Light harvesting at oblique incidence decoupled from transmission in organic solar cells exhibiting 9.8% efficiency and 50% visible light transparency

www.ad ene gyma .de 1904196 (1 o 9) © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Full PaPe Ligh Ha es ing a Oblique Incidence Decoupled om T ansmission in O ganic Sola Cells Exhibi ing 9.8% E iciency and 50% Visible Ligh T anspa ency Quan Liu, Luis G. Ge ling, F ancisco Be nal-Texca, Johann Toude , Teng ei Li, Xiaowei Zhan,* and Jo di Ma o ell* DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201904196 accep o s (NFAs) wi h an in a ed shi ed abso p ion yielded imp essi e cell pe o - mances o cells wi h di e en le els o anspa ency.[5–19] Howe e , he ul ima e ou e o ob ain a highly e icien ene gy con e sion in highly anspa en cells may de ia e signi ican ly om he one ol- lowed o each he bes opaque sola cells, which essen ially a ge s a maximiza ion o he powe con e sion e iciency (PCE) a no mal incidence. The inal a chi ec- u e o an op imal anspa en sola cell may be s ongly linked o whe e on he plane ea h such anspa en ligh ha - es ing de ice is loca ed, i s azimu h and inclina ion, and also o he applica ion ha may be gi en o such de ice in addi ion o ene gy con e sion. Fo a e ically posi- ioned semi anspa en ligh ha es ing window, ision h ough he de ice should emain unal e ed a angles ela i ely close o no mal incidence (≈0–50°) while a la ge angles sunligh ha es ing should be maximized, as shown schema ically in Figu e 1a. 2. Resul s and Discussion 2.1. T anspa en Cell A chi ec u e Design A blend mixing a na ow bandgap dono polyme as PTB7-Th and an NFA accep o as FOIC has been shown o e icien ly u ilize nea in a ed (NIR) sola i adia ion making hem an ideal ma e ial o conside semi anspa en cells.[9] Depa ing om such blend, we in oduced PC71BM ulle ene accep o in he p opo ion speci ied in he expe imen al sec ion o sligh ly inc ease he de ice ill ac o (FF) and open-ci cui ol age (VOC) wi hou any majo e ec in he sho -ci cui cu en o isible ansmission. The inal ma e ial composi ion wi h an abso p- ion band peaking a 820nm is he ideal one o use in semi- anspa en cells p o ided such band may be op ically shi ed o b oadened o each he ul ima e balance be ween ene gy con- e sion and anspa ency. Wi hou in oducing any u he changes in he blend nano- mo phology, we conside ed he inco po a ion in o such o ganic cell o a 1D nanopho onic s uc u e (1D-NPS) o e ec i ely ha es sunligh when he cell is in a e ical posi ion. Such Fo many yea s, i has been ecognized ha po en ial o ganic pho o ol aic cells mus be in eg a ed in o elemen s equi ing high anspa ency. In mos o such elemen s, sunligh is likely o be inciden a la ge angles. He e i is demon s a ed ha ligh ansmission can be la gely decoupled om ha - es ing by op ically ailo ing an in a ed shi ed non ulle ene accep o based o ganic cell a chi ec u e. A 9.67% powe con e sion e iciency a 50° incidence is achie ed oge he wi h an a e age isual ansmission abo e 50% a no mal incidence. The decons uc ion o a 1D nanopho onic s uc u e is implemen ed o conclude ha jus wo λ/4 hick laye s a e essen ial o each, o a wide incidence angle ange, a highe han 50% e iciency inc ease ela i e o he s anda d con igu a ion e e ence. In an ou doo measu emen o e ically posi ioned 50% isible anspa en cells, i is demons a ed ha 9.80% o sunligh ene gy can be con e ed in o elec ici y du ing he cou se o 1 day. D . Q. Liu, D . L. G. Ge ling, F. Be nal-Texca, D . J. Toude , P o . J. Ma o ell ICFO-Ins i u de Ciències Fo òniques The Ba celona Ins i u e o Science and Technology Cas ellde els, Ba celona 08860, Spain E-mail: [email p o ec ed] T. Li, P o . X. Zhan Depa men o Ma e ials Science and Enginee ing College o Enginee ing Key Labo a o y o Polyme Chemis y and Physics o Minis y o Educa ion Peking Uni e si y Beijing 100871, China E-mail: [email p o ec ed] P o . J. Ma o ell Depa amen de Física Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca alunya Te assa 08222, Spain The ORCID iden i ica ion numbe (s) o he au ho (s) o his a icle can be ound unde h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/aenm.201904196. 1. In oduc ion The abso p ion cha ac e is ics o he o ganic pho o ol aic (OPV) ma e ials make hem ideal candida es o achie e is- ibly anspa en de ices ha would be able o compe e wi h a Si-based echnology in he con e sion o ligh o elec ici y.[1–4] Recen ad ances in he syn hesis o no el non ulle ene Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 www.ad ene gyma .de www.ad ancedsciencenews.com © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 1904196 (2 o 9) s uc u e, al e na ing low and high e ac i e index nano hick laye s, is shown schema ically in Figu e 1b. To a oid in o- ducing any ele an al e a ion o pa ame e s which, in he end, will la gely de e mine he elec ical pe o mance o an o ganic sola cell, we limi ed he s udy o 1D-NPSs inco po a ing dielec- ic ma e ials ha can be deposi ed using mild condi ions in high acuum e apo a ion.[20–26] To ind he op imal con igu a- ion an o en used p ocedu e is based on an in e se design[27–31] aking in o accoun all he speci ici ies o ligh ha es ing. In addi ion o s anda d conside a ions such as he ligh sou ce, he abso p ion wa eleng h dependence, and he human eye esponse o ligh , we should inco po a e in he design a e ical cell posi ioning, as well as an in ensi y and angula -dependen i adia ion. As a consequence, he cell pe o mance canno be solely e alua ed on PCE and ligh ansmission as i was done in he pas ,[32,33] bu mus p ima ily conside he e iciency in collec ing and con e ing ligh in o elec ici y, de ined as he a io o he elec ical ene gy ob ained om he pho o ol aic de ice in ela ion o he ecei ed sunligh ene gy du ing he cou se o 1 day. Th oughou he ex we will use he ac onym ECE which s ands o ene gy con e sion e iciency. To compu e he op imal anspa en cell a chi ec u e, we used he ans e ma ix ull wa e ec o me hod inco po a ing an angula and in ensi y dependen sun i adia ion, and sough a solu ion ollowing an in e se design app oach as desc ibed in Sec- ion1 o he Suppo ing In o ma ion and e . [34]. In such com- pu a ion, he sun i adia ion was es ima ed using equa ion S6 (Suppo ing In o ma ion). We also ook in o accoun ha ou - doo ene gy ha es ing expe imen al measu emen s we e pe - o med a pa allel ≈41° on sunny days du ing o close o he sp ing equinox. The e ical inclina ion and azimu hal o ien a- ion o he cell was inco po a ed in he compu a ion, oo. When he a ge in he in e se design was a cell wi h an a e age isual ansmission (AVT) a no mal incidence highe han 50% and p o iding he maximum ECE a he end o he day, he op imal cell a chi ec u e ound was one inco po a ing a i e-laye 1D-NPS behind a 9nm hick back Ag me al con ac . As seen in Figu e 1c, inco po a ing such 1D-NPS inc eases he PCE ela i e o he s anda d a chi ec u e anspa en cell by mo e han 50% o almos he en i e ligh incidence angula ange. Inc easing he numbe o laye s om 1 o 5 in he 1D-NPS ends o inc ease he ex e nal quan um e iciency (EQE) in he Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 Figu e 1. Design o he 1D-NPS o an op imal ene gy con e sion in anspa en cells. a) T anspa en ligh ha es ing window. A pa allel 41° di ec sunligh is ha es ed a angles anging om 25° o 90°. b) Schema ic cell a chi ec u e including a h ee-laye 1D-NPS. c) Powe con e sion e iciency (PCE, le axis) as a unc ion o he ligh angle o incidence. The PCE inc ease o a i e-laye 1D-NPS ela i e o he s anda d a chi ec u e is shown in he igh axis as a do ed line. d) Ex e nal quan um e iciency (EQE) a he angle whe e he PCE is maximum (le axis) wi h he co esponding ligh ansmission a no mal incidence ( igh axis). All ou cells conside ed in c,d) sha e he basic a chi ec u e soda-lime glass subs a e/ITO (135nm)/ ZnO-SG (10nm)/AL/MoO3 (5nm)/Ag (9nm) whe e AL indica es he same PTB7-Th:FOIC:PC71BM ac i e laye blend.[29] The AL hickness is 50, 71, 85, and 87 o he s anda d, one-, h ee-, and i e-laye 1D-NPS con igu a ions, espec i ely. The s anda d, one-, h ee-, and i e-laye 1D-NPS con igu a ions a e capped wi h LiF (30nm), LiF (262nm), LiF (149nm)/MoO3 (78nm)/LiF (43nm), and LiF (152nm)/MoO3 (70nm)/LiF (137nm)/MoO3(95nm)/ LiF (60nm), espec i ely. All he 1D-NPS cells inco po a e a LiF (120nm) an i e lec ion coa ing on he opposi e side o he subs a es. www.ad ene gyma .dewww.ad ancedsciencenews.com © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 1904196 (3 o 9) NIR ange as well as b oaden such EQE owa d he isible pa o he spec um, as can be seen in Figu e1d. This b oadening would no imply any educ ion in he pe o mance o he cell as a anspa en de ice p o ided ligh ha es ing is la gely decou- pled om isible ansmission a no mal incidence as can be seen in Figu e1d. A i s sigh , inspec ion o he hicknesses in he i e- laye 1D-NPS (gi en in he cap ion o Figu e 1) does no show any appa en ela ionship among hem, which may lead one o conclude ha a diso de ed 1D-NPS is needed o an op imal cell pe o mance. In wha ollows we decons uc such in e se design o b ing new insigh in o he op ical ailo ing b ough by he 1D-NPS. In p inciple, such in e se design should lead o a laye ed s uc u e enhancing e lec- i i y a he NIR wi h wa eleng hs anging app oxima ely om 600 o 900nm. Wha is somehow su p ising is ha he phase shi 22 cos π λ θπ +nd (1) in oduced o a e lec ed wa e p opaga ing a an angle θ ela i e o he no mal by any gi en laye o hickness d and e ac i e index n, is 2π (see Figu e S3 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion), only o he i s wo and ou laye s in he h ee- and i e- laye 1D-NPS, espec i ely. In ac , he la ges con ibu ion o he 50% enhancemen in he EQE is p o ided by he i s wo laye s adjacen o he back me al con ac in bo h s uc u es. A no mal incidence (Figu e S3a, Suppo ing In o ma ion), bo h such laye s co espond o a λ/4 hickness bu sepa a ed by abou 200nm. Fo he i e-laye 1D-NPS he hicknesses o he hi d and ou h laye s a e also λ/4 bu a wa eleng hs signi i- can ly di e en om he ones co esponding o he i s and second laye s. These la e laye s p o ide a ine op ical uning, sligh ly inc easing ene gy collec ion in he UV and NIR pa o he spec um and a all angles as seen in Figu e1d,c espec- i ely. A 50° incidence (Figu e S3b, Suppo ing In o ma ion), he sepa a ion among he ou di e en wa eleng hs ends o na ow down. In bo h s uc u es, he las laye is a e y hin laye wi h almos he sole pu pose o educe he e ac- i e index misma ch wi h ai . As o he one-laye 1D-NPS, he hickness is λ/2 ins ead because o an addi ional π phase shi a he 1D-NPS back in e ace whe e he index changes om high o low. The e is a clea EQE sha pening in he 600 o 900nm ange when changing om a one- o a h ee-laye 1D-NPS, as a esul o a pa ial cohe en supe posi ion o he e lec i i y p o ided by one addi ional in e ace in he h ee- laye case. Howe e , such sha pening is signi ican ly lowe when any addi ional λ/4 laye is inco po a ed. In summa y, only wo o such λ/4 laye s a di e en wa eleng hs a e essen- ially needed. This is in sha p con as o a B agg e lec ion ha would include many o such laye s esona ing a a single wa eleng h. The ac ha only wo laye s a e s ic ly needed also con as s wi h diso de ed con igu a ions conside ed in he pas whe e a la ge numbe o dielec ic laye s we e used. I is also wo h no icing ha he small numbe o λ/4 laye s needed o achie e an op imal pe o mance make he inal 1D-NPS design la gely insensi i e o he speci ic condi ions ini ially se as, o ins ance, he cell o ien a ion ela i e o he inciden sun ays. In o he wo ds, he 1D-NPS is essen ial o e icien ly cap u e ligh a la ge angles. Howe e , he inal a chi ec u e ob ained designing he 1D-NPS when conside ing ligh a no mal incidence would exhibi mino di e ences ela i e o he one ob ained when conside ing ligh inciden wi h a b oad angula ange. 2.2. Implemen a ion o 1D-NPS Cells The la ges ECE wi h an AVT abo e 50% can be eached by implemen ing he i e-laye 1D-NPS conside ed abo e. This equi es he ab ica ion o a semi anspa en Ag elec ode on op o he cell s uc u e wi h a hickness o 9nm. Such hick- ness is below he s anda d one o such ype o op elec odes which is ypically abo e 10nm.[7,9,35,36] To imp o e he we ing o sil e on op o he MoO3 hole anspo ing laye while a oiding he o ma ion o island-like clus e s ha lead o a me al hin ilm wi h low ansmission and low conduc i i y,[37,38] we depos- i ed an ul a hin Au seed laye (≈1nm) p io o he Ag e apo- a ion on a cold subs a e.[39–41] Fu he de ails on he no el p ocedu e we implemen ed o ob ain semi anspa en Ag op elec odes as hin as 8nm (see scanning elec on mic oscope images in Figu e S4, Suppo ing In o ma ion), can be ound in Expe imen al sec ion. To ensu e a minimum educ ion in he de ice FF compa ed o opaque elec odes, he Ag hickness in anspa en cells should be abo e 9nm (Figu e S5, Suppo ing In o ma ion). A e he op elec ode deposi ion, he 1D-NPS was ab ica ed by he al e na ed high acuum e apo a ion o LiF and MoO3 laye s. As indica ed in he p e ious sec ion, hese ma e ials we e chosen because he deposi ion condi ions a e mild enough o no lead o a signi ican educ ion in he de ice elec ical p ope ies. De ails on he deposi ion p ocedu e ollowed can be ound in he Expe imen al sec ion, oo. To con i m he capaci y o he i e-laye 1D-NPS cell o e ec- i ely ha es ligh a la ge incidence angles, we measu ed he EQE o such cells a 0° and 50°, as shown in Figu e 2a. No e ha he NIR band o he EQE b oadens owa d he blue pa o he spec um by mo e han 55nm when he cell is o a ed by 50° wi h espec o ligh incidence. As can be seen in Figu e2b, his is co esponded wi h an inc ease in he PCE, which a 50° eaches a maximum alue o 9.67% compa ed o he maximum eached a no mal incidence which was 8.66% as indica ed in Table 1. In con as , he EQE as well as he cu en densi y– ol age (J–V) cu es o a s anda d con igu a ion anspa en o ganic sola do no exhibi any signi ican change when ligh incidence changes om 0° o 50°. No e ha he s anda d con ig- u a ion cell we used as a e e ence de ice exhibi s a pe o mance which is be e han pe o mances epo ed in he ecen li e a- u e ha conside ed o ganic cells wi h a 50% anspa ency o abo e (see Table S1, Suppo ing In o ma ion). In addi ion, when he ligh ha es ing capaci y is weigh ed wi h he AVT (PCE∙AVT p oduc ), he cells including he i e-laye 1D-NPS almos double he pe o mance o such e e ence cells (Figu e S7, Suppo ing In o ma ion). When compa ing i o he mos ecen epo on 50% anspa ency OPV cells, such ela i e gain becomes la ge han 100% (g een a ow in Figu e S7, Suppo ing In o ma ion). Al hough o bo h he i e-laye 1-D NPS and s anda d cells he AVT is sligh ly abo e 50%, i is clea by inspec ion o Figu e2c Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 www.ad ene gyma .de www.ad ancedsciencenews.com © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 1904196 (4 o 9) Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 Table 1. Pho o ol aic pa ame e s o he ab ica ed sola cells unde AM1.5G 1-sun sola illumina ion. De ice AL hickness LiF/MoO3/LiF/ MoO3/LiF [nm] Angle o incidence JSC(JEQE)a) [mA cm−2] VOC [V] FF [%] PCEb) [%] AVTc) [%] S anda d 50 nm 30/0/0/0/0 θ= 0°11.34±0.15 (11.30) 0.744±0.002 68.1±1.0 5.75±0.07 (5.82) 50.92 θ= 50°11.75±0.21 (11.69) 0.744±0.002 68.2±1.1 6.02±0.08 (6.11) Fi e-laye 1D-NPS 86 nm 150/70/132/97/56 θ= 0°16.69±0.22 (16.64) 0.746±0.003 66.8±0.8 8.32±0.18 (8.66) 50.04 θ= 50°18.73±0.26 (18.54) 0.751±0.002 66.8±0.7 9.40±0.16 (9.67) Th ee-laye 1D-NPS (neu al colo ) 72 nm 140/98/40/0/0 θ= 0°14.72±0.17 (14.62) 0.749±0.002 66.7±1.1 7.36±0.16 (7.56) 51.09 θ= 50°16.43±0.25 (15.98) 0.744±0.003 66.8±1.0 8.16±0.12 (8.34) Opaque (op imal) 105 nm — θ= 0°23.83±0.33 (23.10) 0.753±0.005 66.5±1.3 11.95±0.28 (12.32) 0 a)Calcula ed om expe imen al EQE spec a; b)The a e age alues and s anda d de ia ions a e ob ained om o e 15 de ices and he bes PCE alues a e shown in pa en- heses; c)AVT is calcula ed om TI ()V( )( ) ∫ λλλ dλ/ VI () () ∫ λλ dλ, whe e T(λ) is expe imen al ansmission, V(λ) is pho opic cu e, and I(λ) is he AM1.5G spec um (see Sec ion S4, Suppo ing In o ma ion). Figu e 2. Cell con e sion e iciency and anspa ency. a) Expe imen al (ci cles) and simula ed (lines) EQEs o he s anda d (da k ed) and i e-laye 1D-NPS (blue) cells a no mal (emp y ci cles and do ed lines) and a 50° (solid ci cles and solid lines) incidence. b) Measu ed J–V cha ac e is ics o he s anda d (da k ed), i e-laye 1D-NPS (blue) and h ee-laye 1D-NPS (g een) cells a no mal (emp y ci cles) and 50° (solid ci cles) incidence unde AM1.5G 1-sun illumina ion. c) Expe imen al (emp y ci cles) and simula ed (solid lines) ligh ansmission spec a a no mal incidence (le axis) o he s anda d (da k ed), i e-laye 1D-NPS (blue) and h ee-laye 1D-NPS (g een) cells. The no malized S (blue hin line), M (g een hin line), L ( ed hin line) cone sensi i i ies and pho opic cu es (black hin line) a e also depic ed in he igh axis. d) Expe imen al (solid) and simula ed (do ed) TM ( ed) and TE (blue) ligh ansmissions a 50° and no mal (black) incidence o he i e-laye 1D-NPS cell. All cells conside ed in a–d) sha e he basic a chi ec u e soda-lime glass subs a e/ITO (135nm)/ZnO-SG (10nm)/AL/MoO3 (5nm)/Ag (9nm), whe e AL is he same PTB7-Th:FOIC:PC71BM ac i e laye blend wi h a hickness o 50, 72, and 86nm o he s anda d, h ee-, and i e-laye 1D-NPS con igu a ions, espec i ely. The s anda d, h ee-, and i e-laye 1D-NPS con igu a ions a e capped wi h LiF (30nm), LiF (140nm)/MoO3 (98nm)/LiF (40nm) and LiF (150nm)/MoO3 (70nm)/LiF (132nm)/ MoO3 (97nm)/LiF (56nm), espec i ely. All 1D-NPS cells inco po a e a LiF (120nm) an i e lec ion coa ing on he opposi e side o he subs a e. No e ha he h ee-laye 1D-NPS cell was op imized o a neu al colo ansmission as opposed o he one conside ed in Figu e1, which was op imized o an AVT la ge han 50% only. The di e ences be ween he i e-laye 1-D NPS om he cu en igu e and he one om Figu e1 mus be a ibu ed o expe imen al limi a ions in exac ly ep oducing laye hicknesses. www.ad ene gyma .dewww.ad ancedsciencenews.com © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 1904196 (5 o 9) ha he s anda d con igu a ion cell would p o ide a close o a neu al colo ansmission gi en ha ansmission in he blue as well as he ed po ions o he spec um is less a ec ed by such sola cell. To achie e a high e iciency neu al colo ans- mission sola cell, we inco po a ed in he in e se design he condi ion ha , in addi ion o an AVT abo e 50%, he a e age ansmission o he blue, ed, and g een cone sensi i i ies o be abo e 50%, oo (see Figu e S8 in he Suppo ing In o - ma ion). In ha case, he in e se design yielded a h ee-laye 1D-NPS cell ha when ab ica ed exhibi ed a maximum PCE o 8.34%, mo e han 2 pe cen age poin s highe han he PCE o he bes s anda d con igu a ion cell (see J–V cu e in Figu e2b and EQE cu e in Figu e S9 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion). On he o he hand, as can be seen in Figu e2c and Figu e S10 (Suppo ing In o ma ion), he ansmission p o ile achie ed o he h ee-laye 1D-NPS cell is e y simila o he one om he s anda d con igu a ion. In an angula dependen op imiza ion o an o ganic sola cell, one may ha e o conside addi ional adjus men s o accoun o a possible bi e ingence due o a p e e ed o ien a ion o he polyme o molecules wi hin he ac i e laye .[42] To e alua e po en ial de ia ions in he e ac i e index, we measu ed he ans e se magne ic (TM) and ans e se elec ic (TE) ansmis- sions a 50° sepa a ely. When i ing such measu ed ansmis- sion spec a o he p edic ions om ou ans e ma ix model, shown bo h in Figu e2d, we obse e a small IR shi o he p e- dic ed ansmission ela i e o he measu ed one. Howe e , his shi is p esen o bo h pola iza ions as well as o he no mal incidence ansmission. In such e en , he small de ia ion obse ed should be a ibu ed o a small e o when de e mining each laye hickness o e ac i e index. Al hough we canno ully disca d i , i p esen , bi e ingence would be small enough no o in oduce any signi ican change in he design o he 1D-NPS o ob ain an op imal pe o mance o he anspa en sola cells. 2.3. E iciency in Ene gy Collec ion When Sunligh Is Inciden a La ge Angles As can be in e ed om Figu es 1c and 2a,b, he PCE o a i e-laye 1D-NPS cell exhibi s a s ong dependence on he ligh angle o incidence. Indeed, i we compa e he measu ed a e age PCEs om Table 1 we no e ha such a e age PCE inc eases by 13% when he cell is il ed om 0° o 50°. As seen Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 Figu e 3. Ou doo measu emen s o ene gy con e sion du ing he equinox. a) Expe imen al (ci cles) and modeled (lines) sun i adiance (le axis) and sun ays angle o incidence ( igh axis) on a e ical cell acing sou h o wo di e en days: Ma ch 21 2019 (solid ci cles, solid lines) and Ma ch 25 2019 (emp y ci cles, dashed lines). The angle o sun ays’ incidence is gi en ela i e o he no mal o he cell su ace. The i e-laye 1D-NPS and mc-Si module we e measu ed on Ma ch 21 and he s anda d cell on Ma ch 25. The a ea unde he cu es co esponds o he o al sun adia ion used o de e mine he ECE. b) Accumula ed elec ic ene gy (kWh m−2) o he s anda d and i e-laye 1D-NPS cells and he mc-Si module. c) PCE o he ab ica ed cells and mc-Si module du ing he cou se o he day, using he modeled i adiance om a) as he inpu powe . d) Expe imen al VOC⋅FF p oduc (le axis) and JcSC ela i e o he cell a ea ( igh axis). All measu emen s we e pe o med in a sou h-o ien ed e ical posi ion du ing clea sky days. Cell alues ep esen a 16-de ice a e age while mc-Si module a e single measu emen s (see Tables S2, S3, and S4 o he Suppo ing In o ma ion o lis ed da a). Solid o dashed lines a e model p edic ions whe eas do ed lines a e guides o he eye. www.ad ene gyma .de www.ad ancedsciencenews.com © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 1904196 (6 o 9) in Figu e1c, PCE ends o maximize close o he B ews e angle and app oaches 0° a 90°. As indica ed abo e o an op imal cell a chi ec u e, he in e se design mus be se o maximize ECE du ing he cou se o 1 day a he han PCE a a gi en angle. This should p ope ly accoun o PCE as well as inciden in en- si y dependence on he angle o incidence o local sola ime. As seen in Figu e 3a, du ing o close o he equinox o any la de ice posi ioned e ically and acing sou h, he angle o incidence o sun ays will ange om 48° o 90°, while sun- ligh in ensi y will ange om 0 o a ound 800 W m−2. We ha e chosen o pe o m ou doo measu emen s du ing o close o he equinox because hey p o ide a good a e age o e yea a i- a ions in sun ays in ensi y and al i ude. The elec ic ene gy accumula ed du ing a day (in kWh m−2) as well as he ene gy con e sion e iciency ( ollowing Equa ion S13, Suppo ing In o ma ion) is de e mined pe squa e me e o ins alla ion o ela i e o he cell a ea. As shown in Figu e 3b and Table 2, he i e-laye 1D-NPS can collec ene gy wi h an a e age e iciency o 9.51%, which is sligh ly la ge han 9.40%, i s PCE a 50° incidence. As can be seen by inspec ion o Figu e3c, a simila ela ion be ween PCE and ECE is ound o he mul i-c ys alline silicon (mc-Si) module inco po a ing a ligh di usion ex u ing. On he con a y, he s anda d con igu a ion anspa en OPV cell exhibi s an a e age 5.26% ECE, a 13% less ela i e o 6.02%, i s PCE a 50° incidence. In he in e se design o op ically ailo he 1D-NPS cell a chi ec- u e, he compu ed and measu ed cu en densi ies (shown in Figu e3d) a e ela i e o he ac ual cell a ea o accoun o he educ ion in he o al numbe o collec ed pho ons by he cosα ac o .[43–45] In addi ion, one may also in oduce he FF∙VOC p oduc a ia ions due o changes in sunligh in ensi y du ing he cou se o 1 day, shown in Figu e3d. When he la e and all o he ligh dependen e ec s a e aken in o accoun , he in e se design yields a cell a chi ec u e o he mos e icien ene gy con e sion. As can be seen in Figu e 3c, he PCE o he 1D-NPS cell is o a wide hou ly ange ai ly cons an , exhibi ing a sligh inc ease a ound 8 and 16 h and a clea d op du ing e y ea ly o la e hou s. 3. Conclusion The op ical ailo ing b ough by he 1D-NPS is shown o p o- ide an op imal sunligh collec ion a la ge angles o ≈50° and abo e. Fo a b oad ange o angles (≈20–80°) he capaci y o a highly anspa en cell o con e ligh in o elec ici y is inc eased by mo e han 50% ela i e o a anspa en de ice in a s anda d con igu a ion no including any kind o speci ic a chi ec u e o decouple ligh ha es ing om ansmission. When conside ing a e ical ins alla ion, we demons a ed ha he PCE as well as he ECE du ing he equinox a e bo h la ge han 9.5%. These e iciencies a e he highes e e measu ed o any kind o PV echnology exhibi ing an AVT la ge han 50%. The e icien u iliza ion o IR adia ion by he blend, he small numbe o λ/4 laye s uned a di e en wa eleng hs used in he op ical ailo ing, he ene gy ha es ing decoupled om ansmission, he enhanced ha es ing a la ge angles o inci- dence, and he ex emely hin me allic op elec ode ab ica ed, all align oge he in he same di ec ion o lead o an inc ease in ligh o elec ici y con e sion la ge han 50%, as seen in Table 3, whe e h ee di e en me ics o e alua e a semi ans- pa en cell a e compa ed. I is wo h no ing ha e ical sunligh collec ion measu e- men s o he ECE pe o med du ing he equinox p o ide a good a e age o he de ice pe o mance h oughou he yea . A pa allel 41° du ing he sp ing and all equinoxes, sun ays will be inciden on he cell a angles ha ange om 48° o 90°. The angula ange is om 25° o 60° du ing he win e sols ice and om 72° o 90° du ing he summe sols ice. In addi ion, p o ided ha di used sunligh is mos ly i adia ed om he Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 Table 2. Ene gy collec ion o he s anda d and he i e-laye 1D-NPS sola cells and he e e ence mc-Si module du ing he sp ing equinox (cells we e posi ioned e ically and acing sou h). De ice Accumula ed elec ic ene gy (E) [kWh m−2 d] Sola adia ion (Esun) [kWh m−2 d] Ene gy con e sion e iciency (ECE) [%] S anda da,b) 0.268±0.010 (0.276) 5.092 5.26±0.20 (5.42) Fi e-laye 1D-NPSa) 0.554±0.011 (0.570) 5.825 9.51±0.19 (9.80) mc-Si 0.723 5.825 12.42 a)The a e age alues and s anda d de ia ions a e ob ained om 16 de ices and he highes alues a e shown in pa en heses; b)Measu ed on a di e en day (4 days a e he equinox). Table 3. Pe o mance o he 1D-NPS anspa en cell compa ed. PCE [%] PCE∙AVT [%] ECE [%] S anda d 0°S anda d 50°S anda d 0°S anda d 50°mc-Si (100% a ea) mc-Si (50% a ea) S anda d 5.82 6.11 2.99 3.14 12.42 6.21 5.42 1D-NPS 0°8.66 4.33 50°9.67 4.83 All angles 9.80 9.80 9.80 Gain (%) 49 58 45 54 −21 58 81 www.ad ene gyma .dewww.ad ancedsciencenews.com © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 1904196 (7 o 9) ci cumsola egion, as shown in Figu e S14, Sec ion S6 (Sup- po ing In o ma ion), one should no expec any signi ican d op in cell pe o mance when such pe o mance is a e aged aking in o accoun all possible wea he and sky condi ions as well as di e en sun al i udes and i adiances h oughou he yea . I is in e es ing o es ablish a compa ison o he 1D-NPS cells wi h comme cial mc-Si modules. The nominal PCE o such modules is, in he newe models, close o 17%, abou 2 pe cen age poin s highe han he olde mc-Si module we used as a e e ence o e alua e con e sion o elec ical ene gy du ing he cou se o a day (Figu e 3b,c). In no mal ope a ing condi- ions, his e iciency would d op o 15%, exhibi ing a loss o 2 pe cen age poin s, simila o he loss we measu ed o he mc-Si module we es ed. When conside ing a e ical Si ins al- la ion co e ing 50% o a açade, in o he wo ds, in a chess- boa d like building in eg a ed pho o ol aic (BIPV) ins alla ion ha would p o ide a 50% obs uc ion o ligh pass, he ene gy collec ion e iciency would d op o 7.5%. On he o he hand, assuming 10% losses in an e en ual up-scaling o modules o he neu al colo anspa en OPV cells we ab ica ed, such OPV echnology inco po a ing a h ee-laye 1D-NPS would exhibi app oxima ely 7.5% PCE o ECE. In summa y, we can say ha he op ically ailo ed anspa en OPV echnology ha we de eloped has he po en ial o clea ly ou pe o m comme - cial Si modules o e ical açade BIPV ins alla ions. I would p o ide a simila ligh o elec ici y con e sion bu wi h a high quali y 50% anspa ency a no mal incidence wi hou any highly isible obs uc ion o ision o d as ic change in colo . Away om no mal incidence and up o 50°, changes in ans- mission a e mino as can be seen in Figu e S10 (Suppo ing In o ma ion) whe e he ansmission o a h ee-laye 1D-NPS was measu ed a angles anging om 0° o 50°. In addi ion, gi en ha he human eye esponse o changes in ligh in en- si y is loga i hmic, he 50% educ ion in anspa ency o he OPV de ice co esponds o a loss in b igh ness pe cep ion o only 20%[46,47] (see Sec ion S4, Suppo ing In o ma ion). Such loss in b igh ness is simila o he one ob ained om echnical glasses, which a e widely used in anspa en building açades. Simila ly, o he ch oma ic a ibu es[48] o he anspa en OPV de ices (Table S5 and Figu e S16, Suppo ing In o ma ion) indica e ha colo neu ali y and de ice pe o mance can be a ained simul aneously. Finally, one mus no e ha no signi i- can cell deg ada ion is obse ed when he encapsula ed cells a e kep in ambien condi ions in he da k. Howe e , u u e wo k should add ess cell pe o mance e olu ion unde illumi- na ion which, due o he p esence o he NFA, seems o de ia e signi ican ly om he e olu ion obse ed in highly s able ulle ene accep o based cells.[49,50] Rega ding po en ial applica ions o an ene gy collec ion echnology mo e e icien when ligh is inciden a la ge angles, i is impo an o no e ha in many elemen s o s uc u es whe e PV is likely o be in eg a ed in, sunligh would in ac be inciden a such la ge angles o mos o he ime. Window açades bu also elec ic ehicles a e wo e y ele an applica- ions ha may bene i om anspa en pho o ol aics. Uses o such echnology as well as he op ical ailo ing de eloped may go beyond a simple ligh o elec ici y con e sion. An in e - es ing applica ion may a ise in wo-pho on abso p ion a i icial pho osyn hesis sys ems wi h a andem con igu a ion. In such case, a anspa en echnology would allow o an op imal in e- g a ion o such sys ems while he op ical ailo ing would lead o a be e balance among he n- ype semiconduc o pho oanode and sola cell cu en s. Bo h issues may igge a majo s ep o wa d in sola uel p oduc ion esea ch. 4. Expe imen al Sec ion T anspa en Cell Fab ica ion: Fi s , a ≈10 nm ZnO elec on- anspo ing laye was deposi ed on a p ecleaned ITO subs a e om a sol-gel p ecu so solu ion o zinc ace a e dehyd a e dissol ed in 2-me hoxye hanol (0.15 m).[51,52] A e he mally annealing a 150°C in ai ( ela i e humidi y < 40%) o 20min, he ZnO-coa ed samples we e ans e ed in o a ni ogen- illed glo ebox o spin-cas ing he PTB7- Th:FOIC:PC71BM (1:0.75: 0.75 by weigh ) pho oac i e laye .[29] Te na y blend solu ions we e deposi ed a di e en concen a ions and spinning speeds o achie e he nume ically compu ed ac i e laye hicknesses, i.e., AL hickness o ≈50, ≈70, and ≈86nm we e achie ed wi h 15, 17.5, and 20mg mL−1 solu ions ( o al concen a ion), espec i ely. A e wa ds, he esul ing blend ilms we e d ied unde acuum (<5 × 10−6 mba ) o 1 h. Finally, a 5nm hick MoO3 laye (Al a Aesa , 0.5 Å s−1) ollowed by an ul a hin Au seed laye (0.4 Å s−1, ≈1nm) and a hin Ag op elec ode (3 Å s−1, 8–14nm) we e deposi ed sequen ially h ough a shadow mask by he mal e apo a ion (<5 × 10−6 mba ). The de ice a ea, de ined by he o e lap be ween ITO and op hin Ag elec odes, was 0.06 cm2. No e ha he e apo a ion o he Au/Ag hin elec ode was ca ied ou on a subs a e cooled down o −5°C in o de o dec ease su ace di usion and island o ma ion o he Ag ilm. The op ical cons an o he hin Ag ilms (Figu e S6a, Suppo ing In o ma ion) was accu a ely ex ac ed h ough i ing expe imen al ligh ansmission, yielding an excellen ag eemen wi h he expe imen al esul s (Figu e S6b, Suppo ing In o ma ion). Fo s anda d cells, an addi ional p o ec ing laye o LiF (0.5 Å s−1, 30nm) was deposi ed on op o he de ice a ea. Finally, o ensu e good elec ical con ac , an addi ional 100nm hick Ag ilm was deposi ed on op o he ou e edge o he hin Ag elec ode. 1D-NPS and ARC Deposi ion: The 1D-NPS we e ab ica ed by sequen ial he mal e apo a ion o ela i ely low mel ing-poin MoO3 and LiF ino ganic ma e ials. To a oid in oducing physical damage o elec ical deg ada ion o he cell unde nea h, and o gua an ee ba ch- o-ba ch ep oducibili y, he deposi ion a es o bo h ma e ials need o be well con olled a 0.5–0.6 Å s−1. The hicknesses o all 1D-NPS laye s we e ca e ully moni o ed du ing he deposi ion using a c ys al qua z balance, and we e la e con i med by i ing he measu ed ansmission cu es wi h a ligh ansmission model. Fo he h ee-laye and i e-laye 1D-NPS cells, an addi ional 120 nm LiF ARC laye was he mally e apo a ed on he on side o he subs a es. All indoo cell measu emen s we e pe o med in ambien ai wi hou encapsula ion, whe eas all ou doo measu emen s we e done on glass-encapsula ed de ices sealed wi h a UV cu able adhesi e (No land Op ical Adhesi e 73, 1.5min cu ing) be o e es ing. A pic u e o one o he encapsula ed de ices used o he ou doo measu emen s is shown in Figu e S11a (Suppo ing In o ma ion). No e ha a e encapsula ion, he i e-laye 1D-NPS cell exhibi s negligible changes in EQE, as seen in Figu e S12 (Suppo ing In o ma ion). Cha ac e iza ion: The op ical simula ed ansmissions and EQEs a no mal incidence and highe incidence angles we e pe o med using an in-house compu e code based on he ans e ma ix me hod. The equi ed op ical cons an s ( e ac i e index and ex inc ion coe icien ) o all ma e ials used in he de ices, shown in Figu e S17 (Suppo ing In o ma ion), we e ob ained om modeling he expe imen al ansmission o he hin ilms o a ious hicknesses, unless s a ed o he wise. The J–V cu es o all de ices we e measu ed wi h a Kei hley 2420 sou ce me e unde a 1-sun, AM1.5G spec um om a sola simula o (ABET Sol3A, 1000 W m−2). The illumina ion in ensi y o he ligh sou ce (Xenon lamp, 300W, USHIO) was calib a ed using a Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 www.ad ene gyma .de www.ad ancedsciencenews.com © 2020 WILEY-VCH Ve lag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 1904196 (8 o 9) Ad . Ene gy Ma e . 2020, 10, 1904196 Hamama su silicon pho odiode (wi h a KG-5 il e , a ea = 0.1296 cm2) ce i ica ed by ISE F aunho e . Spec ally esol ed EQE esponses we e measu ed using a bench op equipmen (QEX10, PV Measu emen s Inc) a 130 Hz, using a calib a ed silicon cell spec al esponse as e e ence. Fo he J–V and EQE measu emen s a la ge incidence angles, an in-house sample holde wi h unable il was employed. Fo he EQE measu emen s, special ca e was aken o gua an ee ha he ligh spo (3mm in leng h a 0°) was comple ely enclosed wi hin he ac i e cell a ea. The ligh ansmission spec a o he ab ica ed de ices we e eco ded using an UV–VIS–NIR spec opho ome e (Lambda950, Pe kinElme ). Simila ly, he beam spo was comple ely con ined wi hin he de ice a ea. TE and TM pola ized ligh ansmissions o i e- laye 1D-NPS cell a no mal incidence and 50° we e eco ded by a spec oscopic ellipsome e (Sop a, GES-5E). The shee esis ance o op hin Ag elec odes was de e mined by a ou -poin p obe s a ion (Cascade Mic o ech 44/7) connec ed o a Kei hley 2001 mul ime e . The mo phological cha ac e is ics o hin-Ag ilms we e s udied by ield emission scanning elec on mic oscopy (FEG-SEM, FEI Inspec F-EBL). Di ec Sunligh Measu emen s: The ou doo moni o ing s a ion was loca ed on ICFO’s oo (la i ude: 41.27°; longi ude: 1.989°), wi h a e ical suppo o ien ed owa d sola sou h and ee o any shadows and highly e lec i e su aces. The i adiance senso was a he mopile py anome e (Apogee Ins umen s SP-500 Se ies) wi h a ce i ied calib a ion unce ain y o ±5% (ISO-classi ied e e ence). The mc-Si module (REC G oup) had a a ed peak powe o 20W and ≈0.135 m2 ac i e a ea, wi h a esis ance empe a u e de ec o (PT100) adhe ed o he back panel. A pho og aph and a sys em schema ic is shown in Figu e S11 (Suppo ing In o ma ion). The J–V cu es o he encapsula ed es de ices and he mc-Si module we e measu ed wi h a Kei hley 2635A sou ce me e (4-wi e p obing) a ¼–1 h in e als using a comme cial da a logging so wa e (T ace IV, ReRa solu ions). Measu emen s we e done du ing o nea he sp ing equinox (Ma ch 21), ensu ing cloudless condi ions we e p esen ying o minimize he con ibu ion o di use i adiance. A black su ace was used on he back o he cells o p e en ea e lec ions. Because he cells we e only exposed o sunligh du ing he ol age sweep in o de o a oid ligh deg ada ion and ensu e da a consis ency, he possible e ec s o high ope a ing empe a u es a e no conside ed, al hough i is gene ally accep ed ha PCE empe a u e coe icien s in OPV a e posi i e, imp o ing he PCE alues sligh ly.[53,54] Mo eo e , he PCE was measu ed unde a sola simula o be o e and a e each ou doo un, showing no signs o deg ada ion (see Figu e S13, Suppo ing In o ma ion). Suppo ing In o ma ion Suppo ing In o ma ion is a ailable om he Wiley Online Lib a y o om he au ho . Acknowledgemen s Q.L., L.G., F.B., J.T., and J.M. acknowledge he inancial suppo om he Spanish Minis y o Economy and Compe i i eness (MINECO) h ough he “Se e o Ochoa” p og am o Cen es o Excellence in R&D (SEV- 2015-0522), om Fundació P i ada Cellex, om Gene ali a de Ca alunya h ough he Impulsa-Lla o (Lla -00073) and CERCA p og ams, and also acknowledge inancial suppo om MINECO h ough p ojec MAT2017- 89522-R. 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