Jou nal o Technology and Science Educa ion
JOTSE, 2025 – 15(1): 204-222 – Online ISSN: 2013-6374 – P in ISSN: 2014-5349
h ps://doi.o g/10.3926/jo se.2766
GOOD PRACTICES IN THE USE OF ICT IN TEACHING
AND TUTORING IN EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES.
TEACHERS AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS
Bea iz Be ios-Aguayo1* , Ma ía Jesús Colmene o-Ruiz1 ,
Ana Ma ín-Rome a2 , An onio Pan oja-Vallejo1
1Uni e sidad de Jaén (Spain)
2Uni e sidad de G anada (Spain)
*Co esponding au ho : bbe [email p o ec ed]
[email p o ec ed], am ome a@ug .es, [email p o ec ed]
Recei ed Ma ch 2024
Accep ed Janua y 2025
Abs ac
The in eg a ion o In o ma ion and Communica ion Technologies (ICT) in he ield o educa ional
ac i i y has ceased o be an al e na i e and has become a esponsibili y. The signi ican numbe o
uni e si ies ha o e blended o ully online eaching ha e led o he need o digi al ools as al e na i es
o adi ional eaching and u o ing. Al hough he esea ch has highligh ed he ele ance o hese
p ocesses, i has also e ealed he insu iciency o ins i u ional s a egies o he de elopmen o ICT in
uni e si ies, as well as he need o good p ac ices examples ha can con ibu e o academic assessmen .
This esea ch iden i ies he good p ac ices pe cei ed by eache s and s uden s om ou Eu opean
uni e si ies in he use o ICT in eaching and lea ning p ocesses. The s udy is based on mixed esea ch
wi h a sample ha includes 2779 s uden s and 918 p o esso s om Spain, Uni ed Kingdom and Po ugal
uni e si ies. The esul s indica e ha eache s, despi e using some ICT ools in hei eaching and u o ial
wo k, do no eel capable o adap ing hei class ooms o he digi al gene a ion. S uden s do no pe cei e
his a ea as being o signi icance.
Keywo ds –
Vi ual eaching, Vi ual u o ing, In o ma ion and Communica ion Technologies, Good
p ac ices, Uni e si y.
To ci e his a icle:
Be ios-Aguayo, B., Colmene o-Ruiz, M.J., Ma ín-Rome a, A., & Pan oja-Vallejo, A. (2025). Good
p ac ices in he use o ICT in eaching and u o ing in eu opean uni e si ies. Teache s and s uden s’
pe cep ions. Jou nal o Technology and Science Educa ion, 15(1), 204-222.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3926/jo se.2766
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1. In oduc ion
A p esen , he e a e s ill many challenges ega ding he de elopmen o compe encies in highe educa ion
such as he he e ogenei y o uni e si y subjec s, he disp opo ion o esou ces o e ed in uni e si ies and
he di e se expec a ions ound in he di e en Eu opean con ex s (Zabalza, 2012). In o de o achie e a
common amewo k a he Eu opean le el, a space o he discussion o educa ional issues, Eu opean
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Highe Educa ion A ea (EHEA), was c ea ed o p omo e he ull de elopmen o uni e si y s uden s as a
p ima y objec i e (Aleman-Ramos, 2018). This esea ch was amed wi hin he esul s ob ained in he
R&D Excellence P ojec TIMONEL whose inal objec i e was he c ea ion o a ecommenda ion sys em
ha esponded o he guidance and u o ing needs o s uden s and uni e si y g adua es. P io o i s
c ea ion, i was necessa y o analyse he main p oblems and needs ha bo h s uden s and p o esso s
encoun e ed and wha hey equi ed in e ms o academic, pe sonal and/o p o essional guidance. Once
he needs we e iden i ied, an a emp was made o in es iga e good p ac ices in his a ea (Ma ín Rome a,
Be ios-Aguayo & Pan oja-Vallejo, 2020, Pan oja-Vallejo, 2020; Pan oja-Vallejo & Be ios-Aguayo, 2021;
Pan oja-Vallejo, Ma ín-Rome a, Pueyo-Villa & Be ios-Aguayo, 2023). Bu how can he cons uc o good
p ac ices be be e unde s ood? De Pablos-Pons and Jiménez-Co és (2007) e e ed o hem as a way o
’modeling and exempli ying an ac i i y ca ied ou wi h sa is ac o y esul s’ (De Pablos-Pons & Jiménez-
Co és, 2007: page 17), in his case, examples o eache s exe cising e ec i e guidance wo k. The
iden i ica ion o good p ac ices has been necessa y in hese new imes o dis ance educa ion due o he
COVID-19 pandemic. Fo his eason, he Eu opean Union placed emphasis on p o iding measu es,
including educa ional guidance, unde s anding his as one o he bes op ions o guide s uden s in hei
lea ning p ocess (Zancajo, Ve ge & Bolea, 2022).
1.1. Vi ual Teaching and Tu o ing
Teaching and u o ing a e wo e ms and wo concep s ha go hand in hand in p ac ice, and i is e y
di icul o sepa a e hem om each o he . Teaching and u o ing a e di e en educa ional app oaches o
helping s uden s lea n. Teaching o en in ol es an educa o sha ing hei knowledge o speci ic opics in a
cu iculum wi h a g oup o s uden s in a class oom se ing, while u o ing ocuses on gi ing lexible
lessons o indi iduals o small g oups (Equipo edi o ial de Indeed, 2024).
Technological ools and he socialisa ion o knowledge, which p o esso s and s uden s ha e de eloped in
a imely manne as a ein o cemen and complemen o ace- o- ace eaching, ha e aken on a leading ole
as a solu ion o he p oblem o isola ion su e ed du ing his pe iod. Cu en ly, many uni e si ies o e
bo h ace- o- ace and online eaching and u o ing. This has been possible hanks o he ad ances o ICT
in he ield o aining (Eickelmann & Vennemann, 2017; Munyengabe, Yiyi, Haiyan & Hi imana, 2017).
Fo his eason, hei use is common among uni e si y acul y, bu do hey know how o maximise hei
ue po en ial? Se e al ac o s could p o ide a pa ial answe o his ques ion, such as di icul ies in he
online eaching in as uc u e, acul y inexpe ience (including une en lea ning ou comes caused by
di e en acul y expe ience), lack o in o ma ion o managing a complex en i onmen (Ez a, Cohen,
B onsh ein, Gabbay & Ba u h, 2021; González-Cas ellano, Be ios-Aguayo, Run e-Geidel &
Muñoz-Galiano, 2023).
This is whe e he esea ch de eloped in he p ojec TIMONEL comes in o play, which has made i
possible o iden i y he needs o bo h g oups and o lea n abou he good p ac ices ca ied ou by
eaching s a in o de o make inno a i e p oposals o imp o emen . The cen al axis o he p ojec has
been he c ea ion o a ecommenda ion sys em (www. imonel.ne ) in he uni e si y educa ional
en i onmen , some hing o ally cu en and inno a i e due o i s almos nonexis ence.
Se e al s udies ha e analysed he needs ha eache s encoun e when using digi al ools o online eaching
and u o ing. One example is he esea ch by Kama uddin, Abdullah, Id is and Nawi (2017), which analysed
he le el o ICT skills used by s uden s and hei eache s in p ima y and seconda y schools. Thei esul s
showed signi ican di e ences be ween s uden s’ op imal ICT skills and he low le el o skills ha eache s
ac ually needed o de elop o pe o m lea ning ac i i ies wi h echnological ools. Kama uddin e al. (2017)
concluded ha digi al skills a e e y impo an o he de elopmen o lea ning p ocesses and o
in oducing echnologies as ools ha se e educa ional pu poses. On he o he hand, he uni e si y con ex
has highligh ed he need o ain bo h s uden s and acul y in digi al compe encies o be able o espond o
he new challenges o he eaching–lea ning p ocess, hence he impo ance o u o ing. These needs ha e
been maximised a e wha was expe ienced in imes o COVID-19 (Espino-Díaz, Fe nández-Camine o,
He nández-Llo e , González-González & Al a ez-Cas illo, 2020; Usmani, Saeed & Tayyab, 2021). These
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compe encies a e he se o knowledge, skills, a i udes and s a egies ha a e equi ed o he use o digi al
media in hese con ex s (Láza o-Can ab ana, A anda & Beni o, 2021).
Tu o ing has been suppo ed by p og ammes such as Tu o ial Ac ion Plans (TAP), suppo ools o
uni e si y guidance and u o ing de eloped in some Eu opean coun ies. In he Spanish con ex , he main
space o ac ion o he p ojec p omo ing his esea ch, he TAP is an ins i u ional managemen documen
o medium o long- e m in e en ion ha explains he o ganisa ion o u o ing in he ins i u ion
(Muñoz-Mo eno & Gai ín-Sallán, 2013). The uni e si y i sel makes i a ailable o s uden s o acili a e
hei academic in eg a ion in he uni e si y con ex , encou age hei pa icipa ion in uni e si y li e, ad ise
hem o imp o e hei pe o mance h oughou hei academic li e and guide hem p o essionally. All his
is ca ied ou by means o a pe sonal and close in e en ion h ough a u o assigned o hem a he
beginning o hei s udies in hei chosen deg ee (p o esso o hei deg ee), s uden u o s (s uden s o
highe cou ses), as well as h ough a se ies o collec i e ac i i ies specially o ganised o his pu pose,
which ake place h oughou he cou se (lec u es, wo kshops, mee ings, e c.). Gi en he changes b ough
abou by he inc eased i ualisa ion o eaching, he TAP has also been al e ed in an a emp o p o ide
u o s wi h he necessa y digi al means (ma e ial, aining, echnological suppo , e c.) o be able o o e
quali y guidance and u o ing a he se ice o s uden s. Pa icipa ion in he TAP has been conside ed
ele an in his s udy because i was in ended o analyse he unc ioning o hese plans o de e mine
whe he u o s in coun ies such as Spain, he Uni ed Kingdom o Po ugal ha e aken ad an age o he
echnological means o inc ease he willingness o o e co ec counselling.
1.2. Good P ac ices in Uni e si y Guidance and Tu o ing
Acco ding o Manzano and Roldán (2015), many ind i di icul o iden i y good p ac ices in a con ex
whe e he ime o o e guidance and u o ing bo h indi idually and collec i ely is limi ed; he e o e, new
e ms appea , such as eache - u o . Zabalza (2003) s a es ha ’i seems unques ionable ha e e y eache ,
ega dless o he educa ional s age in which he/she wo ks, is no only a eache bu also a u o o his/he
s uden s’ (p. 126). We hus en e a scena io in which he eache wo ks in a mul i unc ional con ex , wi h a
iew o mee ing he needs o his o he s uden s. In any academic p ocedu e, he u o is seen as he
op imal guide o he s uden s’ academic de elopmen . This is demons a ed by he esea ch o
Rakhshandeh oo and I ano a (2020), who, h ough a mixed design s udy, e alua ed he pe cep ions o
s uden s and eache s in English language eaching p og ammes in a uni e si y con ex . In an a emp o
espond o his new ole, ins i u ions such as he In e na ional Associa ion o S uden A ai s and Se ices
(IASAS) and UNESCO ha e de eloped manuals, which show he di e en oles ha he eache should
play in ela ion o he needs o he new gene a ions o s uden s (Ludeman, 2002). I is also necessa y o
highligh he esul s o Wichmann-Hansen, Thomsen and No den o (2015), who showed how a
eache - u o ’s sel -assessmen o his o he own u o ial p ac ice imp o es i .
1.3. Pe cep ions o he Use o Vi ual Tools in Uni e si y Tu o ing
This a o emen ioned g ow h o mo i a ions o o e mo e and be e se ices o uni e si y s uden s has
led o he c ea ion o new ools o suppo his challenge. This b ings us o he discussion on ICT,
which h ough In e ne access and he de elopmen o Web 3.0 a e gene a ing changes in guidance,
u o ing and lea ning in all educa ional se ings (Ga cía-Ma ínez, 2018), causing he sea ch o good
p ac ices in ela ion o hei use wi hin he uni e si y con ex . The inco po a ion o ICT by uni e si y
acul y as ools o hei class ooms has b ough posi i e esul s in s uden lea ning, as well as in
u o ing. Howe e , as no ed by Tummons, Fou nie , Ki s & MacLeod (2016: page 10), ICT a e
libe a ing, ’bu hey a e also p oblema ic, dis ac ing, and limi ing’, so i is necessa y o know how o
make good use o hem.
In gene al, i can be said ha ICT ha e become an essen ial ool o many eache s in hei wo k
de elopmen , since hey unde s and ICT as a suppo o con as s uden s’ opinions, encou age c i ical
hinking, build au onomous hinking, gene a e educa ional p oposals in he o m o e-lea ning, e c.
(Bal odano & Gómez-Ze meno, 2017; Gine , Mu iel de los Reyes & Toledano, 2013, Pan oja-Vallejo,
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Be ios-Aguaya & Colmene o-Ruiz, 2020). The e o e, and ela ing i o he good p ac ices p e iously
discussed, Palomo, Ruiz and Sánchez (2006) desc ibed p o essionals wi h good eaching p ac ices as hose
’who exploi he new echnological ools o achie e au onomous lea ning in s uden s ha mo i a es hem
o be in pe manen lea ning h oughou hei li es’ (p. 29). Khan and Ma kauskai e (2017) highligh ed he
con ibu ions o ICT in i ual eaching and u o ing a uni e si y. Thei esul s showed imp o emen s in
p ac ical skills and in eache eedback and in o ma ion p ocessing. As o he s uden s, hey ob ained
be e u o ing wi h ICT suppo , acco ding o hei own es imonies. Papako a (2016) de eloped a new
digi al medium ha acili a es g oup and indi idual u o ing and men o ing o s uden s (Ca ee
Counseling@Ca ee O ice o A is o le Uni e si y o Thessalonik), an applica ion ha suppo s s uden s
and g adua es in de eloping hei p o essional skills h ough in e ac i e exe cises and u o ing ools. In
ano he e o , Sussex (2008) showed how u o ing wi h he use o ICT in blended lea ning is essen ial, as
i allows a combina ion o media in ol ing maximum immediacy and pe sonal in e ac ion combined wi h
eco ding o enable subsequen e iew. All hese ools acili a e iche and mo e lexible eaching. In
ano he example, Ludwing-Ha dman and Dunlap (2003) showed, in hei s udy, he di e en online
u o ing p og ammes o e ed by Wes e n Go e no s Uni e si y o i s s uden s. In a s udy by A naiz-
López, López-Vicen and P endes-Espinosa (2012), s uden s’ opinions we e analysed in ela ion o he
elec onic u o ing ha p o esso s used, in mos cases, o mee he demands o hei s uden s. On he pa
o Hoyuelos and Ibañez (2018), he echnologies p e e ed by s uden s o communica e wi h he eache
we e he i ual pla o m, email, communica ion h ough social ne wo ks and ins an messaging (cha ).
Fo hei pa , Cao, Yang, Lai and Wu (2021) con i med he in luence ha he pandemic has had on he
use o online u o ing pla o ms, gi ing hem e en wide academic use.
Finally, i should be highligh ed ha despi e go e nmen al e o s among coun ies o imp o e he quali y
o highe educa ion, p oblems a e obse ed such as he lack o ins i u ional s a egies o ICT
de elopmen in uni e si y con ex s (Mug uza-Vassallo & Suá ez, 2016; Sko upinska & To en -Sellens,
2015), he lack o dissemina ion and adop ion o b oade scales o usabili y, he limi ed use o bo h
ace- o- ace and dis ance lea ning p og ammes and mos ele an o his esea ch, he lack o examples o
good p ac ices ega ding hei use o academic ad ising (Van de Wende & Bee kens, 2010). The e o e,
he di e en e o s o inco po a e ICT in o he eaching–lea ning p ocess and eaching p ac ice mus be
o ien ed o change he uni e si y cul u e, planning and cu iculum by di ec ing hem owa ds he c ea i e
use o human and ma e ial esou ces (Salinas, 2004). The e o e, he implemen a ion o ICT in he
lea ning p ocess and i ual guidance and u o ing is an in e es ing op ion wi hin he cu en uni e si y
con ex (Bakke, Hagase h & Hooley, 2018; Fe nández-Jiménez, Mena-Rod íguez & Tója -Hu ado, 2017;
Ma ínez, Pé ez & Ma ínez, 2016; Wa s, 2001). One should be awa e ha he use o digi al media o
suppo s uden s in i ual eaching is now an obliga ion (Geo ge-Reyes & Salado-Rod íguez, 2022;
Mohssine,Bouzek i & Mohammed, 2019).
A e an exhaus i e li e a u e sea ch, and ollowing he objec i es p e iously se ou in he p ojec , he
pu pose o his s udy was o iden i y good p ac ices in ela ion o he use o ICT as a ool o i ual
eaching and academic, pe sonal and p o essional counselling o s uden s in Eu opean uni e si ies.
2. Me hod
The s udy conduc ed has a mixed pe spec i e based on iangula ion o he da a collec ion ca ied ou .
This ype o app oach o e comes he weaknesses p esen ed by each o he quan i a i e and quali a i e
me hods sepa a ely, in addi ion o allowing in e ences o be d awn om he in o ma ion collec ed
(C eswell, 2009). The quan i a i e phase ollowed a desc ip i e-explo a o y design o which wo ad hoc
alida ed ques ionnai es we e used, one o s uden s and one o eache s. The quali a i e pa was based
on discussion g oups, a nominal g oup, SWOT echnique (s eng hs, weaknesses, oppo uni ies and
h ea s) and in e iews. The s udy culmina ed in 2021.
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2.1. Pa icipan s
The s udy in ol ed he Uni e si y o Jaen (UJA) and he Uni e si y o G anada (UGR) (Spain), he
Poly echnic Ins i u e o Coimb a (PCO) (Po ugal) and Queen Ma y Uni e si y o London (QML)
(Uni ed Kingdom).
Fo he quali a i e pa , we di ided he in o man s in o wo pa s as he esea ch p og essed. Table 1
p esen s he i s pa . In he second pa , we conduc ed h ee ocus g oups (eigh pa icipan s a UJA,
nine a UGR, six a PCO), which we e composed o eache s om di e en a eas o knowledge, and we
conduc ed 11 in e iews ( i e a UGR, six a UJA) wi h eache s who had expe ience wi h he TAP in
di e en a eas o knowledge.
The quan i a i e esea ch consis ed o a g oup o s uden s and p o esso s, ob ained by p opo ional
s a i ied andom sampling (excep in he cases o PCO and QML, which was in en ional due o he
a iabili y o he deg ees and, in he case o QML, o he di icul y accessing he subjec s) wi h a
calcula ed e o o 5 % and acco ding o he a iables shown in Table 1. In he cases o he UJA and he
UGR, only he common deg ees we e conside ed. In o al, 2,779 s uden s and 918 p o esso s cons i u ed
he sample.
Technic
Pa icipan s
G oup Expe ience
Uni e si y
UJA UGR PCO QML
Discussion G oup
S uden 1º/2º g ade 4 14 - 6
4º cou se /G adua es 7 11 3 6
Facul y
No el (- 5 yea s) 4 7 - -
Expe ience (+ 15 yea s) - 7 4 3
Nominal g oup PAT 4 12 - -
SWOT - 12 - -
Sample o he quan i a i e s udy
S uden Facul y
UJA UGR PCO QML UJA UGR PCO QML
2º g ade M 168 151 108 5
W 225 225 239 21
4º g ade M 157 140 34 1
W 232 234 120 5
Pos g adua e M 143 169 7 1
W 192 228 75 1
- 5 yea s M 57 78 3 1
W 84 91 10 2
+ 15 yea s M 111 190 19 3
W 39 116 31 8
To al 1117 1147 583 34 366 475 63 14
No e: UJA = Uni e si y o Jaen; UGR = Uni e si y o G anada; PCO = Coimb a Poly echnic; QML = Queen Ma y
Uni e si y o London; M = Man; W = Woman.
Table 1. Pa icipan s in he i s pa
We de e mined he a iables based on p e ious quali a i e s udies (ci ed in he in oduc ion) in which he
pa icipa ing subjec s exp essed hei opinion on he sui abili y o who should ep esen he popula ion o
comple e he scales. In addi ion, he esea ch eam me and a e a p e ious analysis o he da a collec ed,
i was de e mined o ake as a iables he s uden s’ cou se, he eache s’ eaching expe ience and hei
pa icipa ion (o no ) in he TAP. The e o e, he ollowing p io i ies we e highligh ed: o de e mine he
opinion o he s uden s in he middle o hei unde g adua e cou se, gi en ha in he i s yea he e is no
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absolu e p oo o he s uden s en olled; o de e mine hei opinions a he end o hei unde g adua e
s udies when hey al eady ha e mo e expe ience; and o know he opinion o he pos g adua e s uden s
(mas e ’s and doc o a e). The le el o expe ience o he p o esso s was he main eason o including hei
opinions in he inal sample: o collec he opinions o no ice p o esso s, aking in o accoun ha hey
ha e less expe ience when hey ha e been a he uni e si y o less han i e yea s; he opinion o
p o esso s wi h mo e han 15 yea s o expe ience (conside ed al eady expe ienced); and, inally, whe he
hey pa icipa e o ha e pa icipa ed in he TAP.
2.2. Ins umen s
In he i s pa o he quali a i e s udy, we used ocus g oups and g oup dynamics o collec da a
conce ning he needs o eache s and s uden s in he a eas o academic, pe sonal, p o essional and ICT
o ien a ion. In he second pa , we used ocus g oups and quali a i e in e iews wi h eache s, iden i ying
hei good p ac ices in hese a eas.
The quan i a i e s udy was suppo ed by wo scales: ’Guidance and u o ing p ac ice in uni e si y s uden s
and g adua es’ (POTAE-17) and ’T aining needs in guidance and u o ing s a egies’ (NFEOT-17). Bo h
ha e simila cha ac e is ics, so hey con ain he same ques ions, only e o mula ed acco ding o he
subjec s o whom hey a e add essed. O he ou dimensions ha o m hem, only he one e e ing o
he use o ICT in uni e si y u o ing was conside ed o his s udy. The scales had a Like o ma wi h
i e esponse op ions ( om o ally disag ee o o ally ag ee) and each one had 61 i ems; in addi ion o
he i em ’Wha o e all sco e do you gi e o he use you ha e made o ICT in s uden u o ing ( om 0
o 10)’. The psychome ic cha ac e is ics o bo h es s, based on con en , cons uc and eliabili y
alidi y, gua an eed he deg ee o con idence, eplicabili y and in e nal consis ency. On he one hand, in
he POTAE-17, C onbach’s alpha eached a alue o 0.87, KMO = 0.853, and Ba le ’s es o
sphe ici y χ² = 6701.698 (p = 0.000); and, on he o he hand, in he NFEOT-17, C onbach’s alpha was
0.79, KMO = 0.939 and Ba le ’s es o sphe ici y χ² = 28169.969 (p = 0.000) (Pan oja-Vallejo, Mole o,
Molina-Jaén & Colmene o-Vallejo, 2020). In bo h es s, an explo a o y ac o analysis was pe o med
using p incipal componen s and Va imax o a ion and ou ac o s we e ex ac ed using he Kaise
c i e ion, which coincided wi h he heo e ical model p oposed in he con i ma o y ac o analysis. In his
a icle, we only used he ac o o he scale ha e e ed o he use o ICT, which was composed o 15
i ems, al hough we conside ed o he s ha we e linked o hei use and we e included in he es o he
ac o s.
We analysed he quali a i e da a by means o a hema ic analysis o hei con en , aking as a e e ence he
i ems o he ques ionnai e and conside ing he new hemes ha eme ged om he p ac ice (see Table 2),
illus a ing he esul s ob ained by means o examples o eco ding uni s o each ca ego y and hei
equency.
2.3. P ocedu e
The p ojec consis ed o h ee phases, including his esea ch in he i s . Fi s ly, a de ailed s udy and
analysis o he exis ing li e a u e was ca ied ou ha would se e as a amewo k o knowledge o he
cu en s a e o he ma e , as well as o he de elopmen o da a collec ion echniques. Nex , he sample
o s uden s and eache s who would pa icipa e in he s udy was calcula ed. Once he sample was
es ablished, he scale was adminis e ed in pe son and he s uden s and eache s who we e no able o
answe i we e p o ided wi h access o i online. In pa allel, discussion g oups and in e iews we e ca ied
ou in o de o ind hose ai s ha cha ac e ized a good eache wi h good p ac ices in he dimensions
add essed. Finally, he quan i a i e and quali a i e da a we e analyzed independen ly o subsequen ly each
common conclusions.
3. Resul s and Discussion
Fi s , a gene al assessmen o he da a collec ed h ough he quali a i e and quan i a i e echniques
men ioned abo e is p esen ed, in eg a ing he s uden s’ and eache s’ iews o bo h di e ences and
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simila i ies. Subsequen ly, he main c oss abs o he a iables in ol ed in he changes in eaching
pe o mance in he p e ious li e a u e a e analysed.
The esul s a e p esen ed below. They a e based mainly on he equency o ca ego ies acco ding o he
ype o pa icipan s and he c i e ia es ablished o hei selec ion (Table 2).
Ca ego ies (Codes)
Facul y S uden
To alExpe ienced New PAT New G adua es
Job sea ch (Job_Sea ch) 2 2 4 6 2 16
Dissemina ion o job and in e nship po als 1 4 2 5 5 17
Social ne wo k (social_Ne wo k) 1 1 18 1 2 23
Wha sApp o o he applica ion (Wha sApp) 3 3 2 5 5 18
ICT p omo ion (ICT_classes) 4 0 3 1 5 13
Pla o m o um (Fo o_pla a o m) 0 1 0 1 0 2
Synch onous communica ion ools
(Comun_sinc on) 2 1 7 1 0 11
Need diagnos ic ools (He am_diagn) 0 0 2 0 0 2
P oac i e sea ch (Mod_comunic) 8 0 1 3 1 13
Access o in o ma ion (O ien _in o m) 3 10 14 1 3 31
Teaching websi e (Web_p o ) 0 0 0 0 2 2
Educa ional pla o m (Pla a o m) 4 1 9 8 11 33
Elec onic mail (email) 3 4 19 8 12 46
To al 31 27 81 40 48 228
Table 2. F equency o ca ego ies
All ca ego ies we e p esen o bo h eache s and s uden s, highligh ing he equency o hose e e ing o
possible ools o use in u o ing.
The o e all assessmen o he use o ICT in u o ing by s uden s and eache s (Figu e 1) showed highe
alues o eache s (19.6 %), wi h s uden s being mo e conse a i e in placing hei sco es in he medium
ange. Male s uden s a ed ICT mo e highly han emale s uden s (60.4 % abo e 5) as did second-yea
s uden s (58.6 % abo e 5). Howe e , eache s a ached mo e impo ance o hei use (69.7 % abo e 5).
The e alua ions o he use o di e en echnologies du ing he pandemic yielded some in e es ing
esponses by in eg a ing he iews o s uden s and eache s. The highe he mean sco es, he g ea e he
ag eemen wi h he s a emen .
In gene al, he di e en pe cep ions o s uden s and p o esso s on he use o ICT in u o ials we e
s iking, wi h a g ea e numbe o i ems in Table 3 coinciding among he p o esso s (highe a e ages).
The e is coincidence in he high alua ion, a ele an ac in non-class oom eaching since i a ou ed he
ease wi h which s uden s could access he necessa y documen a ion o ca y ou hei s udies and sol e
wha hey de ine as p oblems in he u o ials (selec ion o hou s o a end). They ac ed as ’ i ual u o s’
p o iding academic in o ma ion (ma e ials, u o ing schedules, exams, e alua ions) and ensu ing ha
in o ma ion abou o ien a ion and u o ing ac i i ies eaches s uden s: ’apa om pu ing pos e s
e e ywhe e wi h e e y alk, e e y e en we do, we pos e e y hing on i ual eaching, and we o ce, in
quo a ion ma ks, he s uden o en ol’ (FACUL_EXP_UJA).
In addi ion, hey se ed o diagnose s uden cha ac e is ics and mo i a ions (He am_diagn). These
bene i s p omo e he de elopmen o o mal w i ing skills, in a- and in e pe sonal skills, in addi ion o
being able o sol e hei ques ions in a sho e pe iod o ime (Gine e al., 2013).
Howe e , he e was a ce ain con adic ion when s uden s s a ed ha eache s pa icipa ed li le in he
Wha sApp g oup in class (M = 1.53), while eache s seemed o see i di e en ly (M = 2.84), indica ing ha
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i is a me hod ha makes i di icul o s uden s o be eally in o med. These di e ences we e mo e
p onounced in emales han in males and also appea ed in ela ion o he exis ence o a eposi o y o
digi al esou ces. In his sense, one o he mos p ominen p ac ices was ha he acul y ’o ien s on how
o access in o ma ion in he academic and p o essional ne wo k’ (O ien _in o m), ei he pe sonally o in
he s uden ecep ion sessions, showing he lis o web e e ences o he uni e si y, a p ac ice pe cei ed by
s uden s as ’a was e o ime’ since hey p e e ed ools ha hey unde s ood be e , such as Google.
Simila ly, he e was a con as in he mean sco es o he s uden s, and he e always seemed o be mo e
ag eemen among hem ega ding he use o email, social ne wo ks, web pages, knowledge o ne wo ks
and u o ing possibili ies in elewo king (p = 0.000). This same end o g ea e ag eemen among emales
was main ained in he case o eache s bu only he ac o ha ing a p o essional web page, and ha i is
up o da e s ood ou in his case (p = 0.01). In his sense, s uden s showed li le knowledge abou he
exis ence o ’ eache web pages’ (Web_p o ) and less ega ding LinkedIn p o iles, indica ing, ’I would be
wei d o look a LinkedIn. Because hey ge a no i ica ion. I wouldn’ ’ (GRADU_EGRE_COIMB). This
could be discussed in ligh o he esul s o Po delan, Hosseinian, Heyda i, Khalijian and Kho ami (2022)
who con i med he endency o emales o p e e elewo king gi en ha i acili a es he lexibili y o hei
mul i unc ional and mul i ace ed pe o mance.
I ems
S uden s Teache s
To al
n= 2881
Man
n=1084
(37.63 %)
Woman
n=1797
(62.37 %)
p
To al
n=918
Man
n=402
(43.79 %)
Woman
n=416
(45.31 %)
pM SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
P omo ion o he mas e y o
ICT in he class oom 3.26 1.081 3.28 1.099 3.24 1.071 0.046 4.00 1.073 3.98 1.094 4.02 1.048 0.499
In e ne job sea ch 3.57 1.099 3.57 1.090 3.57 1.105 0.932 3.20 1.483 3.12 1.497 3.29 1.462 0.085
Teache s wi h p o essional
websi e 3.26 1.158 3.27 1.164 3.26 1.154 0.812 2.63 1.650 2.79 1.672 2.43 1.604 0.001
Upda ed acul y websi e 3.15 1.105 3.14 1.101 3.15 1.108 0.857 2.46 1.537 2.62 1.539 2.27 1.515 0.001
Uni e si y pla o m wi h
subjec in o ma ion 3.89 .988 3.86 1.004 3.90 .978 0.290 4.18 1.230 4.21 1.200 4.14 1.266 0.458
Use o email in u o ing 3.71 1.182 3.74 1.139 3.69 1.207 0.049 4.60 .885 4.62 .881 4.58 .891 0.511
Use o ideo con e encing in
u o ing 1.56 .987 1.59 1.021 1.54 .966 0.051 2.32 1.537 2.27 1.527 2.39 1.547 0.221
Tu o has a social ne wo k 1.82 1.062 1.91 1.103 1.76 1.032 0.000 1.66 1.260 1.66 1.276 1.65 1.241 0.841
Teache s’ pa icipa ion in he
Wha sApp g oup 1.53 1.145 1.62 1.042 1.47 1.199 0.000 2.84 1.710 2.91 1.706 2.75 1.714 0.026
Speci ic o um on he
uni e si y pla o m 2.88 1.343 2.94 1.328 2.84 1.351 0.063 3.20 1.615 3.34 1.592 3.04 1.630 0.136
The e is a eposi o y o digi al
esou ces 3.13 1.168 3.23 1.131 3.07 1.186 0.000 3.02 1.516 3.07 1.497 2.97 1.539 0.004
Lis o links o u o ing help
web pages 2.95 1.205 3.07 1.182 2.88 1.213 0.000 3.06 1.441 3.11 1.454 3.01 1.424 0.315
S uden s know esou ces o
ne wo ks abou s udies 3.12 1.127 3.25 1.110 3.04 1.131 0.000 4.00 1.073 3.98 1.094 4.02 1.048 0.340
In u o ing in o ma ion on
possibili ies o elewo king 2.00 1.159 2.15 1.216 1.90 1.113 0.000 3.20 1.483 3.12 1.497 3.29 1.462 0.620
Table 3. Desc ip ion o he elemen s ela ed o ICT and gende
The quali a i e analysis showed us some o he easons why esou ces may be pe cei ed as mo e o less
use ul o u o ing. The eache s’ use o he ins i u ional elec onic mail (email) was done in se e al ways:
some emphasised hei willingness o sol e any demand; o he s e e ed o he lack o immediacy: ’You
send an email because hey ask o i , and you ha e o wai wo weeks’ (GRADU_NOV_UGR). S uden s
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spoke o ’a bomba dmen o emails’ (GRADU_EGRE_UGR), which p e en ed hem om using ’li le
c i e ia o dis inguish he whea om he cha ’ (SWOT_UJA).
S uden s lacked guidance in his ega d (Busq_empleo), ’we inished a deg ee and we don’ know’
(ALUM_EGRE_COIMB). I was poo ly ea ed ou side speci ic subjec s: ’we had a subjec ha helped us
o know LinkedIn’ (GRADU_EGRE_UGR). The opinion a ou ed cen alising all a ailable in o ma ion
on he web pages o he acul ies (p o esso s) and in a i ual app-like pla o m (s uden s), ’a pe son in
cha ge o ha ing ha in o ma ion’ (GRADU_EGR_UGR). Addi ionally, he e he ’ elewo k’
(Busq_empleo) seemed o be some hing unknown by he s uden s and ha dly add essed by he acul y.
The o e all assessmen o he use o ICT by s uden s and eache s in u o ing (i em 15, Figu e 1) showed
highe alues o eache s in he ange 7–10, wi h s uden s being mo e conse a i e in placing hei sco es
in he medium ange.
Figu e 1. O e all assessmen o he use o ICT (pe cen ages)
S uden s as a whole alued ICT mo e highly han emale s uden s (60.4 % ou o 5), as did second-yea
s uden s compa ed o inal-yea s uden s (58.6 % ou o 5). Howe e , eache s ga e mo e impo ance o
he use o ICT (69.7 % ou o 5).
Wi h espec o language, English-speaking eache s we e hose who leas alued he use o ICT in
guidance and u o ing (M = 4.93) compa ed o Spanish eache s (M = 6.37). These alues we e in e ed in
he case o he s uden body, wi h he English (M = 6) and he Spanish (M = 5.47) gi ing he highes
o e all sco e o he use o ICT by hei eache s.
3.1. ICT in Vi ual Tu o ing as an Indica o o Good P ac ices
In he uni e si ies o he di e en pa icipa ing coun ies, less han hal o he acul y (40.6 %) belie ed
ha p omo ing he use o ICT in he class oom encou aged s uden s’ mas e y o ICT, bu only 12.6 % o
he s uden s a i med his (i em 1). In he uni e si ies’ a iable, we only de ec ed di e ences in QML
s uden s, o whom 73.5 % belie ed ha classes equi ed a high le el o echnology. These scale da a we e
clea ly e lec ed in he quali a i e da a. S uden s who g adua ed om QML indica ed ha o he
uni e si ies equi ed a highe deg ee o p o iciency. I should be no ed ha some s uden s indica ed a high
need o elema ic ools inside he class oom and eache - u o –s uden communica ion ou side he
class oom. As in he s udy by Cos a-Sánchez, Rod íguez-Vázquez and Di ei o-Rebollal (2017), eache s
de e mined ha he use o ICT imp o ed s uden lea ning, as well as eache –s uden ela ionships.
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(2016), he use o ICT ools p o ided h ough ins i u ional suppo ou side and inside he class oom had a
signi ican ly posi i e impac on bo h pe cei ed use ulness and ease o use o ull academic de elopmen .
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