Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
A ailable online 31 Ma ch 2025
2352-4928/© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
Lyocell/sil e kni ed ab ics o p ospec i e diabe ic oo ulce s ea men :
E ec o kni ing s uc u e on bac e ia and cell iabili y
Tˆ
ania D. Ta a es
a
, A u Ribei o
b,c
, Ca los Bengoechea
d
, Diana Rocha
b
, Ana Alcudia
e
,
Bel´
en Begines
e
, Ca la Sil a
b
, Joana C. An unes
, Helena P. Felguei as
a,*
a
Cen e o Tex ile Science and Technology (2C2T), Uni e si y o Minho, Campus de Azu ´
em, Guima ˜
aes 4800-058, Po ugal
b
Cen e o Biological Enginee ing (CEB), Uni e si y o Minho, Campus de Gual a , B aga 4710-057, Po ugal
c
LABELLS, Associa e Labo a o y, B aga, Guima ˜
aes, Po ugal
d
Depa amen o de Ingenie ía Química, Escuela Poli ´
ecnica Supe io , Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se ille 41011, Spain
e
Depa amen o de Química O g´
anica y Fa mac´
eu ica, Facul ad de Fa macia, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se ille 41012, Spain
Fib enamics Associa ion, Ins i u e o Inno a ion on Fibe -based Ma e ials and Composi es, Uni e si y o Minho, Guima ˜
aes 4800-058, Po ugal
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Kni ed ab ics
Lyocell
Sil e -pla ed polyamide
Wound d essings
Diabe ic oo ulce s
ABSTRACT
Diabe ic oo ulce s (DFUs) a e a se ious complica ion o diabe es, o en esul ing in in ec ions and u he heal h
de e io a ion. Thus, he de elopmen o an app oach combining di e en he apies in jus one o mula ion o
ea DFUs emains e y challenging. Sil e -pla ed polyamide ibe s o e an imic obial p ope ies, while lyocell
p o ides biodeg adabili y, biocompa ibili y and mois u e managemen abili ies. In his sense, he p esen s udy
explo es he po en ial o lyocell/sil e -pla ed polyamide ab ics as pa o ad anced wound d essings designed o
imp o e DFU ea men . The mos common kni ing s uc u es, namely single je sey, “ alse” ib 1 ×1, single
pique, and “ alse” in e lock, we e selec ed o combining he ya ns and success ully p ocessed using seamless
echnology. The kni ed ab ics we e hen subjec ed o a comp ehensi e analysis o hei physical, chemical, and
he momechanical p ope ies, demons a ing ha he samples me he c i e ia o e ec i e wound d essing
de elopmen . Thei an imic obial e icacy was e alua ed agains DFU-associa ed G am-nega i e pa hogens,
Esche ichia coli and Pseudomonas ae uginosa, showing s ong an imic obial ac i i y o up o 24 h, wi h o al
inhibi ion in some cases (je sey, pique and in e lock s uc u es o E. coli and in e lock s uc u e o
P. ae uginosa). An ioxidan es ing e ealed DPPH educ ion o 61.7 ±14.4 %. Biocompa ibili y was assessed
using ke a inocy es HaCaT cell lines, showing ha kni ed ab ics wi h up o 1.46 % sil e con en did no ha m
mammalian cells. In gene al, in e lock s uc u e e ealed he mos p omising ea u es, including mechanical
pe o mance, and ai and wa e apo pe meabili y, o p omo ing op imal wound healing condi ions.
1. In oduc ion
The ield o medical ex iles has been di e si ying wi h new ma e ials
and inno a i e designs. Ad ances in ibe echnology and
manu ac u ing p ocesses allowed he in oduc ion o cos -e ec i e,
en i onmen ally iendly and inno a i e p oduc s in he ma ke [1,2].
Kni ing, known o i s e sa ile o ming echnology, is cha ac e ized by
inc eased p oduc ion e iciency, lexible s uc u es and di e se pa e ns
[3], being able o mee di e en applica ion equi emen s [1]. The
adop ion o seamless kni ing echnology has seen a ema kable g ow h,
enabling he e icien and lexible p oduc ion o kni ed ab ics wi h
desi able p ope ies such as com o able comp ession, ai pe meabili y,
du abili y and easy ca e [4].
The use o polyme s ob ained om na u al sou ces in a eas such as
biomedicine has had a huge impac in ecen decades [5]. Lyocell is a
ela i ely new ibe made om na u al cellulose ia a sus ainable and
en i onmen ally iendly p ocess. I is he only egene a ed cellulosic
ibe in which 99.8 % o i s sol en , N-me hylmo pholine N-oxide, is
ecycled [6]. This ibe has excep ional physical p ope ies, such as high
ensile s eng h and enaci y in we s a e, good he mal esis ance and
shape s abili y, as well as high c ys allini y and abso bency. Com o and
so ness a e also ypical ai s o his ibe . In addi ion o hei non- oxic,
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (T.D. Ta a es), [email p o ec ed] (A. Ribei o), [email p o ec ed] (C. Bengoechea), id9610@alunos.
uminho.p (D. Rocha), [email p o ec ed] (A. Alcudia), [email p o ec ed] (B. Begines), [email p o ec ed] (C. Sil a), [email p o ec ed]
(J.C. An unes), [email p o ec ed] (H.P. Felguei as).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Ma e ials Today Communica ions
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/m comm
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.m comm.2025.112389
Recei ed 11 Decembe 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 4 Ma ch 2025; Accep ed 30 Ma ch 2025
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
2
non-pollu ing, and biodeg adable na u e, lyocell p esen s g ea adap -
abili y and p ocessabili y wi h o he ibe s [7]. Polyamide is a syn he ic
polyme wi h excellen mechanical ea u es, namely high enaci y and
ensile s eng h. Also, i s su ace s uc u e possesses small ca i ies ha
can be used as chela ion poin s o subsequen me al pla ing, making i a
g ea subs a e o me alliza ion [8]. Sil e is enowned o i s nume ous
bene i s, including i s high an imic obial, an i-odo , elec ical conduc-
i i y and he mo- e lec i e p ope ies [9]. Fu he mo e, i is one o he
mos sui able me als o inco po a e in o ex ile ya ns, as hey e ain all
hei o iginal p ope ies a e unde going me alliza ion. Cu en ly,
sil e -pla ed polyamide ibe s a e being used in a wide ange o unc-
ional ex iles, pa icula ly in he an imic obial, an is a ic, he mal
conduc i e and elec omagne ic ields [10]. In he medical sec o , hese
ya ns kni ed in o ab ics se e he pu pose o ea ing bu n ic ims and
pa ien s wi h open wounds [11]. Also, hese ibe s can be blended and
p ocessed wi h a ious na u al o syn he ic ma e ials, inc easing hei
unc ional ange [8].
Wo ldwide, 10.5 % o he popula ion su e s om diabe es, a disease
esponsible o imposing signi ican dis up ions in he heal h ca e sys-
ems’ esou ces, wi h annual cos s o app oxima ely 918.8 billion eu os
[12]. One o he mos common p oblems a ising om his illness is he
de elopmen o DFUs, which a ec 15–25 % o he diabe ic popula ion
du ing hei li e ime. DFUs signi ican ly inc ease he isk o lowe ex-
emi y ampu a ion and/o pa ien mo ali y [13]. Cu en ea men
s a egies o DFUs a y depending on he lesion se e i y and may
include deb idemen o non- iable issue, in ec ion con ol, e ascula -
iza ion, wound p o ec ion, and ulce o -loading [14,15]. Howe e , mos
o hese in e en ions ocus on add essing indi idualized ba ie s o
wound healing wi hou conside ing o he po en ial e en s o ac o s ha
may also in e e e wi h he healing p ocess. Consequen ly, de eloping
an in eg a ed he apeu ic app oach in a single o mula ion emains a
conside able challenge in he ield. He e, he objec i e is o elucida e
abou he mos sui able s uc u al con igu a ion ha can signi ican ly
enhance he e iciency o kni ed p oduc s, p oduced ia seamless
echnology, in he con ex o ch onic wound ca e. The e o e, o o e -
come he p e iously men ioned limi a ions o DFU ea men s, he
ab ica ion o a no el wound d essing om lyocell/sil e -pla ed poly-
amide based ya ns is p oposed o gene a e a clean and mois en i on-
men a ound he inju ed si e, abso b exuda es and oxic componen s
om he wound bed, allow gas exchange be ween he wound and
en i onmen , and p o ec he wound om he pene a ion o mic oo -
ganisms and o eign pa icles. Physical, chemical, and he momechan-
ical analyses we e conduc ed o con i m hese cha ac e is ics.
Addi ionally, he kni ed ab ics we e subjec ed o an ibac e ial es s
agains G am-nega i e bac e ia, namely Esche ichia coli and Pseudo-
monas ae uginosa, which a e amongs he mos p e alen bac e ia colo-
nizing DFUs and pose signi ican challenges o wound healing [16].
An ioxidan and cy ocompa ibili y e alua ions, o es ablish he sa e y o
he d essing sys ems agains mammalian cells, we e also conduc ed. To
he au ho s’ knowledge, his is he i s epo on he p oduc ion o a
kni ed ab ic combining lyocell wi h polyamide-sil e pla ed, while also
in es iga ing he in luence o s uc u al a ia ions on i s po en ial o
wound ca e applica ions.
2. MA e ial AND METHODS
2.1. Ma e ials
Lyocell spun ya ns (149 d ex) we e kindly p o ided by Risa el, Lda.
(Po ugal) and sil e -pla ed polyamide 6 mul i ilamen ya ns (40 d ex)
we e pu chased om Shieldex® (Ge many). Sodium chlo ide (NaCl,
Me ck, Ge many), po assium chlo ide (KCl, Me ck), sodium phospha e
dibasic (Na
2
HPO
4
, Sigma-Ald ich, Ge many) and monopo assium
phospha e (KH
2
PO
4
, Sigma-Ald ich) we e used in he p epa a ion o
phospha e bu e saline solu ion (PBS a 0.01 M: 8.00 g/L o NaCl,
0.20 g/L o KCl, 1.44 g/L o Na
2
HPO
4
and 0.24 g/L o KH
2
PO
4
, adjus ed
o physiological pH 7.4). A i icial wound exuda es we e p epa ed wi h
NaCl (124 ×10
−3
M), magnesium chlo ide (MgCl
2
, 831 ×10
−6
M,
Chem-Lab, Belgium), calcium chlo ide (CaCl
2
, 2.48 ×10
−3
M, Chem-
Lab), sodium bica bona e (NaHCO
3
, 36.8 ×10
−3
M, Sigma-Ald ich),
glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
, 5 ×10
−3
M, Sigma-Ald ich), albumin (150 ×10
−6
M, VWR Chemicals, Po ugal) and lac ic acid 90 % (C
3
H
6
O
3
10 ×10
−6
M, Me ck), a pH 6.72 and pH 9 [17]. The bac e ia cul u e media
yp icase soy b o h (TSB), yp icase soy aga (TSA), nu ien b o h
(NB) and nu ien aga (NA) we e ob ained om VWR Chemicals, and
Müelle -Hin on b o h (MHB) was supplied by Condalab (Spain). Bac e-
ial s ains we e p o ided by Ame ican Type Cul u e Collec ion (ATCC,
USA): E. coli ATCC 25922 (g own in TSB/TSA) and P. ae uginosa ATCC
27853 (g own in NB/NA). 1,1-diphenyl-2-pic ylhyd azyl (DPPH) and
ypan blue we e supplied by Me ck, and 6-hyd oxy-2,5,7,8- e ame-
hylch oman-2-ca boxylic acid (T olox) was acqui ed om Fishe
(India). The an ibio ic-an imyco ic solu ion (penicillin/s ep omycin),
ypsin-EDTA, dime hyl sul oxide (DMSO) cell cul u e g ade, and esa-
zu in (Xpe blue cell iabili y assay) we e pu chased om GRISP
(Po ugal). Fe al bo ine se um (FBS) and cell cul u e media Dulbecco’s
modi ied Eagle’s medium (DMEM) we e acqui ed om PAN-Bio ech
(Ge many), DKFZ HaCaT adhe en cell line (immo alized human ke -
a inocy es) was ob ained om Cell Lines Se ice (CLS, Ge many) and
p o ided by DKFZ (Ge many). All eagen s we e used wi hou u he
pu i ica ion.
2.2. P oduc ion o lyocell/sil e kni ed ab ics
Lyocell spun ya ns and sil e -pla ed polyamide mul i ilamen ya ns
we e used o p oduce ull Jacqua d seamless we ab ics ia kni ing
machine San oni model SM08-EVO4J (Sid´
onios Seamless Tech S.A),
wi h a E28 gauge, diame e o 13” and 1152 la ch needles. The ab ics
we e p oduced wi h a ying pe cen ages o sil e con en (w/w), spe-
ci ically 0.00 % (sample 0), 0.31 % (sample 1), 0.65 % (sample 2),
1.03 % (sample 3), and 1.46 % (sample 4), and wi h ou dis inc
s uc u es, namely single je sey (sample J), “ alse” ib 1 ×1 (sample R),
single pique (sample P), and “ alse” in e lock (sample I). The sil e
con en pe cen ages we e ca e ully selec ed o op imize p ocessabili y
and ensu e s uc u al in eg i y o he kni ed ab ics; highe sil e -
con aining ya n con en s we e a oided due o he esul ing hin sam-
ples wi h excessi ely la ge po es, which we e deemed unsui able o he
in ended applica ion.
Fab ics we e washed h ee imes in a 200 mL dis illed wa e (dH
2
O)
ba h a 50 pm, 90 ±5 ◦C o 30 min using an Ibelus C-720 machine
(Po ugal) equipped wi h in a ed hea ing. The p ima y objec i e was o
emo e he su ace ea men (desizing), speci ically pa a in wax
applied o he ya ns.
2.3. Cha ac e iza ion
Lyocell/sil e and lyocell (con ol) kni ed ab ics we e subjec ed o
a comp ehensi e analysis o hei physical, chemical, and he mo-
mechanical p ope ies. In speci ic examina ions, he inhe en s uc u e
o he kni ed ab ics was conside ed inconsequen ial (did no in luence
he ou comes). In such scena ios, conside a ion was gi en o samples
wi h a single je sey s uc u e, as his ep esen s he simples s uc u al
a angemen om which he o he s de i e; in hose si ua ions, je sey
s uc u e may be pe cei ed as a con ol s uc u e.
2.3.1. Re lec ance es
The e lec ance o he kni ed ab ics was e alua ed p e- and pos -
washing using a Shimadzu UV–VIS spec opho ome e UV-2600
(Japan) in he ange be ween 400 and 700 nm. Da a we e exp essed
as pe cen age o e lec ance.
2.3.2. Mo phology
The mo phology o he samples was obse ed by b igh ield
T.D. Ta a es e al.
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
3
mic oscopy using a Leica DM IL LED in e ed mic oscope (Leica
Mic osys ems, Ge many). Addi ionally, images we e aken using a Leica
EZ4 D magni ie (Leica Mic osys ems) a a magni ica ion o 30 ×, and
hese images we e collec ed wi h a digi al came a (OnePlus No d N10
5 G).
2.3.3. Physical p ope ies
The physical p ope ies o he kni ed ab ics we e cha ac e ized by
mass pe uni a ea (digi al scale), con ex u e (using a ya n-coun ing
magni ying glass), loop leng h (based on 10 measu emen s o he
leng h o he ya n, collec ed om 10 wales; A ilab Sodema me e ),
hickness (10 measu emen s in andom a eas o he samples, using a
Mi o oyo analog mic ome e wi h a esolu ion o 0.01 mm, 10 mm o
p essu e a ea and 18 Pa o applied p essu e), and po osi y calcula ed
using he ollowing equa ion (Eq. 1):
Ɛ(%) = (1–
ρ
a
ρ
b× ) × 100 (1)
whe e
ρ
a
(g/cm
3
) is he ab ic densi y (weigh pe uni a ea),
ρ
b
(g/cm
3
)
is he ibe densi y, and (cm) is ab ic hickness [18].
2.3.4. Fou ie - ans o m in a ed spec oscopy in a enua ed o al
e lec ance mode (ATR-FTIR)
The chemical composi ion o lyocell/sil e and lyocell kni ed ab ics
(single je sey s uc u e) p e- and pos -washing we e analyzed by ATR-
FTIR using an IRA ini y-1S, Shimadzu spec opho ome e (Japan),
coupled wi h a HATR 10 accesso y wi h a diamond c ys al. Spec a we e
ob ained o e a ange o 4000–400 cm
−1
, wi h 200 scans being pe -
o med a a spec al esolu ion o 4 cm
−1
.
2.3.5. The mal g a ime ic analysis (TGA)
The kni ed ab ics (single je sey s uc u e) he mal deg ada ion
beha io p e- and pos -washing was assessed by weigh loss moni o ing
on a STA 7200 Hi achi® (Japan), using aluminum c ucibles. The
assessmen in ol ed inc easing he empe a u e wi hin he ange o
25–600 ◦C, a a hea ing a e o 10 ◦C/min unde a dynamic ni ogen
a mosphe e a a low a e o 200 mL/min o c ea e an ine en i onmen .
Each sample had an ini ial mass o 6.7 ±0.2 mg. Resul s we e plo ed as
he pe cen age o weigh loss s. empe a u e.
2.3.6. Di e en ial scanning calo ime y (DSC)
The mal p ope ies we e also e alua ed by DSC analyses using a
powe compensa ed DSC equipmen Pe kinElme DSC 6000 (USA).
Samples weighing 7.2 ±0.6 mg we e placed in an aluminum pan and
exposed o a hea ing a e o 10 ◦C/min, om 0 o 445 ◦C, unde a dy-
namic ni ogen a mosphe e a 20 mL/min. DSC cu es we e plo ed wi h
hea low s. empe a u e.
2.3.7. Quasi-s a ic mechanical es ing
The mechanical p ope ies o he kni ed ab ics we e measu ed
using a uniaxial ensile es on he MTS™ Insigh Elec omechanical
Tes ing Sys ems (USA) wi h a 10 kN load cell, ollowing he ASTM
D5035–11(2019) s anda d. The samples we e p epa ed wi h dimensions
o 2 ×7 cm, gauge leng h o 50 mm and analyzed a oom empe a u e
(RT). The es s we e pe o med wi h a p eload o 0.1 N and a speed o
10 mm/min un il eaching he maximum elonga ion a b eak. Expe i-
men s we e conduc ed on a leas i e eplica es in each di ec ion o he
kni ed ab ic (cou se and wale). Young’s modulus (MPa), o al elon-
ga ion (%) and ul ima e ensile s eng h (MPa) we e ob ained om
s ess-s ain cu es.
2.3.8. Deg ee o swelling (DS)
The kni ed ab ics DS was e alua ed in dH
2
O, PBS and a i icial
wound exuda es (pH 6.72 and pH 9) solu ions a 37 ◦C. To conduc he
assessmen , samples wi h a su ace a ea o 2 cm
2
we e weighed and
subme ged in 2 mL o he espec i e medium o 1, 2, 4, 6, 24, 48, 72 and
168 h unde s a ic condi ions. A each speci ied in e al, he samples
we e collec ed, and hei we weigh was measu ed. Gauze was used as
e e ence. The DS was calcula ed using he ollowing equa ion (Eq. 2):
DS (%) = mw−md
md×100 (2)
whe e m
w
(mg) is he weigh o he sample a e imme sion and m
d
(mg)
is he weigh o he d ied sample be o e imme sion [19].
2.3.9. Kni ed ab ic deg ada ion p o ile
The deg ada ion p o ile o kni ed ab ics o e ime was assessed in
dH
2
O, PBS and a i icial wound exuda es (pH 6.72 and pH 9) solu ions.
Hyd a ed kni ed ab ics, wi h a su ace a ea o 2 cm
2
, we e weighed
and incuba ed in 2 mL o each solu ion a 37 ◦C, up o 28 days. Expe -
imen s we e conduc ed unde s a ic condi ions, wi h solu ions being
exchanged e e y week. A e 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days o incuba ion,
he samples we e weighed. Gauze was used as e e ence. Deg ada ion,
de e mined by measu ing mass loss, was calcula ed using he ollowing
equa ion (Eq. 3):
mass loss (%) = mwi −mw
mwi ×100 (3)
whe e m
wi
(mg) ep esen s he weigh o he hyd a ed kni ed ab ic a
day 0, and m
w
(mg) co esponds o he weigh o he sample a e each
incuba ion pe iod [20].
2.3.10. Mois u e and ai pe meabili ies
To assess he kni ed ab ics’ capaci y o mois u e e en ion and ai
exchange, wa e / apo and ai pe meabili ies s udies we e conduc ed
acco ding o s anda ds BS 7209:1990 and ASTM D 737–96, espec i ely.
Gauze se ed as e e ence ma e ial in bo h es s. Fo he wa e apo
pe meabili y (WVP) examina ion, samples (132.7 mm² a ea) we e
placed o e cylind ical cups con aining 46 mL o dH
2
O o 24 h, u iliz-
ing an SDL A las M261 Shi ley wa e apo pe meabili y es e (USA).
The e apo a ion o wa e h ough he ab ic unde es was de e mined
by weighing he cup be o e and a e he es ing pe iod. An open cup was
used as e e ence. Assessmen s we e pe o med a 37 ◦C and 50 % o
ela i e humidi y wi hin an A alab Fi oClima 150 EDTU chambe
(Po ugal). Measu emen s we e conduc ed in iplica e. The wa e apo
ansmission a e (WVTR) was de e mined using Eq. 4:
WVTR =24ΔW
AΔ (4)
whe e ΔW is he di e ence in he wa e weigh (g) be o e and a e he
24 h es , A is he inne a ea o he cup (m
2
), and Δ is he exposu e ime
(h).
A FX 3300 ai pe meabili y es e III (Tex es Ins umen s,
Swi ze land) was employed o apply an ai p essu e o 100 Pa on each
sample a en equidis an poin s o 20 cm
2
.
2.4. An imic obial e alua ion
To assess he an imic obial e icacy o he kni ed ab ics, ime-kill
kine ics es s we e conduc ed using an adap a ion o he ASTM
E2149–01 s anda d. He e, only G am-nega i e bac e ia we e examined
due o he g ea e challenges associa ed wi h hei e ec i e elimina ion
by an imic obial wound d essings, compa ed o G am-posi i e. Bac e ia
inoculums we e p epa ed in TSB (E. coli) and NB (P. ae uginosa) and
incuba ed o e nigh a 37 ◦C, 120 pm. Then, bac e ia suspensions we e
adjus ed o a concen a ion o 1 ×10
5
colony o ming uni s (CFUs)/mL
in MHB. Samples wi h a su ace a ea o 1 cm
2
we e imme sed in 1 mL o
bac e ia suspension and incuba ed a 37 ◦C and 120 pm. A speci ic
ime in e als (1, 2, 4, 6 and 24 h), aliquo s o he bac e ial suspensions
we e collec ed and se ially dilu ed in PBS (10
−1
o 10
−5
), pla ed on TSA/
T.D. Ta a es e al.
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
4
NA, and u he incuba ed a 37 ◦C o 24 h. Colonies o su i ing bac-
e ia we e coun ed, and he esul s we e exp essed as log educ ion by
compa ing he con ol suspensions (wi hou sample) wi h hose exposed
o he kni ed ab ics.
2.5. An ioxidan ac i i y
The ee adical sca enging ac i i y o he kni ed ab ics was
de e mined using he DPPH assay. Samples wi h a su ace a ea o 2 cm
2
we e incuba ed in 2 mL o DPPH s ock solu ion (100 µM, 100 % e hanol)
a 37 ◦C and 120 pm. A speci ic ime in e als (1, 2, 4, 6, 24 and 48 h),
aliquo s we e collec ed, and he abso bance was measu ed a 515 nm in
a mic opla e eade EZ READ 2000 (Bioch om, UK). T olox was used as a
posi i e con ol, and DMSO was used as a nega i e con ol. The esul s
we e exp essed in e ms o he pe cen age o educed DPPH a s eady
s a e (DPPH ) and we e calcula ed ollowing he Eq. 5:
DPPH (%) = Ac−As
Ac×100 (5)
whe e A
c
is he abso bance o con ol (wi hou sample), and A
s
is he
abso bance o samples egis e ed a s eady s a e.
2.6. Cy ocompa ibili y es ing
The me abolic ac i i y o human ke a inocy es cell line (HaCaT) [21]
was assessed h ough an indi ec con ac assay conduc ed on he kni ed
ab ics iden i ied wi h he mos e ec i e s uc u al cha ac e is ics o
he o eseen pu pose (based on he p e ious cha ac e iza ion es ing).
Samples wi h a su ace a ea o 4 cm
2
we e s e ilized unde ul a iole
ligh (10 min on each side) and subme ged in 4 mL o DMEM medium
o 24 h (condi ioned media). Cells we e hawed and sub-cul u ed in
DMEM medium supplemen ed wi h 10 % ( / ) inac i a ed FBS and 1 %
( / ) penicillin-s ep omycin. The cells we e kep a 37 ◦C in a humid-
i ied a mosphe e wi h 5 % CO
2
un il eaching 80–90 % con luence.
The ea e , he cells we e chemically de ached om he cul u e lasks
using 0.05 % (w/ ) ypsin-EDTA solu ion. Cell coun ing, acili a ed by
a Neubaue Chambe and ypan blue ( a io 1:1 / ) s aining o dead
cells exclusion, was conduc ed using a Leica DM IL LED In e ed Lab-
o a o y Mic oscope (Ge many). Cells we e hen seeded in 96-well issue
cul u e polys y ene pla es (TPP®, Swi ze land) a a densi y o 1 ×10
4
cells pe well and incuba ed a 37 ◦C and 5 % CO
2
o 24 h. The ex-
pe imen s we e ca ied ou using HaCaT in passages 5–11.
A e 24 h, he condi ioned media we e dilu ed o concen a ions o
50 %, 25 % and 10 % ( / ), and subsequen ly added o he cells o
u he incuba ion pe iods o 24 and 48 h. Following hese in e als,
10 % ( / ) esazu in was added o he wells and incuba ed o 4 h a 37
◦C and 5 % CO
2
. Then, luo escence le els we e measu ed (λ
ex
=560 nm
and λ
em
=590 nm) using a mic opla e eade (Syne gy H1, BioTek In-
s umen s, USA). To es ablish posi i e and nega i e con ols, DMEM
condi ioned media (wi hou samples) and 30 % ( / ) o DMSO we e
used, espec i ely. The pe cen age o cell me abolic ac i i y, used as
indica i e o cell iabili y, was calcula ed using Eq. 6:
Me abolic ac i i y (%) = Flus
Flupc ×100 (6)
whe e Flu
s
ep esen s he luo escence o he samples, and Flu
pc
is he
luo escence o he posi i e con ol.
2.7. S a is ical analysis
All expe imen s we e conduc ed in iplica e unless o he wise
e e ed o in he expe imen al sec ions. Nume ical da a we e epo ed
as mean ±s anda d de ia ion (SD). Da a we e ea ed using G aphPad
P ism 8.0.1 So wa e (G aphPad So wa e Inc., USA). No mali y analysis
was pe o med, and esul s we e analyzed using Tukey’s es .
S a is ically signi ican di e ences we e conside ed a p <0.05.
3. REsul s AND Discussion
3.1. Mo phology and physical p ope ies
The p oduc ion o he kni ed ab ics was highly success ul, wi h no
de ec s de ec ed in any o he s uc u es. A e manu ac u ing, he ab-
ics unde wen a se ies o washing p ocedu es o elimina e po en ial
pa a in esidues om he ya ns, and a dec ease in wa e u bidi y was
obse ed a e each wash. Re lec ance es s we e conduc ed o assess he
e ec i eness o hese washes (Figu e S1 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion
ile). Pos -washing, he inc ease in e lec ance alues con i med he
success ul elimina ion o pa a in, enhancing he su ace e lec i i y o
he samples. Addi ionally, weighing he samples be o e and a e
washing e ealed a mass loss o 3.65 ±0.21 %. B igh ield mic oscopy
examina ions conduc ed a e washing con i med he in eg i y o he
ya ns, indica ing ha he ab ics emained in ac and undamaged
(Figu e S2 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion ile).
Fig. 1 shows he success ul p oduc ion o sample 4 wi h he desi ed
kni ed s uc u es. This sample, which con ained he highes pe cen age
o sil e -pla ed polyamide ya ns (1.46 %), was selec ed as he ep e-
sen a i e sample o illus a e he s uc u al o ganiza ion o he kni ed
ab ics. To enhance isualiza ion, loop diag am illus a ions and
b igh ield mic oscopy images o each s uc u e we e included. The
p esence o he sil e -pla ed ya ns was e iden by he inc eased shine
and me alliza ion obse ed. The images display bo h sides o he kni ed
ab ics, whe e he dis inc appea ance be ween hem is no iceable. The
use o seamless echnology p esen s a signi ican ad an age o he
in ended applica ion, as i enhances he com o and adap abili y o he
ab ics o he body, educing ic ion and he isk o skin i i a ion,
making i ideal o p oduc s whe e di ec skin con ac is cons an .
Addi ionally, i o e s p ope ies such as b ea habili y, du abili y, and
easy ca e [4]. The ib and in e lock s uc u es a e classi ied as “ alse”
because hey a e p oduced on a seamless kni ing machine, esul ing in
di e ing appea ances be ween sides. To he con a y, “ ue” ib and
in e lock s uc u es appea iden ical on bo h sides.
Single je sey was he simples and mos undamen al kni ed s uc-
u e, se ing as a basis o mo e complex pa e ns. I s echnical ace
ea u es e ical columns o kni s i ches o ming small V-shaped loops,
while he echnical back displays ho izon al ows o pu l s i ches, which
look like small ho izon al loops o bumps (Fig. 1a). The “ alse” ib 1 ×1
s uc u e exhibi s a echnical ace wi h al e na ing columns o kni and
pu l s iches, and a echnical back wi h mo e p ominen ows o pu l
s i ches, c ea ing a smoo he and less ex u ed appea ance (Fig. 1b). In
he single pique s uc u e, he echnical ace ea u es small, aised
bumps esembling a wa le-like pa e n, c ea ed by uck s i ches ha
p o ide a h ee-dimensional look. The echnical back is mo e uni o m
and smoo he , wi h isible ho izon al ows o pu l s i ches (Fig. 1c).
Las ly, he “ alse” in e lock s uc u e has a echnical ace cha ac e ized
by a smoo h, la su ace c ea ed by he in e locking o kni s i ches. The
echnical back is mo e ex u ed, ea u ing a combina ion o kni and pu l
s i ches ha o m a se ies o aised bumps o idges (Fig. 1d) [22].
The physical p ope ies o kni ed ab ics a e de ailed in Table 1
(s a is ical analysis shown in Tables S1 and S2 in he Suppo ing In o -
ma ion ile). Da a om Table 1a indica es ha an inc ease in he amoun
o sil e -pla ed polyamide ya ns co ela es wi h a s a is ically signi ican
dec ease in mass pe uni a ea. This obse a ion aligns wi h expec a-
ions, as he d ex o hese ya ns is signi ican ly smalle han ha o he
lyocell ya ns, esul ing in a educed o e all weigh . Among he kni ed
ab ic s uc u es, in e lock egis e ed he la ges weigh . Rega ding
con ex u e (Table 1a), s uc u es we e gene ally simila , wi h he
excep ion o he ib s uc u e, which epo ed smalle alues, pa icu-
la ly in he numbe o wales pe cm (p <0.0001). Addi ionally, his
s uc u e displayed g ea e loop leng h (Table 1a) and po osi y
(Table 1b), all indica i es o a mo e open kni [23]. Table 1b shows ha
T.D. Ta a es e al.
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
5
he hickness o he samples was ela i ely cons an , ega dless o he
a ying amoun s o sil e -pla ed polyamide ya ns (no s a is ically sig-
ni ican , excep R4 and P4). The in e lock s uc u e was ound he
hickes om he g oup, while he je sey was he hinnes (p <0.0001).
I was an icipa ed ha he small d ex o he sil e -pla ed polyamide
ya ns would esul in a signi ican inc ease in po osi y as hei con en
augmen ed in he ab ics (Table 1b). E en hough he e was a sligh
inc ease be ween 2 % and 5 %, i is likely ha he supe io elas ici y o
he sil e -pla ed polyamide ya ns (25.04 ±5.11 %) compa ed o he
lyocell ya ns (8.04 ±0.55 %) o ha e acili a ed he adap a ion o he
i s o he ab ic cons uc , hus occupying he same spaces as lyocell
ya ns and sligh ly cons ic ing hei eedom. As can be seen by Fig. 1,
sil e -pla ed ya ns appea o o e lap wi h lyocell ya ns.
Fig. 1. Loop diag am, digi al and b igh ield mic oscopy images o he (a) je sey, (b) ib, (c) pique and (d) in e lock s uc u es, ob ained om kni ed ab ics
con aining he la ges numbe o sil e -pla ed ya ns (sample 4 – 1.46 %). Scale ba s ep esen 1 mm and 500 µm, o digi al and b igh ield mic oscopy images,
espec i ely.
Table 1
Physical cha ac e iza ion o he kni ed ab ics: (a) mass pe uni a ea, con ex u e and loop leng h; (b) hickness and po osi y (Ɛ). Da a a e epo ed as mean ±SD
(n =10). Sample 0 co esponds o 100 % lyocell, while samples 1, 2, 3 and 4 co espond kni ed ab ics wi h sil e in hei composi ion a 0.31 %, 0,65 %, 1.03 %, and
1.46 %, espec i ely.
a)
Mass pe uni a ea (g/m
2
) Con ex u e (cou ses/wales pe cm) Loop leng h (cm)
Sample Je sey Rib Pique In e lock Je sey Rib Pique In e lock Je sey Rib Pique In e lock
0208.6 ±8.3 216.1 ±5.0 219.4 ±3.9 241.1 ±6.6 13/16 13/11 13/15 13/15 33.8 ±0.4 34.0 ±0.2 21.8 ±0.4 22.0 ±0.3
1198.8 ±6.7 221.5 ±4.3 217.0 ±5.6 247.5 ±6.0 13/16 12/11 13/16 13/15
2191.0 ±7.2 210.0 ±3.9 200.9 ±5.7 222.5 ±5.6 13/16 13/11 13/16 13/16
3170.9 ±12.1 203.0 ±3.9 196.8 ±4.1 222.8 ±5.3 13/16 13/11 13/17 14/15
4172.4 ±11.8 182.3 ±3.1 204.0 ±8.1 216.3 ±7.3 14/16 14/11 13/16 14/14
b)
Thickness (mm) ƐƐ (%)
Sample Je sey Rib Pique In e lock Je sey Rib Pique In e lock
00.58 ±0.03 0.66 ±0.04 0.62 ±0.03 0.67 ±0.02 68.5 ±1.0 72.3 ±1.7 69.1 ±1.0 68.9 ±0.8
10.54 ±0.03 0.63 ±0.06 0.61 ±0.03 0.66 ±0.03 67.8 ±1.4 69.6 ±1.6 68.6 ±0.6 67.0 ±1.3
20.56 ±0.03 0.66 ±0.06 0.61 ±0.04 0.64 ±0.05 70.5 ±1.8 72.3 ±0.9 71.5 ±2.0 70.1 ±0.9
30.56 ±0.02 0.63 ±0.04 0.58 ±0.03 0.66 ±0.04 73.6 ±2.2 72.4 ±1.0 70.0 ±1.5 71.0 ±0.1
40.56 ±0.02 0.62 ±0.04 0.55 ±0.03 0.63 ±0.03 73.6 ±1.5 74.8 ±2.4 72.8 ±0.9 71.6 ±0.5
T.D. Ta a es e al.
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
6
3.2. Chemical analysis
ATR-FTIR analyses we e pe o med on kni ed ab ics exhibi ing a
je sey s uc u e, bo h p e- and pos -washing, wi h he aim o e alua ing
he e icacy o pa a in wax laye emo al om he ya ns (Fig. 2). In
Fig. 2a, he p esence o pa a in in he ab ics was obse ed h ough he
de ec ion o wo dis inc bands a 2916 and 2849 cm
−1
, co esponding
o he an isymme ic and symme ic s e ching ib a ion o alipha ic
hyd oca bons, espec i ely, which a e main componen s o pa a in wax
[24]. Pos -washing (Fig. 2b), hese pa a in- ela ed bands disappea ed,
while a dis inc i e peak a 2896 cm
−1
a ibu ed o he CH alkane g oup
in lyocell [25] became mo e p onounced. Fu he mo e, bo h spec a
displayed a peak a 3320 cm
−1
co esponding o he –OH s e ching
band o cellulose, alongside no able peaks a 1018 and 895 cm
−1
ela ed
o he P =O and P-O-C g oup, espec i ely [26].
In con as , no peaks co esponding o polyamide o sil e we e
de ec ed. The absence o polyamide peaks can be a ibu ed o he low
mass a io o sil e -pla ed polyamide ya ns o lyocell ya ns, which
hinde s hei de ec ion. Addi ionally, he sil e coa ing p esen s chal-
lenges due o i s high elec ical conduc i i y, which limi s i s spec al
esponse in he in a ed ange. FTIR is a echnique ha p o ides in a ed
spec al analysis o samples capable o abso bing in a ed ligh . How-
e e , he ee elec ons wi hin he sil e ’s s uc u e do no engage in he
ypical ib a ional ansi ions obse ed in molecules du ing FTIR
Fig. 2. ATR-FTIR spec a o lyocell and lyocell/sil e kni ed ab ics (a) p e- and (b) pos -washing. Sample J co esponds o he je sey s uc u e wi h 100 % o lyocell
(sample 0), and 0.31 % (sample 1), 0,65 % (sample 2), 1.03 % (sample 3) and 1.46 % (sample 4) ep esen samples con aining sil e ya ns a a ious a ios.
T.D. Ta a es e al.
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
7
spec oscopy. Consequen ly, he abso p ion o in a ed adia ion,
undamen al o FTIR spec oscopy, is no eadily obse ed in me als
such as sil e [27].
3.3. The mal s abili y
The he mal s abili y o he kni ed ab ics (using he je sey s uc u e
as example) was e alua ed using TGA (Figs. 3a, 3b and Table S3 in he
Suppo ing In o ma ion ile) and DSC (Figs. 3c, 3d and Table S3 in he
Suppo ing In o ma ion ile). The he mal deg ada ion s eps o he
samples, bo h p e- and pos -washing p ocesses, we e comp ehensi ely
analyzed using TGA. All samples showed simila he mal beha io .
Ini ially, a dis inc i e deg ada ion phase was obse ed up o a ound 112
◦C, esul ing in a mass loss o ≈8 % associa ed wi h he e apo a ion o
wa e molecules bound o he lyocell s uc u e. The p ocess in ol es a
sequence o depolyme iza ion, hyd olysis, and dehyd a ion eac ions
[26]. Subsequen ly, he ab ics main ained a he mal s abili y up o
a ound 255 ◦C o he p e-washed samples and 280 ◦C o he
pos -washed samples. This disc epancy in he mal s abili y can be
explained by he p esence o pa a in in he unwashed samples, which
ola ilizes a low empe a u es, p ima ily con ibu ing o he ea lie
onse o deg ada ion [28]. The s a o he second deg ada ion s age,
ex ending up o a ound 368 ◦C, was ma ked by a subs an ial mass loss o
≈67 %. This signi ican deg ada ion s ems p edominan ly om he
decomposi ion o lyocell, which cons i u es he p ima y componen o
he s udied samples. Du ing his s age, he b eakdown o he c ys alline
s uc u e o lyocell occu s, leading o he gene a ion o L-glucose [26].
Following he ex ensi e deg ada ion o lyocell, a hi d weigh loss s age
was obse ed, cha ac e ized by a sligh mass loss o ≈9 %, a ibu ed o
he g adual decomposi ion o cha esidues o igina ing om he lyocell
ya ns ( esidue om he p io deg ada ion s eps) [29]. Addi ionally, his
s age may in ol e he he mal deg ada ion o polyamide componen s
p esen wi hin he sil e -con aining kni ed ab ics [30]. The mal
analysis using TGA highligh s he he mal esis ance o he ab ics, and
i s main polyme ic componen s, which exceed ypical body empe a-
u es. Thus, his he mal s abili y suppo s po en ial applica ions o
hese ab ics in wound d essings, gua an eeing hei in eg i y and pe -
o mance unde physiological condi ions.
Co ela ion be ween TGA and DSC he mog ams acili a es he
comp ehension o he he mal phenomena occu ing du ing he hea
ea men o he samples. The ini ial b oad endo he mic e en , ea u ing
peaks wi hin he empe a u e ange o 100 – 116 ◦C wi h a high he mal
ene gy o ≈1383.27 mJ, is a ibu ed o he deso p ion o abso bed
wa e molecules om cellulose [31]. Subsequen o mois u e e apo a-
ion, a well-de ined endo he mic e en , cha ac e ized by a peak a 258 –
261 ◦C, is exhibi ed only in samples con aining sil e -pla ed polyamide
ya ns; he peak a ea inc eases wi h he augmen in numbe o
sil e -con aining ya ns wi hin he samples. Upon u he hea ing a 349
– 353 ◦C, ano he endo he mic e en becomes appa en due o s uc u al
ans o ma ions o cellulose, encompassing decomposi ion and depoly-
me iza ion eac ions, ollowed by an exo he mic e en associa ed wi h
he subsequen decomposi ion o he esul an complex p oduc s [32].
The in luence o pa a in was insigni ican and was no de ec ed by DSC,
as i s he mal decomposi ion occu s a a ound 60 – 70 ◦C [33], being
likely masked by he signi ican wa e loss egis e ed om lyocell ya ns.
This is co obo a ed by a small ab ic weigh loss obse ed a e washing
(3.65 ±0.21 %), hus indica ing i s minimal con ibu ion o he sam-
ples. Simila esul s we e obse ed in he in e lock s uc u e con aining
he la ges numbe o sil e -pla ed ya ns (sample 4–1.46 %), he eby
con i ming ha he indings a e independen o he kni ed ab ic
s uc u e (Figu e S3 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion ile).
3.4. Mechanical pe o mance
The mechanical esis ance o he kni ed ab ics was assessed in he
cou se and wale di ec ions, using pa ame e s such as Young’s modulus,
elonga ion a b eak, and ul ima e ensile s eng h (Fig. 4; s a is ical
analysis shown in Table S4 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion ile). Young’s
Fig. 3. TGA and DSC spec a o lyocell and lyocell/sil e kni ed ab ics (a and c) p e- and (b and d) pos -washing, espec i ely. Sample J co esponds o he je sey
s uc u e wi h 100 % o lyocell (sample 0), and 0.31 % (sample 1), 0,65 % (sample 2), 1.03 % (sample 3) and 1.46 % (sample 4) ep esen samples con aining sil e
ya ns a a ious a ios.
T.D. Ta a es e al.
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
8
modulus quan i ies he ela ionship be ween s ess (applied o ce) and
s ain ( esul an de o ma ion) in he linea egion in he kni ed ab ics.
Elonga ion a b eak and ensile s eng h a e pa icula ly impo an o
wound d essings: a high elonga ion a b eak indica es lexibili y, aiding
in skin applica ion (adap abili y o inju ed si e), while high ensile
s eng h ensu es he ab ic’s in eg i y du ing wound placemen o
emo al, minimizing pa ien discom o and p e en ing damage o
sensi i e issue [34,35]. Aniso opic beha io was obse ed in he
sample’s s uc u es, cha ac e ized by dis inc esponses along he cou se
and wale di ec ions. Speci ically, he wale di ec ion exhibi ed highe
Young’s modulus and elonga ion a b eak o he je sey, ib, and pique
s uc u es, a he expense o a educed s eng h. This sugges s ha hese
s uc u es, while mo e lexible in his di ec ion, may be mo e p one o
up u e unde excessi e mechanical s ess. Con e sely, he in e lock
s uc u e demons a ed a mo e uni o m mechanical esponse be ween
di ec ions, wi h simila Young’s modulus and elonga ion a b eak and a
sligh ly highe ensile s eng h in he wale di ec ion. These indings
indica e ha in e lock s uc u es may o e enhanced iso opy, which
can be bene icial o applica ions equi ing balanced mechanical
p ope ies. Fo a clea e compa ison be ween di ec ions, ep esen a i e
s ess-s ain cu es o es ed s uc u es, namely hose composed o
100 % lyocell and he highes numbe o sil e -pla ed ya ns (sample 4),
a e p o ided in Figu e S4 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion ile. Analysis o
hese cu es e eals ha he wale di ec ion gene ally exhibi ed a mo e
ab up up u e wi h lowe o e all de o ma ion, indica ing educed
duc ili y. This beha io sugges s ha , despi e o e ing g ea e s i ness
and elonga ion capaci y, he wale di ec ion may be mo e suscep ible o
sudden ailu e unde ensile loading. These insigh s a e c ucial o
op imizing he mechanical p ope ies o kni ed ab ics in biomedical
applica ions, whe e a balance be ween lexibili y and s eng h is
essen ial o unc ional pe o mance.
O e all, he samples displayed low Young’s modulus (Fig. 4a),
indica ing a high deg ee o lexibili y sui able o he in ended pu poses.
The samples wi h he highes sil e con en (sample 4) exhibi ed he
lowes s i ness in wale di ec ion. All samples showed conside able
de o mabili y (Fig. 4b), wi h maximum elonga ion a b eak anging
om ≈75–184 %, no ably highe in he in e lock s uc u e in he wale
di ec ion (p <0.0001) and in he je sey s uc u e in he cou se di ec ion
Fig. 4. (a) Young’s modulus, (b) o al elonga ion, and (c) ul ima e ensile s eng h o he kni ed ab ics in cou se and wale di ec ions. Da a a e epo ed as mean
±SD (n =5). Sample 0 co esponds o 100 % lyocell, while samples 1, 2, 3 and 4 co espond kni ed ab ics wi h sil e in hei composi ion a 0.31 %, 0,65 %,
1.03 %, and 1.46 %, espec i ely.
T.D. Ta a es e al.
Ma e ials Today Communica ions 45 (2025) 112389
9
(p <0.0001). The ib s uc u e demons a ed minimal de o ma ion
compa ed o o he s uc u es (Fig. 4c), and, consequen ly, he lowes
s eng h (p <0.0001). In gene al, he analyzed kni ed ab ics possess
mechanical p ope ies ha mee he c i e ia equi ed o e ec i e
wound d essing de elopmen . Howe e , he in e lock s uc u e can be
deemed he mos sui able o d essings in ended o wounds in highly
mobile body a eas, such as DFUs, due o i s lowe aniso opic beha io ,
which may con ibu e o an imp o ed con o mabili y and mechanical
s abili y in dynamic condi ions.
3.5. Deg ee o swelling and deg ada ion p o ile
Ensu ing op imal wound healing equi es he use o d essings wi h
adequa e mois u e abso p ion and e en ion capabili ies. This gua an-
ees ha he d essing no only abso bs excess exuda es p o icien ly,
p e en ing desicca ion, bu also main ains a mois en i onmen in he
wound, conduci e o issue epai and egene a ion, essen ial o he
p og ession o he healing p ocess [36]. The swelling capaci y o kni ed
ab ics unde a ious condi ions (dH
2
O, PBS, and a i icial wound exu-
da es a pH 6.72 and pH 9) was moni o ed o e a pe iod o 7 days. Fig. 5
p esen s he measu emen s on he 7 h day o incuba ion (s a is ical
analysis shown in Tables S5 and S6 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion ile),
while he measu emen s moni o ed up un il day 7 o incuba ion a e
illus a ed in Figu e S5 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion ile. PBS was
chosen due o i s physiological simila i y o human biological luids in
e ms o osmo ic and ionic condi ions [37]. A i icial wound exuda e
solu ions we e p epa ed acco ding o he cha ac e is ic en i onmen al
pH o ch onic wounds, which ypically alls wi hin he ange o 7.15–8.9
[38]. Addi ionally, dH
2
O was included o compa a i e pu poses, o
assess he in luence o he p esence o sal s in he media.
A e he i s hou , he kni ed samples exhibi ed a signi ican DS,
wi h an a e age weigh inc ease anging om ≈161–236 %, while
gauze, he con ol g oup, eached a DS abo e 328 %. This di e ence
unde sco es he dis inc abso p ion beha io s o kni ed ab ic compa ed
o gauze, which possesses a mo e open and loosely packed s uc u e,
allowing o apid liquid up ake. Simila ends we e obse ed a e 7
days o incuba ion, wi h DS alues s abilizing in he ange o
≈137–227 %, demons a ing he sus ained abso p ion capaci y o he
samples o e ime. A sligh educ ion in abso p ion capaci y (≈36 %)
was obse ed in he kni ed ab ics when imme sed in dH
2
O a e 6 h
(je sey and ib s uc u es) and 24 h (pique and in e lock s uc u es;
Figu e S5 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion ile). This dec ease can be
a ibu ed o he sa u a ion o hyd ogen bonding in e ac ions be ween
he wa e molecules and he hyd oxyl g oups o he lyocell celluloses
[29]. No ably, a simila end was obse ed in he p esence o PBS,
whe e a ≈27 % dec ease in abso p ion capaci y was eco ded a e 24 h
(je sey and ib s uc u es) and 48 h (pique and in e lock s uc u es).
This educ ion is possibly due o he compe i i e in e ac ion o PBS sal s
wi h hyd oxyl g oups, al e ing he ab ic’s abili y o e ain ee wa e
molecules. The a ia ion in sa u a ion imes be ween di e en s uc-
u es is p ima ily ela ed o hei mo phological cha ac e is ics; je sey,
wi h i s lowe hickness alues (Table 1b), sa u a es mo e quickly, while
ib, wi h i s dense a chi ec u e and compac a angemen , also eaches
sa u a ion soone han pique and in e lock s uc u es (Fig. 1). When
exposed o a i icial wound exuda es, all kni ed s uc u es exhibi ed
compa able swelling beha io , main aining an equilib ium DS (a e -
aging 197 %) o e he 7-day pe iod a pH 6.72. On he o he hand,
exposu e o alkaline exuda es (pH 9) led o a mode a e inc ease in ab-
so p ion capaci y (≈13 %) a e 6 h (Figu e S5 in he Suppo ing In-
o ma ion ile).
The hyd ophilici y o kni ed ab ics is posi i ely co ela ed wi h
hei abso p ion capaci y, as highe hyd ophilici y gene ally leads o
inc eased luid up ake. Despi e mul iple a emp s, we abili y da a could
no be ob ained o any sample due o he ex eme hyd ophilici y o
lyocell, acili a ed by i s high con en o ca boxylic g oups [39].
An ideal wound d essing ypically exhibi s an abso bency ange be-
ween 100 % and 900 % [40], posi ioning he enginee ed samples
wi hin he app op ia e h eshold o his applica ion. Among he es ed
s uc u es, he in e lock exhibi ed he highes abso p ion a ings, on
a e age, ac oss all es ed solu ions. This enhanced pe o mance can be
a ibu ed o i s g ea e hickness (Table 1b), bulkie s uc u e, and
inc eased oid space (Fig. 1), which collec i ely enabled highe liquid
Fig. 5. Deg ee o swelling (DS) measu emen s o he kni ed ab ics a e 7 days o incuba ion in dH
2
O, PBS, and a i icial wound exuda es a pH 6.72 and pH 9. Da a
a e p esen ed as a e age pe cen age o DS ±SD (n =3). Sample 0 co esponds o 100 % lyocell, while samples 1, 2, 3 and 4 co espond kni ed ab ics wi h sil e in
hei composi ion a 0.31 %, 0,65 %, 1.03 %, and 1.46 %, espec i ely.
T.D. Ta a es e al.
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