 0.00015 7.11E-05 0.000192 9.2E-05
2015 1.99E-05 5.79E-05 5.89E-05 8.51E-05 0.000106 0.00021 9.72E-05
2016 2.15E-05 5.03E-05 5.22E-05 9.78E-05 0.000116 0.000158 0.000104
2017 2.16E-05 4.46E-05 4.85E-05 0.000107 0.000133 0.000141 0.000104
2018 2.12E-05 4.75E-05 3.9E-05 9.21E-05 0.000162 0.000168 0.000124
2019 2.29E-05 4.54E-05 3.25E-05 7.93E-05 0.000197 0.000131 0.00011
2020 2.45E-05 4.98E-05 3.11E-05 8.25E-05 0.000242 0.000108 0.000109
2021 1.68E-05 2.65E-05 2.39E-05 6.41E-05 0.000292 0.000108 6.99E-05
2022 1.65E-05 2.62E-05 2.4E-05 6.79E-05 0.000598 0.000134 7.24E-05
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Fig. 5. Decoupling indices o he supply chain o he EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s by supplie pa ne du ing he pe iod 1995–2022.
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
8
4. Conclusions
The EU is commi ed o enhancing sus ainabili y and add essing he
en i onmen al impac s o he T&C indus y, as e lec ed in he Eu opean
G een Deal, he Ci cula Economy Ac ion Plan, and he Eu opean In-
dus ial S a egy. One key a ea o imp o emen is ai pollu ion and GHG
emissions, wi h he EU a ge ing le els ha a e no ha m ul o heal h
and na u al ecosys ems. In he same ein, he EU aims o make p o-
duc ion mo e sus ainable and en i onmen ally iendly, in pa by
imp o ing he en i onmen al impac o T&C supply chains and
ex ending he li e cycle o T&C p oduc s, ega dless o whe e p oduc ion
occu s. To achie e he EU’s objec i es in his indus y, a de ailed un-
de s anding is needed o GHG emissions gene a ion and whe e he
ho spo s occu along he supply chains o he EU-27’s inal T&C
p oduce s.
Du ing he pe iod analysed, he PF o he EU-27’s T&C indus y
dec eased by app oxima ely 50 %, a d op which can be explained by he
61 % educ ion in he DPF and he 27 % educ ion in he EI. Bo h
componen s o he DPF became cleane in e ms o GHG emissions;
howe e , he gene a ion o aw ma e ials and inpu s used by he EU-27’s
T&C indus y we e mo e pollu ing han he indus y’s own ac i i y.
Al hough ossil uel powe gene a ion imp o ed o e he pe iod, i
emained he main sou ce o GHG emissions, ep esen ing 33 % o he
DPF in 2022. To con inue educing emissions, i is essen ial o de elop
echnology ha can imp o e he emission in ensi y, educe he sha e o
non- enewable ene gy and inc ease he sha e o enewable ene gy in he
ene gy mix.
Rega ding he EI, he sha e o hese emissions in he PF o he EU-
27’s T&C indus y inc eased by 15 %, indica ing ha he EU should
implemen impo con ol measu es o ensu e he sus ainable p oduc-
ion o he EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s. Thei supply chain is pa icu-
la ly dependen on he p ima y indus ies and ene gy sec o s o supplie
pa ne s. Al hough he e iciency o supplie pa ne s imp o ed du ing
he analysed pe iod, some o hei indus ies a e mo e in ensi e in GHG
emissions pe uni o p oduc ion han hose o he EU-27, and a e
he e o e a sou ce o ine iciency.
Ano he issue ha should be add essed is he inc ease in GHG
emissions om anspo ac i i ies as a esul o he de elopmen o
ou sou cing s a egies. In his ega d, he EU should explo e o he less
pollu ing anspo op ions o echnologies o make exis ing op ions
mo e e icien in emissions. In addi ion, i T&C p oduc ion we e o ake
place in egions close o he EU, o e en wi h ze o-kilome e supplie
pa ne s, he GHG emissions om anspo could be u he educed.
By applying a sys em o sanc ions and incen i es, he EU can
encou age companies o make in es men s o educe pollu ion in hi d
coun ies and o engage wi h like-minded pa ne s in moni o ing he
sus ainabili y and en i onmen al impac o he T&C p oduc s impo ed
in o he egion. Fo example, he ene gy sec o s o supplie pa ne s a e
a sou ce o ine iciency ha should be add essed by encou aging ene gy
e iciency enhancemen s, and by imp o ing enewable ene gy, since
hei ene gy mix ends o be mo e dependen on ossil uel esou ces.
Fu he mo e, i has been obse ed ha he supplie pa ne s’ T&C in-
dus ies a e much mo e pollu ing in e ms o GHG emissions han he
EU-27’s T&C indus y; his should be conside ed a good eason o
eloca ing he indus y o Eu ope.
The EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s ha e made signi ican s ides in
decoupling GHG emissions om in e media e inpu s, achie ing a nea -
s ong decoupling o e he pe iod om 1995 o 2022. Du ing his
ime, he e was a 9 % dec ease in he in e media e inpu s equi ed in he
supply chain o he EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s, while GHG emissions
saw a subs an ial educ ion o 59 %. This no able dec ease in emissions
is a ibu ed o ad ancemen s in ene gy e iciency, elec ici y
gene a ion, and p oduc ion echniques.
A di e se ange o decoupling s a es was obse ed among supplie
pa ne s. Coun ies such as Swi ze land, Sou h Ko ea, RoW Eu ope,
Aus alia, he Uni ed Kingdom, Canada, and he Uni ed S a es demon-
s a ed he mos signi ican decoupling o GHG emissions om in e -
media e inpu s. Al hough hese coun ies accoun ed o only 13 % o he
EI in 2022, hey ep esen ed 33 % o he in e media e inpu s equi ed by
he EU-27’s inal T&C p oduce s. No ably Russia, Tu key, and RoW
Middle Eas achie ed s ong nega i e decoupling, wi h an inc ease in
GHG emissions despi e a educ ion in in e media e inpu p oduc ion,
which sugges s ha he EU-27’s T&C supply chain has become mo e
pollu ing, pa icula ly in de eloping coun ies. This inding highligh s
he po en ial en i onmen al bene i s o enhancing ade ela ions wi h
ene gy-e icien supplie pa ne s.
The decoupling analysis e ealed ha he EU-27 managed o
decouple GHG emissions om in e media e inpu s, wi h i s T&C in-
dus y close o achie ing s ong decoupling du ing he pe iod analysed.
I s pe o mance seems o be ela ed o imp o emen s in ene gy e i-
ciency, elec ici y gene a ion and p oduc ion echniques. Supplie
pa ne s show a wide a ie y o decoupling s a es, bu he inc ease in
GHG emissions is pa icula ly wo ying in he case o coun ies ha
educed he p oduc ion o inpu s du ing he pe iod analysed, such as
No way o RoW A ica. China, India and Taiwan a e no ewo hy as hey
p esen weak decoupling, despi e hei ma ked inc ease in he sha e o
in e media e inpu s p oduced o he EU-27’s T&C supply chain du ing
he pe iod.
O e all, his esea ch con ibu es o a mo e comple e unde s anding
o GHG emissions gene a ion in he supply chain o he EU-27’s inal
T&C p oduce s. In pa icula , i sheds ligh on he impac o each sec o
on emissions, and how hese emissions ha e e ol ed o e ime. The
esul s ob ained can in o m be e s a egies and policies o educe GHG
emissions om he EU-27’s T&C indus y.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Luis Yamuza-Blanco: W i ing – o iginal d a , In es iga ion, Fo mal
analysis. Fabio Monsal e: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Supe ision,
So wa e, Me hodology, Da a cu a ion. Rocío Rom´
an-Collado: W i ing
– e iew & edi ing, Me hodology, Concep ualiza ion. Ma ía Te esa
Sanz-Díaz: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Me hodology,
Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen s
L. Yamuza-Blanco, R. Rom´
an-Collado and M.T. Sanz-Díaz wish o
acknowledge he unding p o ided by he ollowing ins i u ions: 1) he
“C´
a ed a de Economía de la Ene gía y del Medio Ambien e” sponso ed
by Red El´
ec ica de Espa˜
na a he Uni e si y o Se ille,” 2) he Depa -
amen o de An´
alisis Econ´
omico y Economía Polí ica de la Uni e sidad de
Se illa (Depa men o Economic Analysis and Poli ical Economy, a he
Uni e si y o Se ille). F. Monsal e is suppo ed by Uni e sidad de
Cas illa-La Mancha (2022-GRIN-34177, Global Ene gy and En i on-
men al Economics Analysis Resea ch g oup, GEAR), co- unded by he
EU h ough FEDER Cas illa-La Mancha 2021-2027 (19/10/2022,
653514).
L. Yamuza-Blanco e al.
Ecological Economics 237 (2025) 108697
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