Barcelona Airport infrastructure impact analysis of switching fuel to hydrogen
Abstract
This thesis explores the environmental and infrastructural impact of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona-El Prat Airport’s transition to hydrogen as a sustainable aviation fuel. Aviation is one of the most fossil fuel-dependent sectors, contributing between 2% and 3% of global carbon dioxide emissions, which are further amplified due to high-altitude pollutant release. In order to align with the goals of Net Zero Emissions by 2050, hydrogen emerges as a sustainable and promising alternative in aviation, among other sectors, to replace conventional fossil fuels and Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). Its high gravimetric energy density and potential for zero emissions make it a cornerstone for decarbonizing aviation. The study examines the technological, logistical, and regulatory challenges involved in implementing hydrogen as a primary fuel source at an airport. Key aspects analyzed include hydrogen production methods, innovative solutions for its storage in liquid and gaseous forms, and the infrastructure required for its distribution. Special focus is placed on emerging hydrogen-based technologies, such as new aircraft designs adapted for hydrogen propulsion and the advancements in Spain’s hydrogen strategy, positioning the country as a leader in renewable hydrogen production and distribution. A phased implementation strategy is proposed, spanning from 2035 to 2050. Each phase is defined by milestones in network development, airport infrastructure, fuel infrastructure and aircraft adaptation. The research evaluates the carbon and environmental impact of each phase, projecting substantial reductions in CO2 and NOx emissions while ensuring operational feasibility. The first phase (2035-2040) focuses on short-haul hydrogen-powered flights, while the second (2041-2045) expands to medium-haul routes. The final phase (2046-2050) aims to integrate long-haul flights and achieve widespread adoption. In this study, the number of flights performed by each type of aircraft, the amount of hydrogen required and the amount of conventional fuel reduced are analyzed for each of the defined phases, leading to the calculation of the reduced emissions and the energy consumption required. This research concludes that hydrogen offers transformative potential for aviation, enabling significant environmental benefits while positioning airports as key players in achieving a sustainable future. Although the transition requires substantial investment and innovation, the long-term benefits in reducing aviation’s environmental footprint justify the effort, paving the way for a cleaner and more sustainable industry.
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BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Document: Report Author: Eduardo Sim´on Gil de Muro Director - Codirector: Silvia Rodr´ıguez Donaire - Santiago L´opez Barrena Title: M`aster Universitari en Enginyeria Aeron`autica Call: Fall, 2024-2025.
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Acknowledgements Thanks, To Silvia Rodriguez Donaire and Santiago Lopezbarrena Arenas, director and co-director of this thesis, for their support during the development of it. To my family, my mother, my father and my brother whose unconditional love and support has give me the strength needed to overcome any obstacle during my journey through university and the development of this thesis. To my cousin for helping me choose the name BRISA for the project. To my friends, those who have been there all this time, specially this last year. To everyone I have met during these past years that have help me when I needed it. Thank you
Abstract This thesis explores the environmental and infrastructural impact of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona-El Prat Airport’s transition to hydrogen as a sustainable aviation fuel. Aviation is one of the most fossil fuel-dependent sectors, contributing between 2%and 3%of global carbon dioxide emissions, which are further amplified due to high-altitude pollutant release. In order to align with the goals of Net Zero Emissions by 2050, hydrogen emerges as a sustainable and promising alternative in aviation, among other sectors, to replace conventional fossil fuels and Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). Its high gravimetric energy density and potential for zero emissions make it a cornerstone for decarbonizing aviation. The study examines the technological, logistical, and regulatory challenges involved in implementing hydrogen as a primary fuel source at an airport. Key aspects analyzed include hydrogen production methods, innovative solutions for its storage in liquid and gaseous forms, and the infrastructure required for its distribution. Special focus is placed on emerging hydrogen-based technologies, such as new aircraft designs adapted for hydrogen propulsion and the advancements in Spain’s hydrogen strategy, positioning the country as a leader in renewable hydrogen production and distribution. A phased implementation strategy is proposed, spanning from 2035 to 2050. Each phase is defined by milestones in network development, airport infrastructure, fuel infrastructure and aircraft adaptation. The research evaluates the carbon and environmental impact of each phase, projecting substantial reductions in CO2and NOx emissions while ensuring operational feasibility. The first phase (2035-2040) focuses on short-haul hydrogen-powered flights, while the second (2041-2045) expands to medium-haul routes. The final phase (2046-2050) aims to integrate long-haul flights and achieve widespread adoption. In this study, the number of flights performed by each type of aircraft, the amount of hydrogen required and the amount of conventional fuel reduced are analyzed for each of the defined phases, leading to the calculation of the reduced emissions and the energy consumption required. This research concludes that hydrogen offers transformative potential for aviation, enabling significant environmental benefits while positioning airports as key players in achieving a sustainable future. Although the transition requires substantial investment and innovation, the long-term benefits in reducing aviation’s environmental footprint justify the effort, paving the way for a cleaner and more sustainable industry. Key words Hydrogen, Sustainable, Aviation, Airport, Carbon, Emissions.
Resumen Esta tesis explora el impacto medioambiental e infraestructural de la transición del Aeropuerto Josep Tarradellas Barcelona-El Prat al hidrógeno como combustible sostenible para la aviación. La aviación es uno de los sectores más dependientes de los combustibles fósiles, contribuyendo entre el 2%y el 3%de las emisiones globales de dióxido de carbono, que se amplifican aún más debido a la liberación de contaminantes a gran altitud. Con el fin de alinearse con los objetivos de Emisiones Netas Cero para 2050, el hidrógeno emerge como una alternativa sostenible y prometedora en la aviación, entre otros sectores, para sustituir a los combustibles fósiles convencionales y al Combustible de Aviación Sostenible (SAF). Su alta densidad energética gravimétrica y su potencial de emisiones cero lo convierten en una piedra angular para descarbonizar la aviación. El estudio examina los retos tecnológicos, logísticos y normativos que plantea la implantación del hidrógeno como principal fuente de combustible en un aeropuerto. Entre los aspectos clave analizados figuran los métodos de producción de hidrógeno, las soluciones innovadoras para su almacenamiento en forma líquida y gaseosa, y la infraestructura necesaria para su distribución. Se presta especial atención a las tecnologías emergentes basadas en el hidrógeno, como los nuevos diseños de aeronaves adaptados a la propulsión por hidrógeno y los avances en la estrategia del hidrógeno en España, que posicionan al país como líder en la producción y distribución de hidrógeno renovable. Se propone una estrategia de implantación por fases, que abarca de 2035 a 2050. Cada fase se define por hitos en el desarrollo de la red, la mejora de las infraestructuras, la cantidad de fuel necesario y la adaptación de las aeronaves. La investigación evalúa el impacto medioambiental y de carbono de cada fase, proyectando reducciones sustanciales de las emisiones de CO2y NOx al tiempo que se garantiza la viabilidad operativa. La primera fase (2035-2040) se centra en vuelos de corta distancia propulsados por hidrógeno, mientras que la segunda (2041-2045) se amplía a rutas de media distancia. La fase final (2046-2050) pretende integrar los vuelos de larga distancia y lograr una adopción generalizada. En este estudio, se analiza para cada una de las fases definidas el número de vuelos realizados por cada tipo de aeronave, la cantidad de hidrógeno necesario y la cantidad de combustible convencional reducido, dando así paso al cálculo de las emisiones reducidas y el consumo energético requerido. Esta investigación concluye que el hidrógeno ofrece un potencial transformador para la aviación, permitiendo importantes beneficios medioambientales y situando a los aeropuertos como actores clave para lograr un futuro sostenible. Aunque la transición requiere importantes inversiones e innovaciones, los beneficios a largo plazo en la reducción de la huella ambiental de la aviación justifican el esfuerzo, allanando el camino para una industria más limpia y sostenible.
Contents List of Figures III List of Tables V 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Project Objective .................................. 1 1.2 Project Scope .................................... 1 1.3 Project Requirements ............................... 2 1.4 Project Justification ................................ 2 2 State of the Art 4 2.1 Current Situation .................................. 4 2.1.1 Air Transport Evolution and Challenges ................. 4 2.1.2 Fossil Fuels Used in Aviation ....................... 5 2.1.3 Sustainable Sources of Power ....................... 6 2.1.4 Hydrogen Fuel ............................... 7 2.1.5 Comparison of Jet A-1, SAF and Hydrogen ............... 8 2.2 Current Case Study for Adapting an Airport to Hydrogen Use ........ 12 2.2.1 Toulouse-Blagnac Airport in France ................... 12 2.2.2 London Heathrow Airport in United Kingdom ............. 14 2.2.3 Current State of Hydrogen in Spain ................... 16 2.3 Regulations and Safety Protocols ......................... 17 3 Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat Airport: Overview 20 3.1 General Description of the Airport ........................ 20 3.2 Current Traffic and Projections .......................... 25 3.2.1 Evolution of Passengers Traffic ...................... 25 3.2.2 Traffic Segmentation by Route Type ................... 25 3.2.3 Most Used Aircrafts in Barcelona Airport ................ 26 3.3 Fuel Treatment in the Airport ........................... 29 3.3.1 Fuel Storage, Transport and Refueling Systems ............. 29 3.3.2 Fuel Capacity of the Airport ....................... 29 3.4 Sustainability and Quality Awards ........................ 31 4 Hydrogen Technologies in Aviation 32 4.1 Classification of Hydrogen Solutions in Aviation ................. 32 4.1.1 Type of Propulsion System ........................ 32 4.1.2 Type of Hydrogen State in Use ...................... 34 4.1.3 Type of Structure of the Aircraft ..................... 35 4.2 Hydrogen Powered Aircrafts ............................ 36 4.3 Hydrogen Manufacture ............................... 41 4.4 Hydrogen Storage .................................. 42 I
4.5 Hydrogen Transport ................................ 44 5 Strategy for the Implementation of Hydrogen in Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat Airport 45 5.1 Selected Aircraft Fleet ............................... 45 5.2 BRISA Phase 1: 2035 - 2040 ........................... 47 5.2.1 Network ................................... 47 5.2.2 Fuel Infrastructure ............................. 48 5.2.3 Airport Infrastructure ........................... 50 5.2.4 Carbon Impact ............................... 51 5.3 BRISA Phase 2: 2041 - 2045 ........................... 53 5.3.1 Network ................................... 53 5.3.2 Fuel Infrastructure ............................. 54 5.3.3 Airport Infrastructure ........................... 55 5.3.4 Carbon Impact ............................... 57 5.4 BRISA Phase 3: 2046 - 2050 ........................... 58 5.4.1 Network ................................... 58 5.4.2 Fuel Infrastructure ............................. 59 5.4.3 Airport Infrastructure ........................... 61 5.4.4 Carbon Impact ............................... 62 6 Environmental Impact 63 6.1 Emission Reduction Analysis ........................... 63 6.2 Energy Consumption Analysis ........................... 64 6.3 General Environmental Impact .......................... 65 7 Investment for the project development 66 7.1 BRISA Strategy Budget .............................. 66 7.2 Investors and Grants ................................ 69 7.3 Thesis Preparation Budget ............................ 70 8 Final Conclusions 71 II
List of Figures 2.1 Challenges for sustainable development of air transport. Source: [7]. ..... 5 2.2 Comparison of safety parameters between fossil fuels and hydrogen. Source: [55]. ......................................... 10 2.3 Airport Hydrogen Hub network strategy by Airbus. Source: [23]. ....... 12 2.4 HYPORT station in TLS. Source: [48]. ...................... 13 2.5 Liquid Hydrogen Refuelling Facility in TLS. Source: [26]. ........... 14 2.6 First and Second phases of the NAPKIN project for the infrastructure of the airport adapted to the use of hydrogen. Source: [52].............. 15 2.7 Third phase of the NAPKIN project for the infrastructure of the airport adapted to the use of hydrogen. Source: [52]. .................. 15 3.1 Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport. Aerial View. Source: [37]. . . . 20 3.2 Terminal 1 and 2 of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat Airport. . . . . . . 22 3.3 Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport runways. Aerial View. Source: [11]. ......................................... 23 3.4 Important infrastructure of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport runways: Tower of control and Hangars. ....................... 23 3.5 Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport passengers evolution from 2019 to 2023. Source: [14]. ................................ 25 3.6 Refueling system "into-plane service" of the airport. Source: [82]. ....... 29 3.7 Awards and certifications of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat. Source: [13]. 31 4.1 Steps of Hydrogen Combustion using Pistons. Source: [22]. .......... 33 4.2 Performance concept of a hydrogen fuel cell. Source: [89]. ........... 34 4.3 Section of the experimental Tupolev Tu-155, showing the cryogenic tank capable of holding 20 cubic meters of liquid hydrogen. Source: [17]. ....... 36 4.4 DLR’S HY4 aircraft, a hydrogen hybrid power system. Source: [83]. ..... 36 4.5 Airbus design for the Turboprop in the ZEROe program. Source: [23]. . . . . 37 4.6 Airbus design for the Turbofan in the ZEROe program. Source: [23]. ..... 38 4.7 Airbus design for the Blended-Wing Body (BWB) in the ZEROe program. Source: [23]. ..................................... 38 4.8 Regional aircraft concept of FlyZero program. Source: [62]. .......... 39 4.9 Narrowbody aircraft concept of FlyZero program. Source: [62]. ........ 39 4.10 Midsize aircraft concept of FlyZero program. Source: [62]. ........... 40 4.11 Routes for Hydrogen manufacture. Source: [55]. ................. 41 4.12 Ariama tanks for gaseous hydrogen storage. Source: [27]. ........... 42 4.13 Network of hydrant pipelines expected in Spain by 2040. Source: [35]. . . . . 44 5.1 Range of flights in use of hydrogen evolution from 2035 to 2040. ........ 47 5.2 Liquid Hydrogen Tanks distribution in the airport for 2035-2040. ....... 50 5.3 Liquid Hydrogen Tanks location in the airport for 2035-2040. ......... 51 5.4 Range of flights in use of hydrogen by 2045. ................... 53 III
5.5 Liquid Hydrogen Tanks location in the airport for 2041-2045. ......... 56 5.6 Bajo Ebro region in Tarragona where the liquefaction plant will be installed. 57 5.7 Range of flights in use of hydrogen by 2050. ................... 58 5.8 Liquid Hydrogen Tanks location in the airport for 2046-2050. ......... 61 5.9 Regions where the liquefaction plants will be installed. ............. 62 IV
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN changes , and passenger behavior (Figure 2.1). These challenges do not only affect the environmental issue, which is the main focus of this strategy, but also impact the world socially and economically because these significant changes require much more work and investment and must also be well received by the people who will experience the effects of the proposed changes. Figure 2.1 Challenges for sustainable development of air transport. Source: [7]. The magnitude of the strategy to reduce emissions and carbon footprint in aviation is so huge that requires the collaboration of not only airports and airlines but also technological industries advanced enough to develop groundbreaking sustainable solutions, global organizations to ensure the collaboration of all countries, trading companies, distributors, warehousing and transportation companies among others. 2.1.2 Fossil Fuels Used in Aviation In this section, some of the most commonly used fossil fuels in aviation will be explained. 2.1.2.1 Jet A-1 Kerosene Jet A-1 fuel is a type of kerosene fuel derived from petroleum. This fuel is produced by refining hydrocarbons through crude oil distillation processes, which yields a high-energy fuel with good stability at various temperatures and altitudes. This kind of fuel is the most widely used in both commercial and aviation due to its high energy density per volume and low volatility, providing excellent performance in longrange flights. Additionally, Jet A-1 remains stable at low temperatures, which is crucial for high-altitude flights. Other significant performance properties of Jet A-1 include stability, lubricity, fluidity, volatility, non-corrosiveness, and cleanliness. It is also used as a hydraulic fluid in engine control systems, in addition to providing an efficient source of energy [2]. Jet A-1 has a volumetric energy content of 33.17-35.95 MJ/L and a gravimetric energy content of 42.80 MJ/kg, making it a well-balanced and efficient propellant for aviation [50]. Despite the search for more sustainable alternatives, Jet A-1 fuel remains dominant in global aviation. Page 5
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Also, Jet A-1 fuel is perfect for turbine engines, which are needed in large aircraft along with denser, less volatile fuel, such as kerosene (Jet A-1), which has a higher energy density and stability at more extreme temperatures. Related to this fuel is Jet Propellant 8 (JP-8), which has additional additives that make it more resistant to freezing and corrosion. It is widely used in military aviation but not in commercial due to its preparation for extreme scenarios that are not present in commercial flights, increasing its cost. This propellant is not included in the scope of this project, as it is not focused on military aviation. 2.1.2.2 Aviation Gasoline (AvGas) AvGas is a highly refined gasoline with additives that improve its performance in aircraft internal combustion engines. Nowadays, AvGas is mainly used in small and recreational aircraft with piston engines. This is due to AvGas being a volatile liquid fuel. However, larger aircraft use turbine engines, which cannot operate on AvGas as they require a propellant with higher density and lower volatility. AvGas has a volumetric energy content of 31.00 MJ/L and a gravimetric energy content of 43.71 MJ/kg, similar to the values of Jet A-1, but slightly less efficient in its transportation [2]. However, AvGas use in aviation is decreasing over the years due to concerns about the lead content in many of its formulations, as a more sustainable and suitable alternative has not yet been found [79]. Additionally, its lower volumetric energy content compared to Jet A-1 makes it less efficient since aircraft require full tanks of fuel for their flights. AvGas will not be included in the scope of this project as it is not used in commercial flights. 2.1.3 Sustainable Sources of Power With the primary goal of reducing CO2and other pollutant gas emissions in the aviation sector, most companies are striving to develop and implement cleaner and more efficient propulsion methods that can replace fossil fuels and achieve net - zero CO2emissions by 2050. The key techniques for this strategy are Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF), electric propulsion , and hydrogen propulsion [54]. 2.1.3.1 SAF SAF is a liquid fuel currently employed in aviation that was developed as a cleaner and more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels such as Jet A-1 and aims to reduce CO2emissions from commercial flights by up to 80%. SAF can be produced from biological sources such as waste vegetable oil, waste animal fat, municipal waste, or non-food crops. This fuel can also be produced synthetically using a process that extracts carbon from CO2emissions in the atmosphere or by using green hydrogen. The sustainability of this type of propellant is clearly demonstrated, as it is mainly obtained from waste and does not interfere with food crops, water supplies, or forest degradation. There are currently biofuel production pathways that ensure the production of SAF with operational performances equivalent to those of Jet A-1 fuel. These SAFs serve as direct alternatives to fossil fuels, can be implemented in existing airport infrastructure, and are fully compatible with modern aircraft [54]. Page 6
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Additionally, SAF has a volumetric energy content of 33.17-35.95 MJ/L and a gravimetric energy content of 42.80 MJ/kg [34]. As can be observed, these values are comparable to those of Jet A-1 fuel, which proves the efficiency and success of this sustainable alternative. Despite all the advantages that these biofuels present, they are not fully implemented in the industry due to their elevated costs and limited production. Currently, the use of SAF accounts for less than 1%of operated flights [53]. However, it is expected that these fuels will represent 2%of aviation fuel by 2025, 6%by 2030, 34%by 2040, and finally 70%by 2050 [81]. 2.1.3.2 Electrical Power Another technique to approach the elimination of CO2is the use of electrical propulsion in aviation. Electric aviation is design to reduce emissions to zero and also reduce acoustic pollution by minimizing the noise of the flights by using batteries or other electric power sources as propulsion for aircrafts. One of the most advanced technologies of batteries for aviation are lithium cells LiFePo4 that are being employed in some groundbreaking projects in both air and ground vehicles [4]. However, LiFePo4 has a volumetric energy content of 0.79 MJ/L and an gravimetric energy content of 0.58 MJ/kg, which is extremely smaller than other fuels for aviation [38]. Its low specific energy make this solution not yet suitable for big aircrafts, as it cannot provide the energy required for long commercial flights. However, electric propulsion is being implemented in many projects such as urban air taxis or hybrid solutions using fuel or hydrogen [30] [21]. Due to its low application for commercial flights, electric propulsion will not be considered in the comparison of different fuels of the project as is not in the scope. 2.1.4 Hydrogen Fuel In the urge of obtaining a more sustainable solution for energy source in aviation and all the general industry, hydrogen rises as a perfect solution as it provides a great amount of energy while reducing greatly CO2emissions. Hydrogen can be obtained from fossil fuels and biomass, water or a mix of both. As of today, natural gas is the main source of hydrogen production. Hydrogen represents the future of power generation by being the leading option for storing renewable energy as it can be used in gas turbines to increase power system flexibility [61]. In aviation, Airbus is the main force promoting the use of hydrogen to substitute fossil fuels in commercial flights, having the objective of obtaining the world’s first hydrogenpowered commercial aircraft by 2035. As hydrogen is still a technique in development for aviation, some different strategies are being presented. One possible solution consists on using hydrogen combustion by modifying fuel injectors in gas turbines so the fuel system can be powered with hydrogen in a similar manner as how is done with fossil fuel or SAF. Another possible solution is the use of hydrogen fuel cells that create electrical energy that can be used for power electric motors, obtaining a fully electric propulsion system without the inconvenience of low specific energy of batteries [23]. Hydrogen has a gravimetric energy content of 142 MJ/kg, which is more than three times bigger than the one of Jet A-1 or SAF, providing a bigger amount of energy for propulsion. However, its volumetric energy content varies depending on the temperature and state in Page 7
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN which the hydrogen is found [36]: •Hydrogen gas at atmospheric pressure (0.1 Mpa, 15ºC) –Density: 0.083 kg/m3 –Volumetric energy content: 0.010-0.011 MJ/L •Compressed hydrogen (70 MPa) –Density: 39.75 kg/m3 –Volumetric energy content: 4.50-5.30 MJ/L •Liquid hydrogen (-252.9ºC, 1 atm) –Density: 70.90 kg/m3 –Volumetric energy content: 8.50 MJ/L As can be observed, this propellant, besides its huge gravimetric energy content, has a very low volumetric energy content compared to fossil fuels and SAF, which presents a big challenge for its large-scale implementation in aviation as it requires larger and bulkier tanks so the necessary amount of hydrogen for commercial flights can be stored. 2.1.5 Comparison of Jet A-1, SAF and Hydrogen In order to compare Jet A-1, SAF and hydrogen as fuels for aviation, different parameters will be considered and their impact will be studied. 2.1.5.1 Gravimetric Energy Density The gravimetric energy density per kilogram is vital to identify how much weight is needed for a flight according to its characteristics. •Jet A-1: 42.80 MJ/kg. •SAF: 42.80 MJ/Kg. •Hydrogen: 142 MJ/kg. Considering gravimetric energy density, hydrogen is the most weight-efficient option and it could reduce aircraft weight considerably. 2.1.5.2 Volumetric Energy Density The volumetric energy density indicates the space needed for the storage of the fuel on board. •Jet A-1: 33.17-35.95 MJ/L. •SAF: 33.17-35.95 MJ/L. •Hydrogen: 0.010-8.50 MJ/L. In this case, hydrogen has a lower volumetric energy density value compared to the other two options, which makes that the tanks needed for its storage on board must be larger, which can alter the design and efficiency of the aircraft. 2.1.5.3 CO2Emissions and Sustainability •Jet A-1: being a fossil fuel, it is considering one of the main contributors of CO2and other greenhouse gas emissions in the aircraft industry. Jet fuel emits approximately 3.6 tons of CO2per ton of fuel [56]. Page 8
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN •SAF: SAFs are designed to reduce CO2emissions by up to 80%and also is obtained through sustainable sources. However, it still emits CO2with its use, though less than fossil fuels. •Hydrogen: this kind of fuel does not produce CO2neither by its use nor by its production if it is green hydrogen. However, the production of gray hydrogen generates CO2 emissions. Comparing the CO2of the different alternatives, hydrogen is the most sustainable one, followed by SAF. Jet A-1 would be the one performing the worst in this aspect. 2.1.5.4 NOx Emissions and Other Pollutants •Jet A-1: as one of the bigger contaminants, Jet fuels emits NOx and other pollutant gases and particles that contribute to air pollution and climate change. 1 kg of fuel burnt produces 0.0148 kg of NOx [49]. •SAF: generate some polluting emissions but less than the fossil fuels. •Hydrogen: while in fuel cells it produces neither NOx nor polluting particles, it may generate them in combustion engine but at lower amount than the fossil fuels. Nonetheless, hydrogen combustion produces up to 90%less NOx emissions than kerosene combustion [55]. In this case, hydrogen used in fuel cells is the most clear and sustainable solution for NOx and polluting particles emissions. 2.1.5.5 Infrastructure •Jet A-1: currently aircraft infrastructure is fully designed and optimized for its use, including storage, supply and distribution. •SAF: its adaptation to the current infrastructure requires minimum changes as it can be blended easily with fossil fuels due to its design. •Hydrogen: in order to be used in aviation, it requires new infrastructures such as cryogenic storage facilities and hydrogen refueling stations. Jet A-1 and SAF are better than hydrogen in terms of infrastructures as they require none to minimal changes. The changes required by hydrogen presents a big challenge for the industry in logistics, technical developments and costs. 2.1.5.6 Costs •Jet A-1: it does not have a fixed production cost but is subject to oil price volatility, which means that could increase significantly through the years. •SAF: it has a higher production cost due to being a relatively emerging solution, however, it is expected to reduce it cost with government help in the future. •Hydrogen: green hydrogen is considerably expensive to produce due to the costs of electrolysis and the need of new infrastructures. Being a new technology, costs could drop in the future by its evolution. Considering costs, Jet A-1 remains the most economical option, followed by SAF and lastly by hydrogen. Page 9
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 2.1.5.7 Engine Technology •Jet A-1: as stated above, turbine engines, which are the type of engines used in commercial flights and most flights, are fully designed to burn Jet A-1 without complications. •SAF: is compatible with most current engines without need of modification, making it a perfect alternative easy to apply. •Hydrogen: needs new engine technology by modifying turbine engines to burn hydrogen or using fuel cells that can power electric motors. Once again, Jet A-1 and SAF are the most suitable options in this case as they do not need adaptations of the engines for their use. 2.1.5.8 Safety •Jet A-1: is well established with safety protocols as has been used for many years. However, it is flammable and presents risks in case of accidents or leaks. •SAF: as it has been designed to be a sustainable alternative for fossil fuel, it adapts perfectly to existing safety protocols and does not introduce new perils. •Hydrogen: this new solution presents new risks in its liquid state due to its low temperature and high flammability, including cryogenic risks. Also, in gaseous state, hydrogen leaks can be difficult to detect and present a peril due to its flammability. New protocols and safety standards need to be introduced, tested and applied. Hydrogen presents bigger challenges regarding safety than the other two options, needing new safety measures and protocols for its use. Figure 2.2 shows the comparison between kerosene and hydrogen in terms of safety parameters. Figure 2.2 Comparison of safety parameters between fossil fuels and hydrogen. Source: [55]. Page 10
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 2.1.5.9 Comparison Conclusions As can be observed, every option has its pros and cons and presents different challenges, advantages and risks. Jet A-1 is the most practical and economical option as it does not need any adaptation or modification in infrastructure, technology or safety. However, it presents a bigger problem in pollution and CO2emissions that need to be solved in order to stop climate change. SAF is a safe choice as it does not need any adaptations as the fossil fuels and it reduces considerably the pollution and emissions of propellers. However, its cost and limited availability are a huge problem to overcome. Finally, while hydrogen presents many challenges regarding modification and adaptation in infrastructure, engine technology and safety protocols, it has the potential to decarbonize the industry and reach long-term benefits, making it the best option for a green and sustainable future. To sum up the comparison between the three different fuel options, the following table 2.1 is presented: Table 2.1 Comparison of Jet A-1, SAF and Hydrogen fuels. Jet A-1 SAF Hydrogen Min Max Min Max Min Max Density [kg/m3] 775.00 840.00 775.00 840.00 0.083 70.90 Gravimetric Energy Density [MJ/kg] 42.80 42.80 142.00 Volumetric Energy Density [MJ/L] 33.17 35.95 33.17 35.95 0.010 8.50 CO2 Emissions and Sustainability +++ + NOx Emissions and Other Pollutants +++ ++ + Infrastructure + +++ Costs + ++ +++ Engine Technology + +++ Safety + + ++ Page 11
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 2.2 Current Case Study for Adapting an Airport to Hydrogen Use As stated in the previous chapter 2.1, hydrogen is set to be the future of aviation in terms of reducing CO2and other pollutants emissions in order to get on track with the Net Zero Emissions by 2050. However, despite all the environmental advantages presented by hydrogen, there are some setbacks that make its implantation in aviation a really big challenge of engineering and logistics. Some of the biggest challenges introduced by the use of hydrogen are: •Adaptation and creation of new engine systems so aircraft can operate with hydrogen. •Storage of hydrogen in aircrafts so the needed amount of fuel can be transported during the flight without affecting the infrastructure or causing risks. •Production of green hydrogen in a way that its cost is reduced and easy to supply. •Storage and recharging of hydrogen in the Airport. As this thesis is focused on the impact of adapting Barcelona’s airport to the use of hydrogen as fuel, only the two last challenges will be addressed. As the production, storage and supply of hydrogen is a big challenge as its use in aircrafts, Airbus, the main promoter of the use of hydrogen in aviation with its ZEROe program, its also working on an Airport Hydrogen Hub (Figure 2.3) network by partnering with hydrogen producers and distributors worldwide, airports and airlines to build the right ecosystem to operate a hydrogen-powered aircraft by 2035 [23]. Figure 2.3 Airport Hydrogen Hub network strategy by Airbus. Source: [23]. To have a better approach on how to implement the use of this green fuel in the airport, some examples of airports that are already planning and testing for this step into the future will be studied. 2.2.1 Toulouse-Blagnac Airport in France Toulouse-Blagnac Airport (TLS) located in Blagnac, France, is one of the most advanced airports in the race towards a green future and the Airport Hydrogen Hub strategy by Airbus. Page 12
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN The first groundbreaking project developed in the TLS airport is HYPORT (Figure 2.4), the first green hydrogen production and distribution station in Europe which is located in the airport and its focused to powering GSE (Ground Support Equipment) with two different hydrogen charging stations. The first station is on the tarmac and its used for airport shuttles, aircraft tractors and GPUs (Ground Power Units) supplying electricity to aircrafts when they are on the ground with the engines off. The other one is located on the city side of the airport and can recharge up to 20 buses or 200 light vehicles such as taxis per day. The electrolyser of HYPORT is powered by local renewable electricity and can generate over 400 kg of green hydrogen a day, which is the equivalent of 1 MW of high-power electrolysis per day and 146,000 kg of hydrogen per year. The investment for this project sums up to 7.2 M€[47]. Figure 2.4 HYPORT station in TLS. Source: [48]. Another important step for TLS airport is the design and proposal of a new liquid hydrogen refuelling facility (Figure 2.5) to be built in the area of the airport so future hydrogen powered aircrafts can be properly and safely refuelled in the airport grounds. The station is expected to be operational for ground handling staff by 2025. Page 13
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Figure 2.5 Liquid Hydrogen Refuelling Facility in TLS. Source: [26]. 2.2.2 London Heathrow Airport in United Kingdom Due to Heathrow Airport (LHR) being one of the busiest airports in Europe, its strategy for approaching a green future differs much from the french airport’s one as, instead on focusing on production and refuelling of hydrogen, it focus on transportation and storage of this green fuel. The main strategy for the airport located in Hillingdon, United Kingdom is the well known project NAPKIN (New Aviation, Propulsion, Knowledge and Innovation Network) which brings together 3 aircrafts, 3 universities and 3 airports to develop the perfect strategy of adaptation to hydrogen. Project NAPKIN is divided in three chronological phases. For phases 1 (Figure 2.6a) (2025-2030) and 2 (Figure 2.6b) (2035) small hydrogen aircrafts for local and national flights are expected to be used, therefore the amount of hydrogen needed would be around 550 tons by 2025, 1,600 tons by 2030 and 22,000 tons by 2035. For phase 1, the strategy is set to bring hydrogen by road and, for phase 2, storage facilities will be developed so liquid hydrogen will be storage in the airport, but the transportation will remain by road or river. Page 14
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN showing how Barcelona airport is currently the second most important one in each category, surpassed only by Madrid airport. Table 3.1 Evolution of number of passengers from 2019 to 2023 in the top 5 airports in terms of passengers. Data extracted from AENA [15]. Passengers Airport 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 % Inc 2023 /s 2019 ADOLFO SUÁREZ MADRID-BARAJAS 61,734,944 17,112,246 24,135,039 50,633,759 60,221,163 -2.5 % BARCELONA-EL PRAT J.T. 52,688,455 12,738,769 18,875,461 41,641,444 49,910,900 -5.3 % PALMA DE MALLORCA 29,721,142 6,108,514 14,497,159 28,573,350 31,106,165 4.7 % MÁLAGA-COSTA DEL SOL 19,858,656 5,161,243 8,874,635 18,458,006 22,344,261 12.5 % ALICANTE-ELCHE MIGUEL HDEZ. 15,048,240 3,739,567 5,841,144 13,206,430 15,747,699 4.6 % Table 3.2 Evolution of number of operations from 2019 to 2023 in the top 5 airports in terms of operations. Data extracted from AENA [15]. Operations Airport 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 % Inc 2023 /s 2019 ADOLFO SUÁREZ MADRID-BARAJAS 426,375 165,743 217,539 351,906 389,180 -8.7 % BARCELONA-EL PRAT J.T. 344,563 122,638 163,682 283,393 318,959 -7.4 % PALMA DE MALLORCA 217,222 76,852 141,197 220,696 228,918 5.4 % MÁLAGA-COSTA DEL SOL 144,939 59,670 92,248 144,123 161,716 11.6 % GRAN CANARIA 126,451 67,280 83,983 119,531 129,553 2.5 % Table 3.3 Evolution of number of cargo from 2019 to 2023 in the top 5 airports in terms of cargo. Data extracted from AENA [15]. Cargo Airport 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 % Inc 2023 /s 2019 ADOLFO SUÁREZ MADRID-BARAJAS 560,039,136 402,575,121 523,480,305 566,395,050 643,543,216 14.9 % BARCELONA-EL PRAT J.T. 176,797,909 114,449,796 136,131,797 155,599,900 156,503,311 -11.5 % ZARAGOZA 182,619,068 143,377,681 194,493,121 126,967,965 129,856,499 -28.9 % VITORIA 64,470,673 64,334,516 72,529,181 73,632,775 71,694,884 11.2 % GRAN CANARIA 19,727,786 13,926,469 15,840,392 15,869,057 17,117,380 -13.2 % Also, considering that the data of number of passengers will be the most important one for this project, it can be observed how Barcelona’s airport has almost recover the amount of commercial flights since before COVID-19. Barcelona airport is raked 6th airport in EU+UK according to ACI Europe Statistics in 2023 with an average of 959,000 pax/week and 6,134 operations/week. Moreover, it counts with 83 airlines operating in the airport, being Vueling the most important one [16]. After the extensions developed in 2009, Barcelona airport is one of the biggest ones in the country with 1,533 ha of aerial surface and 647,066 m2of terminal surface. Table 3.4 shows the most important statistics of the airport regarding its dimensions and capacity. Page 21
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Table 3.4 Statistics in terms of capacity and dimensions of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat Airport. Source: [29]. Airport area 1.533 ha Terminal area 647.066 m2 Max operations per hour 90 Airport capacity 55 M/pax. Airfield 2 parallel runways 1 cross runway Category II/III 4 headways Aircraft apron 168 positions Counters 280 Baggage belts 29 Cargo terminals 160.000 m2 Contact positions 67 Aeronautical park 50 ha Airport City 150 ha In order to be able to handle the traffic of the airport, it counts with 2 terminals separated by 4 km of each other. Terminal 1 (Figure 3.2a), the "new one" was developed in 2009 and mainly has international and Schengen traffic, while terminal 2 (Figure 3.2b), the renovated "old one" is saved primarily for regional/national and no Schengen flights [25]. (a) Barcelona airport T1. Source: [87]. (b) Barcelona airport T2. Source: [33]. Figure 3.2 Terminal 1 and 2 of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat Airport. As stated in Table 3.4, Barcelona airport counts with three runways (Figure 3.3, two of them parallel runways and one cross runways, with planned projects of building a runway above the water in the future to increment the operational capacity of the aiport. Parallel runways 06L-24R and 06R-24L are both asphalt paved surface, with dimensions of 3,352 x 60 m and 2,660 x 60 m respectively, also having the first one a displaced threshold of runway 06L by 90 m. The cross runway 02-20 is also asphalt paved surface, with dimensions 2,528 x 45 m and a displaced threshold of runway 02 by 40 m [80]. Page 22
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Figure 3.3 Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport runways. Aerial View. Source: [11]. Lastly, Barcelona airport features more important infrastructure as the tower of control (Figure 3.4a) and various hangars (Figure 3.4b). The tower of control of more than 50 m of high allow to manage the traffic in the airport while the several hangars located mostly in the southern side of the airport permit tasks of maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) of aircrafts. (a) Tower of control of Barcelona airport. Source: [93]. (b) Hangar of Barcelona Airport. Source: [32]. Figure 3.4 Important infrastructure of Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport runways: Tower of control and Hangars. Page 23
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Other important infrastructure as fuel deposit, recharge stations and transportation of Barcelona airport will be explained in later sections. Page 24
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 3.2 Current Traffic and Projections In order to study the impact of adapting Barcelona Airport to the use of hydrogen, an analysis of the current traffic of the airport and its projection in the future is needed. Considering that this project will be mainly focused on commercial flights, only passengers traffic will be studied. 3.2.1 Evolution of Passengers Traffic As can be observed in Figure 3.5, in 2023, Barcelona airport reached 49.9 M Pax, being only a 5.3%less than 2019, before the COVID-19 global crisis as can be observed in Table 3.5. Figure 3.5 Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport passengers evolution from 2019 to 2023. Source: [14]. As stated in a study developed by Cámara de Comercio de Barcelona, considering a continuous scenario, a 4.9%increase in passengers per year is expected at the Barcelona Airport, reaching a value of 69.86 M Pax in 2030, 88.72 M Pax in 2035, 112.68 M Pax in 2040, 143.1 M Pax in 2045 and 181.74 M Pax in 2050 [91]. Also, considering an amount of 959,800 average Pax per week, 6,134 average operations per week [14] and a maximum of 90 operations per hour [28], the following forecast table 3.5 is obtained. Table 3.5 Forecast of the evolution of traffic in Barcelona airport up to 2050. Data extracted from [91] [14] [28]. Year Pax/year [M] Av. Pax/week Av. Ops/week Max Ops/hour 2023 49.90 959,800 6,134 90 2030 69.86 1,343,720 8,588 120 2035 88.72 1,708,444 10,919 140 2040 112.68 2,159,550 13,802 170 2045 143.10 2,754,626 17,605 180 2050 181.74 3,493,672 22,328 250 3.2.2 Traffic Segmentation by Route Type Given that the implementation of hydrogen will be done gradually depending on the type of route, starting with those of short range (less than 1,500 Km of distance), following with medium range (between 1,500 Km and 4,500 Km of distance) and concluding with large range (more than 4,500 Km of distance), it is important to identify the percentage of flights included in each type. Page 25
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Domestic flights from Barcelona airport represent 27.3%of the traffic as in 2023. While these flights can be considered short-range, those to Canary Island are considered mediumrange. In this case, the passengers who traveled to the Canary Islands in 2023 are 1.6 M Pax, representing 3.2%of the flights. Therefore, in terms of domestic flights, a 24.1%of Barcelona airport traffic is considered short-range and a 3.2%is considered medium-range. Out of the 60.8%of flights to Europe, more than a 57.6%are to Italy, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Portugal, Netherlands and Switzerland. As an estimation of the flights and destination, this 57.6%will be considered short range and the remaining 3.2%will be considered medium range. Another 2.7%of the flights are to the North of Africa. Within these 17 destinations, 14 are in a short range while the other 3 are at a medium rage. Therefore, a 2.2%will be considered short range and the other 0.5%will be considered medium range. In Middle-East and Asia, Barcelona airport flights represent the 3.7%. Within the 13 routes included in this percentage of flights, 9 are in a medium range distance while the other 4 are large range. In this case, a 2.6%is considered medium-range while the other 1.1%is large range. Lastly, the remaining 5.5%of the flights are to North and South America, which are considered completely large range flights. Therefore, Table 3.6 shows a summary of the percentage of Pax for each type of route. This will be important later, as each type of route will use different planes and consume a different amount of fuel. Table 3.6 Segmentation of passenger traffic in type of route. Data extracted from [14] [15]. Range % of Pax Short Range 83.9 Medium Range 9.5 Large Range 6.6 3.2.3 Most Used Aircrafts in Barcelona Airport In order to do a proper estimation of the fuel used and stored in the airport, it is important to know the most employed aircrafts for the different types of routes. In short-range flights, Vueling’s presence in the airport represents a 67.64%, while Ryanair’s presence reaches the 15.44%[14]. With a total of 83.08%these two airlines are considered the most important ones in terms of domestic flights and will be used for the estimation of aircrafts. For short-range flights, the most used aircrafts are Airbus A320 and Boeing 737800 for Vueling and Ryanair respectively. Table 3.7 shows the characteristics of these two aircrafts in terms of PAX, range and fuel capacity. Table 3.7 Characteristics of Airbus A320 and Boeing 737-800. Data extracted from [18] [24]. Airbus A320 Boeing 737-800 Max PAX 180 180 Range [km] 5,500 4,900 Max Fuel Capacity [L] 27,600 26,020 Considering that both aircrafts have a capacity of 180 seats, short-range flights represent 83.9%of the amount of PAX and the average ratio of occupation of a plane in 2024 is 82.5% Page 26
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN [57], the presence of Vueling versus Ryanair in the airport and the estimated amount of passengers up to 2050 shown in Table 3.5, the following amount of flights for each aircraft are estimated and shown in Table 3.8. Table 3.8 Estimation of short-range flights using Airbus A320 and Boeing 737-800 up to 2050. Airbus A320 Boeing 737-800 Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2023 229,532 4,402 52,395 1,005 2030 321,345 6,163 73,352 1,407 2035 408,098 7,827 93,155 1,787 2040 518,310 9,940 118,313 2,269 2045 658,237 12,624 150,254 2,882 2050 835,975 16,032 190,826 3,660 For international medium-range flights, the most present airlines in Barcelona airport are Vueling, Ryanair, Easy-Jet and Wizz Air with 11.3, 6.5, 2.3 and 2.0 million passengers in 2023, which can be converted to a 51.13%, 29.41%, 10.41%and 9.05%, respectively. In this case, the most used aircraft for medium-range flights for Vueling and Ryanair remain the A320 and Boeing 737-800 as before. For Easy-Jet, the most used airplane for these type of flight is the A320, while Wizz Air uses the A321neo, whose characteristics are shown in Table 3.9. Table 3.9 Characteristics of Airbus A321neo. Data extracted from [19]. Airbus A321neo Max PAX 244 Range [km] 7,400 Max Fuel Capacity [L] 32,940 Following the same procedure as before, the following estimation for medium-range flights can be observed in Table 3.10. Table 3.10 Estimation of medium-range flights using Airbus A320, Boeing 737-800 and A320neo up to 2050. Airbus A320 Boeing 737-800 Airbus A321neo Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2023 19,645 377 9,388 180 2,131 41 2030 27,503 527 13,144 252 2,984 57 2035 34,928 670 16,692 320 3,789 73 2040 44,361 851 21,200 407 4,813 92 2045 56,337 1080 26,924 516 6,112 117 2050 71,549 1372 34,193 656 7,762 149 For large-range flights, the most representative airlines are American Airlines, Iberia and Air China, with approximately the same presence in the airport. In this case, the most used aircraft for each company are Airbus A350-900 for Iberia and Boeing 777-300ER for both American Airlines and Air China. The specifications for these two aircrafts can be observed in Table 3.11. Page 27
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Table 3.11 Characteristics of Airbus A350-900 and Boeing 777-300ER. Data extracted from [20] [31]. Airbus A350-900 Boeing 777-300ER Max PAX 440 365 Range [km] 15,372 11,880 Max Fuel Capacity [L] 166,488 181,280 Finally, repeating the same calculations as before for large-range flights, the following estimation shown in Table 3.12 is obtained. Table 3.12 Estimation of large-range flights using Airbus A350-900 and Boeing 777-300ER. Airbus A350-900 Boeing 777-300ER Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2023 6,079 117 3,609 69 2030 8,510 163 5,053 97 2035 10,808 207 6,417 123 2040 13,726 263 8,150 156 2045 17,432 334 10,350 198 2050 22,139 425 13,145 252 Page 28
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 3.3 Fuel Treatment in the Airport 3.3.1 Fuel Storage, Transport and Refueling Systems The data regarding the storage, transport and refueling of fuel, both SAF and Jet A-1, in Barcelona airport is very limited. However, it can be considered that the fuel is transported by using tanker trucks from the refinery where fuel is obtained or by using oil pipelines. Regarding storage, the airport counts with many deposits on which the fuel can be stored for its use when necessary. In these tanks, SAF, once mixed with Jet A-1, does not need to be stored apart as its properties are very similar. In terms of refueling ,there are different techniques as the use of tank trucks connect to the subterranean of the airport or the into-plane service of some companies as Repsol, in which a refueling unit (Figure 3.6) with a tractor unit, supply equipment and fuel storage tank allows to supply fuel directly to the plane [82]. Figure 3.6 Refueling system "into-plane service" of the airport. Source: [82]. 3.3.2 Fuel Capacity of the Airport A very important parameter needed for this project is the amount of hydrogen that will be needed in the future so its storage and transportation can be sized and the impact on the airport can be studied. Considering that hydrogen will replace part of the fuel currently used in the airport, the fuel capacity, both fuel and SAF, needs to be calculated. As have been done before, only commercial fights will be considered, which will allow to use the estimated data computed before. Also, considering that a round-trip flight counts for 2 operations, and many of these flights will be refueled in other airports, it will be considered that only half of the medium and large range operations and 55%of the short-range ones will be refueled in Barcelona airport, considering that some small airports in Spain will depend on Barcelona fuel storage. Another consideration will be that the amount of fuel stored in the airport should be enough for a whole week, also considering an extra amount for times when the amount of operations is higher than usual. This way, the computed amount of fuel in the airport will be 140%the fuel needed for a week of flights. In Tables 3.8,3.10 and 3.12, the average amount of operations per week is shown for short, medium and large range flights respectively and for each type of aircraft used in these types of flights. Moreover, Tables 3.7,3.9 and 3.11 show the maximum fuel capacity of each aircraft. However, it is also important to understand that a full fuel tank of the plane allows it to do multiple flights without the need of refueling. The number of flights per full tank selected for the estimation will be one less than the total number flights so there is an extra flight Page 29
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN available in case is needed. In order to estimate the amount of fuel consumed by each aircraft and obtain the amount of flights that it can carry on, it will be estimated that the average distance for a short-range flight will be 1,000 km, the average distance for a medium-range flight will be of 3,000 km and the average distance for a large-range flight will be of 7,000 km. Also, it will be considered that an aircraft consumes 3 liters of fuel per passenger each 100km [12]. A final consideration will be a ratio of occupation of 100%to have an extra amount of fuel in case of a busy week of the year like holidays where the plane can be fully occupied. With all these considerations, the amount of flights that an aircraft can fully perform with its full tank is obtained and shown in Table 3.13. Table 3.13 Amount of flights performed with a full tank by A320, Boeing 737-800, A321neo, A350-900 and Boeing 777-300ER for short, medium and large-range flights. Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range Airbus A320 Boeing 737-800 Airbus A320 Boeing 737-800 Airbus A321neo Airbus A350-900 Boeing 777-300ER Max Fuel Capacity [L] 27,600 26,020 27,600 26,020 32,940 166,488 181,280 Max PAX 180 180 180 180 244 440 365 Ratio of occupation 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Av. Range Flight [km] 1,000 1,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 7,000 7,000 Fuel Consumption per Flight [L] 5,400 5,400 16,200 16,200 21,960 92,400 76,650 Amount of Flights with a Full Tank 5 4 1 1 1 1 2 Now, considering all the estimated operations up to 2050 by the different types of flights, and the ones assumed in terms of refueling by Barcelona airport according to what have been stated before, the following amount of needed fuel, shown in Table 3.14, is obtained. Table 3.14 Estimated amount of fuel needed in the airport from 2023 to 2050. Year Short-Range [L] Medium-Range [L] Large-Range [L] TOTAL [L] 2023 23,744,155 11,507,538 18,013,279 53,264,972 2030 33,242,667 16,085,874 25,150,737 74,479,278 2035 42,218,696 20,456,114 31,928,215 94,603,025 2040 53,614,057 25,975,754 40,548,329 120,138,140 2045 68,092,555 32,961,810 51,487,598 152,541,963 2050 86,474,804 41,891,066 65,519,076 193,884,946 Also, an estimation of the fuel consumed per year, considering the estimated amount of flights per year obtained before, and the previous parameter, is shown in Table 3.15. Table 3.15 Estimated amount of fuel consumed in the airport from 2023 to 2050. Year Short-Range [L] Medium-Range [L] Large-Range [L] TOTAL [L] 2023 884,315,363 428,336,450 669,600,156 1,982,251,969 2030 1,238,038,538 599,691,320 937,408,400 2,775,138,258 2035 1,572,270,829 761,574,150 1,190,519,592 3,524,364,571 2040 1,996,883,496 967,263,910 1,511,965,144 4,476,112,550 2045 2,535,978,781 1,228,396,480 1,920,171,408 5,684,546,669 2050 3,220,747,822 1,560,067,270 2,438,670,316 7,219,485,408 The amount of fuel consumed per year shown in Table 3.15 counts for both Jet A-1 and SAF, as both fuels produce CO2emissions, the first more than the second, and the idea of this project is to replace both with hydrogen. Page 30
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN As far as commercial and larger aircraft are concerned, Airbus is one of the main promoters with its ZEROe project, which promises to be the first commercial aircraft powered entirely by hydrogen. Specifically, these first aircraft are expected to make their appearance on the market in 2035. This project has the following three prototypes currently in the research and development phase: •Turboprop: (Figure 4.5) –Range: more than 1,850 km. –Type of flight: Short-range. –Passengers: more than 100 PAX –Propulsion System: Hydrogen Fuel Cells. –Hydrogen state: Liquid. Figure 4.5 Airbus design for the Turboprop in the ZEROe program. Source: [23]. •Turbofan: (Figure 4.6) –Range: more than 3,704 km. –Type of flight: Medium-range. –Passengers: more than 200 PAX –Propulsion System: Hydrogen Combustion. –Hydrogen state: Liquid. Page 37
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Figure 4.6 Airbus design for the Turbofan in the ZEROe program. Source: [23]. •Blended-Wing Body (BWB): (Figure 4.7) –Range: more than 3,704 km. –Type of flight: Large-range. –Passengers: more than 200 PAX –Propulsion System: Hydrogen Combustion and Hydrogen Fuel Cells. –Hydrogen state: Liquid. Figure 4.7 Airbus design for the Blended-Wing Body (BWB) in the ZEROe program. Source: [23]. Even though the Blended-Wing Body aircraft is currently defined to surpass the 3,704 km, considering that its designed for large-range and intercontinental flights, it is expected that its range will surpass 7,000 km. Other possible solutions for a sustainable aviation are the FlyZero aircrafts, developed by the Aerospace Technology Institute and based on existing aircrafts as a basis. These three concept aircrafts are set to appear in the market between 2035 and 2050: •Regional (FZR-1E): (Figure 4.8) –Range: 1,480 km. Page 38
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN –Type of flight: Short-range. –Passengers: 75 PAX –Propulsion System: Hydrogen Fuel Cells. –Reference: ATR72-600. –Hydrogen state: Liquid. Figure 4.8 Regional aircraft concept of FlyZero program. Source: [62]. •Narrowbody (FZN-1E): (Figure 4.9) –Range: 4,444 km. –Type of flight: Medium-range. –Passengers: 180 PAX –Propulsion System: Hydrogen Combustion. –Reference: A320neo. –Hydrogen state: Liquid. Figure 4.9 Narrowbody aircraft concept of FlyZero program. Source: [62]. •Midsize (FZM-1G): (Figure 4.10) –Range: 10,649 km. –Type of flight: Large-range. –Passengers: 279 PAX –Propulsion System: Hydrogen Combustion. Page 39
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN –Reference: B767-200ER. –Hydrogen state: Liquid. Figure 4.10 Midsize aircraft concept of FlyZero program. Source: [62]. As it can be observed, all the aircrafts in the ZEROe and FlyZero programs use liquid hydrogen due to its higher energy density, which is needed in commercial flights. Page 40
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 4.3 Hydrogen Manufacture Hydrogen is a very common element as it can be found connected to other atoms like oxygen (in water) or carbon (mostly in natural gas or methane). However, the process to isolate H2 and use it as a fuel is very complex, as these atoms need to be separated through different methods (Figure 4.11). The least expensive method is through gas separation by using hydrocarbon gases as basis, however, the obtained product is called gray hydrogen and generates a huge amount of CO2emissions in the process, which does not complain with the zero emissions program in which hydrogen is key. Another method of obtaining hydrogen is through electrolysis with water, which is a much more complex and expensive method but produces zero emissions [55]. This hydrogen is called green hydrogen and its production is increasing through the years as a part of the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 strategy. Figure 4.11 Routes for Hydrogen manufacture. Source: [55]. Globally, gray hydrogen production accounts for 95%of hydrogen production. However, Spain has a very clear plan to promote the production of green hydrogen through electrolysis and become the main Hydrogen Hub in southern Europe. According to the National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan dictated by the Spanish government, it foresees the use of 12 GW per year by 2030 for the production of green hydrogen by electrolysis [88]. Considering that the current largest hydrogen production plant in Spain, located in Puertollano and developed by Iberdrola, produces 3,000 Tn of hydrogen per year using 20 MW electrolysis, 600 times less than the amount established for 2030, it is expected that the production of green hydrogen in Spain reaches 1,800,000 Tn of green hydrogen per year. Page 41
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 4.4 Hydrogen Storage For the storage of hydrogen in liquid state, which will be the main hydrogen used in this adaptation project of the Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat airport, it must undergo a liquefaction process in which it will be at temperatures below -252.9ºC. In this way, this liquid hydrogen can be stored in smaller tanks than those required for gaseous hydrogen, while reducing the risk of leaks and explosions, since liquid hydrogen is less prone to leakage than gaseous hydrogen. However, this liquid storage also involves different risks that will have to be assessed in the hydrogen implementation strategy at the airport. Liquid hydrogen has a density of 14.1 L/kg, which means that to store one ton of liquid hydrogen, a tank of 14,104.37 L or 14.1 cubic meters will be needed and must be maintained at cryogenic temperatures. In comparison, one ton of Jet A-1 or SAF would require a 1.19 cubic meter tank for storage, a size 14 times less than that required for liquid hydrogen. In contrast, gaseous hydrogen has a density of 12,048.19 L/kg at ambient conditions and 25.15 L/kg compressed at 70 MPa, which, for the storage of one ton of hydrogen, requires tanks of 12,948.19 m3and 25.15 m3respectively, which shows how the storage of gaseous hydrogen poses a much greater problem than storage in liquid state. Currently in Spain, the technologies and developments for hydrogen storage are increasingly advanced, especially in the case of gaseous hydrogen because, while liquid hydrogen is more efficient in aviation, the use of gaseous hydrogen is more convenient in other environments due to its lower storage and transportation cost. As for the storage of gaseous hydrogen, there are different types of tanks (Figure 4.12) made of materials such as steel, carbon fiber or glass fibers, but the most suitable for holding compressed gas at 700 bar usually have a high-density polyethylene plastic for the lining and a carbon fiber/carbon glass material for the structure, which makes them much stronger and lighter than other tanks. In addition, hydrogen tanks have to be especially prepared to withstand high pressures and fatigue due to continuous loading and unloading cycles, which can lead to tank ruptures and very dangerous leaks. [27]. In addition, another still premature way of storing gaseous hydrogen is in salt caves like natural gas, for which Enagas, thanks to IDAE funds, is developing a solution for purification of hydrogen stored in salt cavities by using and comparing different membrane technologies, which will allow for natural and much larger storage systems [44]. Figure 4.12 Ariama tanks for gaseous hydrogen storage. Source: [27]. Liquid hydrogen is also stored in tanks, but the risks of rupture and leakage are lower than Page 42
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN in the case of gaseous hydrogen. The challenge in this type of storage is to use methods such as the Linde-Hampson system to achieve the very low temperatures required for liquefaction of the case, which has a high energy consumption of 30-40%of the value contained in the hydrogen tank itself [27]. The fixed cryogenic storage has a volume of 10 m3to 300 m3with an internal pressure close to 12 bar [5]. Page 43
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 4.5 Hydrogen Transport As for hydrogen transport, this differs depending on whether the hydrogen is in liquid or gaseous state. For both there is the possibility of road transport by road tanker, however, for gaseous hydrogen, this transport is much more dangerous because of the possibility of leaks, in addition to requiring a larger volume due to its low density. On the other hand, for road transport of liquid hydrogen, the risk of leaks is lower, but the cost increases considerably since it must be kept cryogenically stored to maintain the liquid state for a longer period of time, in addition to the risk of boil-off, which can be solved by optimizing liquefaction technologies. For the transport of hydrogen in its gaseous state, there is a much more optimal option, which consists of transport by hydrant pipelines. Currently, it is expected that by 2040, 75%of the existing natural gas pipelines can be converted for use with hydrogen, in addition to creating new hydrant pipelines (Figure 4.13), so it will be possible to transport gaseous hydrogen by pipeline to Barcelona airport with an estimated cost of 0.1-0.17 €/kgH2/1000 km [86]. Figure 4.13 Network of hydrant pipelines expected in Spain by 2040. Source: [35]. Page 44
Chapter 5 Strategy for the Implementation of Hydrogen in Josep Tarradellas Barcelona - El Prat Airport In this chapter, finally, the strategy for the implementation of hydrogen at Barcelona airport will be defined, which will be divided into 3 phases, the first from 2035 to 2040, a second from 2041 to 2045 and a third and final from 2046 to 2050. For this, the fleet of hydrogen aircraft to be used will be defined and, for each phase, the flights that will be converted to hydrogen, the new sustainable fuel that will be needed, the necessary modifications to the airport infrastructure and finally the impact on the reduction of carbon emissions of the project will be defined. 5.1 Selected Aircraft Fleet Before starting to define the Barcelona Renewable Innovation for Sustainable Aviation (BRISA) strategy to reduce carbon dioxide emissions to zero by 2050, it is important to define the fleet of aircraft that will be used over the years in order to estimate at any given time how much hydrogen will be needed and, therefore, how much the consumption of conventional fuel will be reduced. Thus, taking into account the aircraft shown in section 4.2, Table 5.1 below shows the fleet chosen for this feasibility study for the implementation of hydrogen at Josep Tarradellas Barcelona-El Prat airport. Table 5.1 Selected fleet for the implementation of hydrogen in Barcelona airport. Data extracted from [23] [62]. Turboprop Turbofan FZN-1E FZM-1G Seats 100 200 180 279 Manufacturer Airbus Airbus ATI ATI Airframe Type Clean Sheet Aircraft Clean Sheet Aircraft Study Aircraft Study Aircraft Reference - - A320neo B767-200ER Propulsion System Hydrogen Fuel Cells Hydrogen Combustion Hydrogen Combustion Hydrogen Combustion Fuel System Liquid H2 Liquid H2 Liquid H2 Liquid H2 Range [km] 1,850 3,704 4,444 10,649 Type of Flight Short-Range Medium-Range Medium-Range Large-Range For short-range flights, the ZEROe aircraft Turboprop has been selected as its maximum number of PAX is higher than the FZR-1E. For medium-range flights, the main aircraft is the Turbofan from Airbus as its number of 45
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN PAX is higher than the FZN-1E, however, medium-range flight go from 1,500 km to 4,500 km and, given that the range of the Turbofan is 3,704 km, the FZN-1E will cover the remaining flights. Lastly, for intercontinental and large-range flights, the FZM-1G is chosen over the BWB as its estimated range is much higher and can cover longer flights. Page 46
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 5.3 BRISA Phase 2: 2041 - 2045 5.3.1 Network By the second phase of the BRISA program, from 2041 to 2045, hydrogen-based technologies are expected to have increased significantly and, driven by the awareness of achieving zero carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, more aircraft will start operating on this sustainable fuel. Thus, by 2045 (Figure 5.4), the percentage of European hydrogen flights will increase from 20 to 70%, both shortand medium-range. In addition, 50%of medium-range intercontinental flights and 30%of long-range intercontinental flights in this group are expected to be converted to hydrogen. In this way, 75.84%of the flights from Barcelona airport are expected to be covered with hydrogen as fuel. Figure 5.4 Range of flights in use of hydrogen by 2045. Thus, as was done in section 5.2.1, Tables 5.10 and 5.11 are shown below, which represent the estimate in percentage of flights converted to hydrogen between 2041 and 2046 and the segregation of passengers by type of flight according to fuel. Table 5.10 Estimated amount of flights of Barcelona airport converted to hydrogen between 2041 and 2045. Year Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL 2041 43.58% 4.92% 0.40% 48.90% 2042 49.34% 5.50% 0.79% 55.63% 2043 55.10% 6.08% 1.19% 62.37% 2044 60.86% 6.66% 1.58% 69.10% 2045 66.62% 7.24% 1.98% 75.84% Page 53
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Table 5.11 Estimated amount of passengers from Barcelona airport that will fly in hydrogen vs conventional fuel between 2041 and 2045. Year PAX/year Hydrogen PAX Conventional Fuel PAX 2041 118,201,320 57,795,717 60,405,603 2042 123,993,185 68,979,889 55,013,296 2043 130,068,851 81,121,341 48,947,510 2044 136,442,225 94,287,035 42,155,190 2045 143,100,000 108,527,040 34,572,960 Following the trend of phase 1 of the program, the aircraft to be replaced mainly by the use of hydrogen will be those belonging to the manufacturer Airbus. The aircraft used in this phase will be the Turboprop for short-range flights, the Turbofan for medium-range domestic, European and North African flights, the FZN-1E for medium-range intercontinental flights and the FZM-1G for long-range intercontinental flights. Thus, following the estimates previously made in section 5.2.1, Tables 5.12,5.13 and 5.14 are obtained. Table 5.12 Estimation of short-range flights per aircraft from 2041 to 2045. Turboprop Airbus A320 Boeing 737-800 Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2041 624,390 11,975 196,824 3,775 124,111 2,380 2042 741,554 14,222 158,374 3,037 130,192 2,497 2043 868,702 16,660 115,683 2,219 136,571 2,619 2044 1,006,530 19,303 68,429 1,312 143,263 2,748 2045 1,155,554 22,161 16,262 312 150,254 2,882 Table 5.13 Estimation of medium-range flights per aircraft from 2041 to 2045. Turbofan FZN-1E Airbus A320 Boeing 737-800 Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2041 29,959 575 5,874 113 14,216 273 22,239 427 2042 35,131 674 6,889 132 10,070 193 23,329 447 2043 40,739 781 7,988 153 5,483 105 24,472 469 2044 46,812 898 9,179 176 423 8 25,671 492 2045 53,372 1,024 10,465 201 0 0 21,778 418 Table 5.14 Estimation of large-range flights per aircraft from 2041 to 2045. FZM-1G Airbus A350-900 Boeing 777-300ER Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2041 2,034 39 13,110 251 8,549 164 2042 4,266 82 12,399 238 8,968 172 2043 6,713 129 11,588 222 9,408 180 2044 9,390 180 10,667 205 9,869 189 2045 12,310 236 9,627 185 10,350 198 It is interesting to note that in Table 5.13 it can be seen that in 2045 the A320 aircraft will no longer be used for medium-range flights. 5.3.2 Fuel Infrastructure Once the flights to be performed by each type of aircraft at Barcelona airport from 2041 to 2045 have been defined, it is time to calculate the amount of hydrogen that will be needed at the airport and the total consumed on an annual basis. Page 54
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN In this case, the estimates follow the same indications as in section 5.2.2, with the addition that for long-range flights an average distance of 7,000 km will be considered. On the other hand, the amount of hydrogen refueling that Barcelona airport is in charge of is varied, being 75%for short-range flights, 60%for medium-range flights, since Europe follows the same trend as Spain to adapt to hydrogen, and 70%for long-range flights. Thus, Tables 5.15 and 5.16 show the amount of fuel that will be necessary to store at the airport to cover a week and possible mishaps, and the amount of hydrogen and conventional fuel consumed annually. Table 5.15 Estimated amount of liquid hydrogen and conventional fuel needed in the airport from 2041 to 2045. Liquid H2 [Tn] Conventional Fuel [L] Year Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL 2041 5,784 2,945 552 9,281 27,966,323 13,051,738 39,657,414 80,675,475 2042 6,869 2,957 1,161 10,987 25,415,563 11,870,418 38,649,957 75,935,938 2043 8,047 3,427 1,827 13,301 22,549,816 10,570,966 37,292,875 70,413,657 2044 9,323 3,940 2,549 15,812 19,340,845 9,115,848 35,882,700 64,339,393 2045 10,704 4,494 3,343 18,541 15,761,631 7,613,452 34,122,900 57,497,983 Table 5.16 Estimated amount of liquid hydrogen and conventional fuel consumed in the airport from 2041 to 2045. Liquid H2 [Tn] Conventional Fuel [L] Year Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL 2041 215,415 109,544 20,577 345,536 1,041,595,794 485,510,190 1,478,769,520 3,005,875,504 2042 255,836 110,106 43,157 409,099 946,617,892 460,906,200 1,438,572,116 2,846,096,208 2043 299,702 127,681 67,912 495,295 839,830,483 413,379,000 1,391,002,032 2,644,211,515 2044 347,253 146,715 94,994 588,962 720,309,642 360,097,200 1,335,226,828 2,415,633,670 2045 398,666 167,274 124,535 690,475 586,942,681 300,536,400 1,270,451,988 2,157,931,069 As can be seen, the maximum amount of fuel consumed reached in 2045 is 690,475 Tn, which is equivalent to 38.36%of the total expected annual production of green hydrogen from 2030 onwards, so this figure is still feasible to obtain. In addition, it can also be seen that the amount of conventional fuel consumed in 2045 is less than that initially planned for 2030 (Table 3.15) before implementing the BRISA project. Finally, it can be seen in the table 5.17 how the demand for conventional fuel oil reaches a reduction of 62.04%in 2045 compared to what was estimated before the BRISA project, being closer and closer to reaching zero emissions. Table 5.17 Estimated amount of conventional fuel reduced in the airport from 2041 to 2045. BRISA Programm First Estimation without Hydrogen Difference Year Stored [L] Consumed [L] Stored [L] Consumed [L] Stored [L] Consumed [L] % 2041 80,675,475 3,005,875,504 126,024,909 4,695,442,065 -45,349,434 -1,689,566,561 -35.98% 2042 75,935,938 2,846,096,208 132,200,130 4,925,518,726 -56,264,192 -2,079,422,518 -42.22% 2043 70,413,657 2,644,211,515 138,677,936 5,166,869,144 -68,264,279 -2,522,657,629 -48.82% 2044 64,339,393 2,415,633,670 145,473,155 5,420,045,732 -81,133,762 -3,004,412,062 -55.43% 2045 57,497,983 2,157,931,069 152,541,963 5,684,546,669 -95,043,980 -3,526,615,600 -62.04% 5.3.3 Airport Infrastructure For this second phase of the BRISA project, the Barcelona airport hydrogen storage should be increased sufficiently to accommodate 18,541 tons of liquid hydrogen. Taking into account the storage structure defined in section 5.2.3 and illustrated in Figure 5.2, Barcelona airport already has a storage of 9,702.13 Tn from phase 1, therefore, it is proposed to repeat this storage structure in order to double the liquid hydrogen storage capacity at the airport. Thus, 19,404.26 Tn of hydrogen will be stored at the airport by 2045. Page 55
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Respecting the necessary safety measures, this second block of liquid hydrogen tanks will be located to the east of the previous one, as can be seen in Figure 5.5 below. Figure 5.5 Liquid Hydrogen Tanks location in the airport for 2041-2045. In this second phase of the BRISA project, the treatment of hydrogen at the airport will change, since the hydrant pipelines will already be fully functional. Thus, it is expected that part of the necessary hydrogen will be transported in a gaseous state by means of these hydrant pipelines and, once at the airport, it will be converted to liquid for use and storage. Thus, the installation of a liquefaction plant is necessary. For size and production references, the world’s largest hydrogen liquefaction plant has been developed in South Korea, occupying a space of 49,586.77 m2, producing an amount of 30,000 Tn of liquid hydrogen per year and involving an investment of 513 million dollars [42]. For the BRISA project, a liquefaction plant of more than 100,000 m2will be installed to produce more than 70,000 Tn of liquid hydrogen in the Bajo Ebro region in Tarragona (165 km from the airport) (Figure 5.6), an area with low population density, available space to house this amount of hydrogen, connections with the port of Tarragona to transport the hydrogen by ship to Barcelona and an arid climate that favors the installation of solar panels to cover the energy needed for hydrogen liquefaction in a renewable way. Page 56
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Figure 5.6 Bajo Ebro region in Tarragona where the liquefaction plant will be installed. In this way, 70,000 Tn of the liquid hydrogen consumed annually, 10.14%of the total in 2045, will be transported in gaseous form to the liquefaction plant in the Lower Ebro and from there it will be transported to the airport by ship and truck. The rest will be transported from the manufacturing plants as in phase 1. For hydrogen refueling, the definitions of phase 1 of the program will be continued. Finally, for the storage of conventional fuel oil, its consumption will be considerably reduced in 2045, where it will only be necessary to store 57.48 million liters, almost the amount of fuel oil stored in 2023 according to the estimations made. 5.3.4 Carbon Impact Following the trend of section 5.2.4, and taking into account that the use of SAF will increase to 70%by 2050, the reduction of CO2emissions from Barcelona airport between 2041 and 2045 can be calculated. Table 5.18 shows this annual reduction, where 5,931,485 tons of CO2 will be avoided in 2045, 62.04%of the total. Table 5.18 Estimated CO2emissions avoided in the airport from 2041 to 2045. Jet A-1 SAF TOTAL Year Reduced Fuel [L] % of SAF Reduced Fuel [L] Reduced CO2 emissions [tn] Reduced Fuel [L] Reduced CO2 emissions [tn] Reduced CO2 emissions [tn] 2041 1,689,566,561 37.60% 1,054,289,534 3,036,354 635,277,027 365,920 3,402,274 2042 2,079,422,518 41.20% 1,222,700,441 3,521,377 856,722,077 493,472 4,014,849 2043 2,522,657,629 44.80% 1,392,507,011 4,010,420 1,130,150,618 650,967 4,661,387 2044 3,004,412,062 48.40% 1,550,276,624 4,464,797 1,454,135,438 837,582 5,302,379 2045 3,526,615,600 52.00% 1,692,775,488 4,875,193 1,833,840,112 1,056,292 5,931,485 Page 57
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN 5.4 BRISA Phase 3: 2046 - 2050 5.4.1 Network The last phase of the BRISA program is the most ambitious, since it proposes to achieve the complete transformation of Barcelona airport flights to hydrogen, thus achieving the goal of zero carbon dioxide emissions by 2050 and being a reference not only at national but also at world level. Thus, by 2050 (Figure 5.7) the aim is to convert 100%of the flights corresponding to Barcelona airport to hydrogen. Figure 5.7 Range of flights in use of hydrogen by 2050. Following the estimates made in the previous phases of the BRISA program, Tables 5.19 and 5.20 are obtained, which show the percentage of flights converted to hydrogen according to their scope and the segregation of passengers according to flights powered by hydrogen or conventional fuel. It can be seen in both tables that by 2050, the total is 100%of the airport’s flights and passengers. Table 5.19 Estimated amount of flights of Barcelona airport converted to hydrogen between 2046 and 2050. Year Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL 2046 70.08% 7.69% 2.90% 80.67% 2047 73.53% 8.14% 3.83% 85.50% 2048 76.99% 8.60% 4.75% 90.34% 2049 80.44% 9.05% 5.68% 95.17% 2050 83.90% 9.50% 6.60% 100.00% Page 58
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Table 5.20 Estimated amount of passengers from Barcelona airport that will fly in hydrogen vs conventional fuel between 2046 and 2050. Year PAX/year Hydrogen PAX Conventional Fuel PAX 2046 150,111,900 121,098,272 29,013,628 2047 157,467,383 134,640,911 22,826,472 2048 165,183,285 149,219,972 15,963,313 2049 173,277,266 164,904,509 8,372,757 2050 181,740,000 181,740,000 0 As for the selected aircraft, these are the same as those defined in section 5.3.1, so Tables 5.21,5.22 and 5.23 can be estimated following the indications of the previous phases. Table 5.21 Estimation of short-range flights per aircraft from 2046 to 2050. Turboprop Boeing 737-800 Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2046 1,275,060 24,453 139,741 2,680 2047 1,403,502 26,916 109,941 2,108 2048 1,541,470 29,562 76,885 1,475 2049 1,689,590 32,403 40,326 773 2050 1,848,241 35,446 0 0 Table 5.22 Estimation of medium-range flights per aircraft from 2046 to 2050. Turbofan FZN-1E Boeing 737-800 Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2046 59,483 1,141 11,663 224 18,276 350 2047 66,064 1,267 12,954 248 14,379 276 2048 73,147 1,403 14,343 275 10,056 193 2049 80,766 1,549 15,836 304 5,274 101 2050 88,942 1,706 17,440 334 0 0 Table 5.23 Estimation of large-range flights per aircraft from 2046 to 2050. FZM-1G Airbus A350-900 Boeing 777-300ER Year Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week Flights/Year Av. Fights/Week 2046 18,939 363 6,277 120 10,857 208 2047 26,188 502 2,577 49 11,389 218 2048 34,102 654 0 0 10,137 194 2049 42,729 819 0 0 5,317 102 2050 52,112 999 0 0 0 0 It can be seen that for shortand medium-range flights (Tables 5.21 and 5.22), conventionallyfueled aircraft disappear in 2050, but for long-range flights, it can be seen in Table 5.23 that the Boeing 777-300ER disappears in 2050 but the A350-900 disappears years earlier in 2048. This difference is due to the fact that low-cost airlines are expected to be the last to modify their entire fleet of aircraft. 5.4.2 Fuel Infrastructure Regarding the calculation of fuel, hydrogen and conventional, needed in storage and consumed annually by the airport, the definitions of phases 1 and 2 are maintained, with the Page 59
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN difference in this case that, for hydrogen refueling, Barcelona airport will assume 65%for short-range flights, 55%for medium-range flights and 60%for long-range flights. The difference in percentages is due to the fact that: •In Spain, Barcelona will continue to be more important and a reference against other airports that may have less hydrogen. •In Europe, the trend is to reach zero emissions in 2050 as in Spain, however, part of the hydrogen that other European countries have will come from Spain, so it is likely that a greater part of the refueling will be in Spain. •On an intercontinental level, in the United States, carbon dioxide emission awareness measures are not the same as in Europe, while in Asia they are working more on the implementation of hydrogen, so it is safer to assume that a greater part of the refueling will fall on Barcelona airport. Thus, with the methodology already defined, Tables 5.24 and 5.25 are obtained showing the amount of fuel needed at the airport to cover one week and the total annual consumption. Table 5.24 Estimated amount of liquid hydrogen and conventional fuel needed in the airport from 2046 to 2050. Liquid H2 [Tn] Conventional Fuel [L] Year Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL 2046 10,236 4,590 4,407 19,233 13,423,718 6,374,900 27,182,176 46,980,794 2047 11,267 5,095 6,094 22,456 10,558,656 5,027,064 19,542,202 35,127,922 2048 12,375 5,643 7,939 25,957 73,88,054 3,515,302 12,308,912 23,212,268 2049 13,564 6,231 9,943 29,738 3,871,841 1,839,614 6,471,696 12,183,151 2050 14,838 6,860 12,128 33,826 0 0 0 0 Table 5.25 Estimated amount of liquid hydrogen and conventional fuel consumed in the airport from 2046 to 2050. Liquid H2 [Tn] Conventional Fuel [L] Year Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL Short-Range Medium-Range Large-Range TOTAL 2046 381,243 170,890 164,226 716,359 499,958,363 237,770,760 1,014,561,828 1,752,290,951 2047 419,647 189,798 227,085 836,530 393,341,413 198,430,200 730,669,268 1,322,440,881 2048 460,900 210,148 295,709 966,757 275,075,309 138,772,800 459,408,840 873,256,949 2049 505,187 232,035 370,517 1,107,739 144,276,347 72,781,200 240,966,440 458,023,987 2050 552,624 255,526 451,880 1,260,030 0 0 0 0 As expected, in 2050, all the fuel oil stored and consumed at Barcelona airport becomes liquid hydrogen. In addition, the maximum amount of hydrogen consumption reached in 2050 is 1.2 MTn, still below the expected annual production of 1.8 MTn, representing 70% of this. However, this annual green hydrogen production of 1.8 MTn is expected from 2030 onwards, so it is more than likely that this amount will have increased and even doubled by 2050. Finally, the reduction of conventional fuel consumption that the implementation of the BRISA project at the Barcelona airport can be observed in Table 5.26. Not only is fuel consumption reduced to zero, but it can also be seen how this transformation of the airport has avoided the consumption of more than 5,000,000,000 liters of conventional fuel, either Jet A-1 or SAF. Page 60
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Table 5.26 Estimated amount of conventional fuel reduced in the airport from 2046 to 2050. BRISA Programm First Estimation without Hydrogen Difference Year Stored [L] Consumed [L] Stored [L] Consumed [L] Stored [L] Consumed [L] % 2041 46,980,794 1,752,290,951 126,024,909 4,695,442,065 -79,044,115 -2,943,151,114 -62.68% 2042 35,127,922 1,322,440,881 132,200,130 4,925,518,726 -97,072,208 -3,603,077,845 -73.15% 2043 23,212,268 873,256,949 138,677,936 5,166,869,144 -115,465,668 -4,293,612,195 -83.10% 2044 12,183,151 458,023,987 145,473,155 5,420,045,732 -133,290,004 -4,962,021,745 -91.55% 2045 0 0 152,541,963 5,684,546,669 -152,541,963 -5,684,546,669 -100.00% 5.4.3 Airport Infrastructure For the third and last phase of the BRISA project, the storage structure will follow the line of phases 1 and 2, explained in sections 5.2.3 and 5.3.3 respectively. Thus, the two sets of tanks previously defined are maintained and a new set of 26x27 tanks is added, which will have dimensions of 486.8x506.1 m2, a total surface of 246,369.48 m2. This new distribution can be seen in Figure 5.8. Thus, by 2050, Barcelona airport will be able to store 34,340.43 Tn of liquid hydrogen. Figure 5.8 Liquid Hydrogen Tanks location in the airport for 2046-2050. After the successful installation of the hydrogen liquefaction plant in the Bajo Ebro, this strategy will be repeated with two new plants in the area of Horta de Sant Joan, Tarragona (180 km from the airport) (Figure 5.9a) and in the region of La Noguera, Lleida (144 km from the airport) (Figure 5.9b). In this way, the amount of liquefied hydrogen in Catalonia will reach 210,000 Tn, 16.67%of the total required for 2050, which will be transported to Barcelona airport. The remainder will be transported from other plants as in phase 1 and 2 by road. Page 61
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN (a) Horta de Sant Joan region in Tarragona. (b) La Noguera region in Lleida. Figure 5.9 Regions where the liquefaction plants will be installed. For refueling liquid hydrogen, in addition to using conventional techniques as at present, an infrastructure such as the one developed by the Toulouse-Blagnac Airport, which can be seen in Figure 2.5, will also be implemented, which will make this treatment much more efficient. Finally, by 2050, conventional fuel oil storage will disappear almost entirely from the airport, leaving a small storage in case it is needed for an emergency. 5.4.4 Carbon Impact By repeating the calculations made in sections 5.2.4 and 5.3.4, it is possible to obtain the estimate of CO2emissions avoided in the third phase of the BRISA program, achieving 100% in 2050, a total of 7,203,457 tons of CO2, thus reaching the objective of the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 program. These values are shown in Table 5.27 below. Table 5.27 Estimated CO2emissions avoided in the airport from 2046 to 2050. Jet A-1 SAF TOTAL Year Reduced Fuel [L] % of SAF Reduced Fuel [L] Reduced CO2 emissions [tn] Reduced Fuel [L] Reduced CO2 emissions [tn] Reduced CO2 emissions [tn] 2046 2,943,151,114 55.60% 1,306,759,095 3,763,466 1,636,392,019 942,562 4,706,028 2047 3,603,077,845 59.20% 1,470,055,761 4,233,761 2,133,022,084 1,228,621 5,462,382 2048 4,293,612,195 62.80% 1,597,223,737 4,600,004 2,696,388,458 1,553,120 6,153,124 2049 4,962,021,745 66.40% 1,667,239,306 4,801,649 3,294,782,439 1,897,795 6,699,444 2050 5,684,546,669 70.00% 1,705,364,001 4,911,448 3,979,182,668 2,292,009 7,203,457 Page 62
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Table 7.3 BRISA PHASE 3 Budget. BRISA PHASE 1 Year Category Sub-Category Units Type of unit Cost per Unit [€/u] Total Cost [€] Distribution (liquid H2) - 8,756,250.00 Distribution (gaseous H2) 210,000,000.00 kg 0.09 18,900,000.00 Energy 4,041,790.00 MWh 75.00 303,134,250.00 Hydrogen Supply Purchase 506,359,000.00 kg 1.34 678,521,060.00 R&D worked hours 32,000.00 h 76.94 2,462,080.00 2046 Human Resources Construction worked hours 92,800.00 h 34.22 3,175,616.00 Materials Infrastructure modifications 148,601.68 TOTAL 1,015,097,857.68 Distribution (liquid H2) - 10,612,500.00 Distribution (gaseous H2) 210,000,000.00 kg 0.09 18,900,000.00 Energy 4,230,480.00 MWh 75.00 317,286,000.00 Hydrogen Supply Purchase 626,530,000.00 kg 1.29 808,223,700.00 R&D worked hours 32,000.00 h 80.79 2,585,280.00 Human Resources Construction worked hours 94,400.00 h 35.93 3,391,792.00 2047 Materials Infrastructure modifications 178,322.02 TOTAL 1,161,177,594.02 Distribution (liquid H2) - 12,618,750.00 Distribution (gaseous H2) 210,000,000.00 kg 0.09 18,900,000.00 Energy 4,365,040.00 MWh 75.00 327,378,000.00 Hydrogen Supply Purchase 756,757,000.00 kg 1.24 938,378,680.00 R&D worked hours 33,600.00 h 84.83 2,850,288.00 Human Resources Construction worked hours 97,600.00 h 37.73 3,682,448.00 2048 Materials Infrastructure modifications 213,986.42 TOTAL 1,304,022,152.42 Distribution (liquid H2) - 14,793,750.00 Distribution (gaseous H2) 210,000,000.00 kg 0.09 18,900,000.00 Energy 4,436,620.00 MWh 75.00 332,746,500.00 Hydrogen Supply Purchase 897,739,000.00 kg 1.19 1,068,309,410.00 R&D worked hours 33,600.00 h 89.07 2,992,752.00 Human Resources Construction worked hours 97,600.00 h 39.62 3,866,912.00 2049 Materials Infrastructure modifications 256,783.70 TOTAL 1,441,866,107.70 Distribution (liquid H2) - 17,137,500.00 Distribution (gaseous H2) 210,000,000.00 kg 0.09 18,900,000.00 Energy 5,138,000.00 MWh 75.00 385,350,000.00 Hydrogen Supply Purchase 1,050,030,000.00 kg 1.10 1,155,033,000.00 R&D worked hours 33,600.00 h 93.52 3,142,272.00 Human Resources Construction worked hours 97,600.00 h 41.60 4,060,160.00 2050 Materials Infrastructure modifications 308,140.44 TOTAL 1,583,931,072.44 La Noguera liquefaction industry 480,000,000.00 Horta de Sant Joan liquefaction industry 480,000,000.00 PHASE 1 TOTAL 7,466,094,784.26 Table 7.4 BRISA Total Budget. Phase Cost [€] BRISA phase 1 2,174,475,418.40 BRISA phase 2 5,043,585,879.98 BRISA phase 3 7,466,094,784.26 TOTAL 14,684,156,082.64 7.2 Investors and Grants Given the great importance of this project, it is expected that part of the budget will be subsidized by the state, in addition to the fact that the cost of energy can be reduced as it is a highly important entity such as an airport. In addition, state grants could be applied for in order to receive non-refundable money for the development of the project, such as PERTE de energías renovables, hidrógeno renovable y almacenamiento,H2 Pioneros,H2 Cadena de Valor and other kind of grants, specially those of IDAE and CDTI. On the other hand, from the hours dedicated to R&D, 12%of the amount could be obtained as a tax credit. Page 69
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN Finally, hydrogen liquefaction plants would be considered electro-intensive in terms of their activity, so they would be eligible for other tax incentives, in addition to adhering to the IEE, thus reducing the specific tax on electricity payable by 5.11%. 7.3 Thesis Preparation Budget For the preparation of this thesis, the hours dedicated from the student Eduardo Simón Gil de Muro, the director Silvia Rodriguez Donaire and the co-director Santiago López Barrena are considered. As can be observed in the document "Eduardo_Simon_Annex_Budget", the preparation of the thesis has a cost of 13,800 €. Page 70
Chapter 8 Final Conclusions The transition to the use of hydrogen as a fuel at Josep Tarradellas Barcelona-El Prat Airport is an ambitious but necessary initiative in order to move towards a sustainable aviation future. This thesis has demonstrated that hydrogen can be a viable substitute for fossil fuels, with superior energy efficiency and significant advantages in terms of sustainability and emissions reduction. Through a detailed analysis of the technical, economic and regulatory implications, it has been concluded that, although hydrogen faces considerable barriers, these can be overcome through a strategic and collaborative approach. Currently, there are many hydrogen-powered aircraft projects under development, some of the most important of which, and those selected for the BRISA project, are Airbus’ Turboprop and Turbofan and FlyZero’s FZN-1E and FZM-1G, whose range, passenger and flight quality performance is intended to match that of aircraft currently using conventional fuel oil. One of the main advantages of using hydrogen fuel is the ability of hydrogen to drastically reduce CO2and NOx emissions from the aviation sector, contributing significantly to climate neutrality targets for 2050. According to the projections made, the gradual implementation of hydrogen at Barcelona Airport will enable a sustainable and affordable transition. These phases include an initial development of hydrogen storage infrastructure that increases over the years, gradual developments on the infrastructure for hydrogen distribution, definition of aircraft adapted or designed for hydrogen use and, finally, the evolution of the adoption of hydrogen-powered flights. During this phased transition, the amount of conventional fuel used at the airport is observed to be less in 2046 than the amount currently consumed in 2023. Furthermore, in terms of CO2emissions, these are reduced by 8.68%in 2035, 29.62% in 2040, 62.04%in 2045 and 100.00%in 2050. NOx emissions are reduced by 8.68%in 2035, 29.52%in 2040, 61.60%in 2045 and 98.22%in 2050. Actually, the amount of conventional fuel, Jet A-1 or SAF, needed in storage in the airport goes from 86,387,002 L in 2035, to 84,537,949 L in 2040, 57,497,983 L in 2045 and 0 L in 2050 with the BRISA project. Considering than the estimated amount of fuel needed in the airport in 2023 are 53,264,972 L, it can be observed how the amount of fuel needed in 2045 with the BRISA project is close to the amount currently needed in 2023, less than 100,000,000 L than was estimated for 2045 without the implementation of hydrogen in the airport. However, this transition is not without its challenges. The high cost of producing green hydrogen, the need to modify aircraft engines and the construction of specific facilities for its treatment are challenges that require significant investments and long-term planning. In addition, it is essential to establish a clear and specific regulatory framework to ensure the safe handling of this fuel, considering both its high flammability and the risks associated with its storage in liquid form at cryogenic temperatures. Maintaining hydrogen at such low 71
BARCELONA AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING FUEL TO HYDROGEN temperatures causes energy consumption to be very high, reaching 1,988 GWh in 2035, 8,444 GWh in 2040, 15,504 GWh in 2045 and 23,277 GWh in 2050. Another concept to take into account is the cost associated with this implementation, which, due to the cost of energy, infrastructure and hydrogen, amounts to high figures over the years, being necessary 2,174,475,418.40 €for the implementation of the first phase of the BRISA project, 5,043,585,879.98 €for the second phase and 7,466,094,784.26 €for the third phase, giving a total budget of 14,684,156,082.64 €, as can be seen in the “Budget” annex. As can be seen, this cost is very high, which, although various necessary estimates have been made, is to be expected considering the magnitude of this project. It is also very important to take into account the regulatory and safety aspects of hydrogen use. Being such a new technology in the sector, many of these protocols will have to be defined, so there is still a lot of development to be done in this aspect. However, it is important to keep in mind that, for the treatment of liquid hydrogen at the airport, safety measures such as the use of materials resistant to corrosion or hydrogen embrittlement, earthquake and destabilization proof systems, pressure monitoring systems in the tanks, installation of 2 m high firewalls, implementation of safety valves, double-layer pipe techniques to minimize leaks, or safety distances of more than 15 m between tanks and 20 m between hydrogen and population will be necessary. This study also highlights the importance of collaboration between multiple industries. The transition to hydrogen involves not only airports and airlines, but also aircraft manufacturers, hydrogen producers, governments and regulatory authorities. Barcelona airport could serve as a model for other airports in Spain and Europe, positioning the country as a leader in the adoption of sustainable technologies in aviation. In conclusion, although the implementation of hydrogen in aviation presents high challenges to be overcome and high costs to be assumed, the long-term benefits, especially in environmental aspects, fully justify the efforts required. This project will not only reduce the carbon footprint of the Josep Tarradellas Barcelona-El Prat airport, but will also contribute to the development of a more resilient and sustainable air transport system for future generations. Page 72
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