Forecasting technological disruptions in plastic waste management

Forecasting Technological Disruptions in Plastic Waste Management Emma Nilsson & Nathalie Kucharski Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Barcelona School of Industrial engineering (ETSEIB) Abstract Plastic is used everywhere in the world and has been for a long time. Today, plastic plays a critical role in nearly every aspect of daily life and human activity. The production of plastics has over the decades increased considerably, with an amount of 350 million tons per year. In 2021, the recycling of plastic waste was only 9.7%, implying major environmental effects. This emphasises the importance of increasing the resources of handling the waste of it. The purpose of this research assignment is to explore and predict upcoming technological advancements that could disrupt and transform plastic waste management practices from the operations aspects. Additionally this research assignment explains the incremental innovations existing today within plastic waste management and economical constraints as well as new legal factors that may affect the future or plastic waste management. This research explores the potential for disruptive technological advancements to revolutionize the management of plastic waste. The study identifies and evaluates six key disruptive technologies: digital watermarking for efficient waste sorting, biodegradable plastics capable of natural decomposition, enzymatic depolymerization for recycling PET plastics, recycling plastic waste into 3D printing filaments, co-recycling of plastic waste and biomass to minimize carbon losses, and the application of nanotechnology in PET recycling to enhance material properties. Additionally this report addresses incremental innovations, economic constraints, and emerging legal frameworks that shape the future landscape of plastic waste recycling. The findings demonstrate that while economic barriers and scalability remain key obstacles, the integration of advanced disruptive technologies with incremental innovations have the potential to significantly improve recycling rates. 2 Table of Contents Table of Contents 3 1. Introduction 4 1.1 Current plastic waste technologies 4 1.1.1 Mechanical recycling 5 1.1.2 Chemical recycling 5 1.2 Current challenges within plastic waste management 6 1.2.1 Microplastics 6 1.2.2 Chemical design and composition 7 1.3 Purpose 8 2. Methodology 9 2.1 Literature review 9 2.2 Semi-structured Interviews 9 3. Economic and legal aspects 10 3.1 Economical aspect 10 3.2 Legal aspects 11 4. Incremental innovations 14 4.1 Innovative chemical recycling 14 4.2 Machine learning and Artificial Intelligence 15 4.3 Evolving trends 16 5. Future technological disruptions 18 5.1 Digital watermarking of plastic waste 18 5.2 Biodegradable Plastics 19 5.3 Enzymatic depolymerisation 20 5.4 Recycling Waste Plastic into 3D Printing Filaments 21 5.5 Co-recycling of plastic waste and biomass 21 5.6 Nanotechnology in PET recycling 24 6. Discussion 27 6.1 Most Potential Emerging Technologies 27 6.2 Interconnectivity of Innovations 28 6.3 Economic Viability & Regulatory Pressure 29 7. Conclusion 31 References 33 3 1. Introduction Plastic is used everywhere in the world and has been for a long time (Siddiqui & Pandey, 2013). Today, plastic plays a critical role in nearly every aspect of daily life and human activity. In transportation, it is used in everything from vehicle components to packaging materials. In the manufacturing sector, plastics are essential for creating the majority of consumer goods, from electronics to household items. Other areas where plastics are used are the medical sector and within agriculture. The production of plastics has over the decades increased considerably, with an amount of 350 million tons per year (Heidbreder et al, 2019). Plastic production is additionally aimed to quadruple by 2050 compared with 2016 (World Economic Forum, 2016). Figure 1 presents the expected growth of production of plastics. In 2021, the recycling of plastic waste was only 9.7%, implying major environmental effects (Plastics Europe, n.d.). Thus, plastic’s presence across these sectors highlights not only its economic importance, but also the challenge of managing its waste effectively. Figure 1: The forecasted production of plastic in 2050, and environmental effects of it (Siepen et al, 2024) 1.1 Current plastic waste technologies Plastic recycling is a method commonly used within plastic waste management (Macheca et al, 2024). It is a process of converting plastic waste into new materials. Mechanical recycling is today the most used approach when it comes to recycling of plastic. Mechanical recycling accounts for approximately 20% of the global plastic waste management (Bultkowska et al, 2024). The other plastic waste technology used today is chemical recycling. Both of them are explained further in this chapter. Plastic has to be sorted based on color, type, and size in order to attain high-quality recycled plastic (Lubongo & Alexandridis, 2022). In mechanical recycling the plastic needs to be separated with regards to color and type before reprocessing. When it comes to recycling, the 4 plastic is classified into the seven following categories: High-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), PET, PVC, polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and “other”. All the seven categories of plastic can in theory be sorted in order to enable recycling. However, sorting is not financially advantageous for all plastic types. PET and HDPE are the two plastic types that are valuable enough to make sorting them and recycling them profitable. 1.1.1 Mechanical recycling The first step of mechanical recycling is the collection and sorting (Chen & Hu, 2024). The plastic waste is collected from different sources, for instance business and households, and then sorted depending on shape, size, chemical composition and color. The second step implies cleaning and reprocessing. This process is crucial for maintaining the quality of the recycled material. The plastic waste is cleaned to eliminate contaminants in terms of dirt and residues. After the cleaning, the plastic waste is shredded and the size of the parts is reduced. This is done to prepare the plastic and the surface area for further processing and the melting part. Finally, the small parts of plastics are melted and reformed. The processes used for that are extrusion or injection molding. Extrusion implies forcing the plastic material through a die to create pellets or sheets, both continuous shapes. The latter process, injection molding, the melted plastic is injected into molds to create products with specific forms and requirements. There are two different levels of mechanical recycling, primary and secondary (Macheca et al, 2024). The first level implies creating similar plastic products from the plastic waste. The second level of recycling of plastics is the secondary recycling, where plastic waste is transformed to plastic products with lower quality. 1.1.2 Chemical recycling The chemical recycling process implies breaking down the polymer chains to extract molecules of low weight, in order to create new products of the same, or higher quality (Schade et al, 2024). This recycling method is also called tertiary recycling and includes processes like pyrolysis and gasification and can handle mixed or contaminated plastics (Macheca et al, 2024). Chemical recycling is appropriate for plastics difficult to recycle using mechanical methods. Chemical recycling contains five different processes. Pyrolysis is the first one, where oxygen is used in a thermal decomposition process at temperatures between 300 to 700 degrees celsius that transforms plastic into gases and liquid oil. Gasification is the second one, implying synthesis gas is created by using a controlled amount of oxygen when heating the plastic waste. The temperature at gasification is high, usually between 700 and 1500 degrees celsius. The high temperature facilitates the partial oxidation of carbonaceous materials. The third process is hydrolysis, a method utilizing water to break plastic polymers into monomers, called depolymerization. The fourth process is methanolysis, and in this step methanol is used when managing the plastic waste to produce dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol. Finally, glycolysis is the last process where polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is broken down with the use of glycol. Monomers are therefore yield for repolymerization. 5 Chemical recycling converts waste plastics into raw materials that are valuable, and by that it offers resource recovery and therefore contributes to the circular economy (Macheca et al, 2024). Chemical recycling reduces the amount of plastic waste ending up in landfills and the plastic waste eventually ends up as new products. The process of chemical recycling has the opportunity to handle products that include mixed plastics, making the process versatile. However, it is a costly process due to the energy requirements and the complex processes. Potential negative environmental impacts can also occur, as some processes may generate harmful emissions if not properly controlled. Chemical recycling leads to increased resource efficiency, and reduces CO2 emissions (Aimplas, 2022). Furthermore, using chemical recycling closes the loop when transforming to a circular economy within the plastic industry. This in terms of utilizing resources that would otherwise be incinerated or transported to landfills. Lastly, the chemical recycling process will contribute to a decreased amount of fossil resources by substituting virgin material with chemically recycled ones. 1.2 Current challenges within plastic waste management Plastic as a material contains several benefits, for instance not expensive to produce, lightweight, strong and beneficial to form (Seay & Ternes, 2022). Unfortunately these benefits contribute negatively to the environment when the plastic waste is not appropriately handled. Without proper disposal or recycling, plastic waste can break down into microplastics which end up in the environment, which will be further explained in this chapter. Additionally, in 2021, the recycling of plastic waste was only 9.7%, implying major environmental effects (Plastics Europe, n.d.). This is due to some challenges related to plastic waste management that will be further explained in this chapter. 1.2.1 Microplastics When plastic becomes disposal, it remains in the environment for centuries, implying all plastic ever produced is still in the environment (Seay & Ternes, 2022). Plastics do not degrade chemically, but the material gradually breaks down into smaller pieces over time, eventually forming insignificant particles known as microplastics. Microplastics impact the environment negatively in several aspects. Microorganisms mistake them for food, and eventually the microplastics also are included in the food chain, creating long-term health hazards for humans. Microplastics are particles of plastics with a diameter of less than 5 mm (Macheca et al, 2024). They are categorized between primary and secondary microplastics. The primary ones imply production of a particular size for specific purposes, and then used in for example household products and cosmetics. The secondary on the other hand implies most commonly non-biodegradable microplastic being fragmented into smaller pieces using different processes. Microplastics can be found anywhere, from the ocean, to the blood of animals and 6 up in the air. The main sources of microplastics are for instance cleaning products, industrial abrasives and packaging materials. The microplastics are considered a major current challenge within plastic waste management (Seay & Ternes, 2022). This is due to their wide environmental dispersion and persistence. Researchers recently discovered microplastic particles from North America and Africa over 9000 feet above sea level in the French Pyrenees mountains, showing that these particles can be transported worldwide through the atmosphere. This emphasizes that you can find microplastics everywhere, it has even been discovered in the food chain. According to Seay and Ternes (2022), microplastic environmental pollution needs to be prevented. 1.2.2 Chemical design and composition According to Jung et al (2023) one of the major challenges for the recycling of plastics are due to the costs and difficulties within the process of classification and separation of different types of plastics. Especially when it comes to mechanical recycling. Plastics can be divided into two different segments: commodity plastic and engineering plastic. Figure 2 presents the main differences between the two plastic types. Commodity plastics are characterized by maintaining high mechanical strength up to 100 degrees celsius. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are some examples of commodity plastics. The commodity plastics are usually in most cases olefin-based polymers. Olefin-based polymers chemistry demands elevated temperatures and high-efficiency catalysts when recycled. Because of this the olefin-based polymers have less than 10% recycling rates. The other category of plastics is engineering plastics, which reserve mechanical strength even at temperatures exceeding 100 degrees celsius. Plastics within this category are polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. This category of plastics has a recycling rate between 70 and 80%. Thus, the recycling of plastics faces significant challenges due to the complexities involved in classifying and separating different types of plastics. 7 Figure 2: Structure, type, cost, recycling rate and portion in the total plastic production within the two different types of plastic (Jung et al., 2023). 1.3 Purpose The purpose of this research assignment is to explore and predict upcoming technological advancements that could disrupt and transform plastic waste management practices from the operations aspects. Additionally this report will explain the incremental innovations existing today within plastic waste management and economical constraints as well as new legal factors that may affect the future or plastic waste management. To achieve them, two research questions are provided. 1. What factors influence the development of disruptive plastic waste technologies? 2. What technologies will disrupt plastic waste management in the future? 8 2. Methodology This section of the report presents the methodology used in the project. The methodology used has primarily been literature studies combined with semi-structured interviews in order to acquire relevant knowledge to the project. 2.1 Literature review An extensive literature review was conducted to increase the knowledge within the area of plastics, and more specific plastic waste management. Several “databases” , for instance Google Scholar and Scopus, were used to create an understanding of the major challenges of plastic waste management today. Furthermore, reliable scientific articles were used to find literature about potential disruptions within plastic waste management. Reports from companies within the plastics industry contributed with valuable information and insight into the root challenges of plastic waste management, and how the future will be. Additionally, reports from the European Union were also used in order to provide in-depth analyses, data, and policy frameworks relevant to have an effect on disruptions within the area of plastic waste management. By integrating these sources, the research ensured a holistic understanding of the future of plastic waste management. The following keywords were used during the research assignment to search for appropriate information: Plastic waste management, Plastic Recycling, Machine learning, Microplastics, Nanotechnology, Biodegradable plastics, Digital Watermarking of plastics, Enzymic Depolarization, Additive Manufacturing with Plastic Waste, European Union Plastic Waste, innovative materials. 2.2 Semi-structured Interviews Semi-structured interviews were used to get more insights to opinions from professors working in the field of plastic waste management regarding their views on disruptive technologies within this field. This method was chosen because it allowed for a structured starting point, with a predefined list of questions and themes to address during the interviews. However, the semi-structured format also provided flexibility, enabling the interviewer to adjust the order of questions and delve deeper into emerging ideas, which thus will lead to a broader discussion. Individuals that have been interviewed: ● Henrik Thunman, a professor specializing in Energy Technology within the Department of Space, Earth, and Environmental Sciences at Chalmers University of Technology. 12/12/2024, Gothenburg, Sweden (interview conducted remotely from Barcelona, Spain). ● Martin Kurdve, an adjunct docent in Supply and Operations Management, within the department of Technology Management and Economics. 9/1/2025, Gothenburg, Sweden. 9 (NIR) sensors, and fully automated processes and can therefore sort 12 different plastic types. Additionally because of the new technology this facility can efficiently sort 95% of all the incoming plastic, which is one of the highest in the world. The use of these digital tools enable analysis and monitoring of sorting data which issues alerts if any inconsistencies arise that could impact the overall performance of the sorting line. 4.3 Evolving trends Plastics Europe (2024) presents their predictions regarding the future of circular plastics. They state the importance of reducing fossil feedstock dependency and lower GHG emissions from the plastic industry. Figure 5 below explains the future of plastics, where circular plastics step by step will replace fossil-based plastics. Figure 5: Circular plastics use by European converters and their feedstock (Plastics Europe, 2024) As seen in the figure, mechanically recycled plastic and chemically recycled plastics will increase the most by 2050. Mechanically recycled plastic will increase with 300% and chemically recycled plastic will go from none to 12Mt. 65% of all plastics will arise from circular plastics, and the fossil-based plastics will reduce to 35%. Dogu et al (2021) emphasize chemical recycling as a vital role in the future plastic waste management. They describe it as a key solution within the circular economy, addressing the challenges of solid plastic waste disposal by converting waste into valuable resources and reducing reliance on traditional disposal methods. According to Dogu et al (2021), pyrolysis and gasification are two leading technologies now and in the future because of their robustness, flexibility and beneficial from an economic point of view. However, it is important to increase the understanding of chemistry and to increase the efficiency in using valuable natural resources. Aimplas, the plastics technology centre in Spain conducted a report about chemical recycling (Aimplas, 2022). They explain chemical recycling as the promising recycling method, with 16 several advantages. “Chemical recycling is an emerging technology with clear potential for growth. In the coming years, industrial plants will be built on all continents. This will result in a clear decrease in the amount of plastic waste going to landfills or incinerators, leading to resource recovery.” However, Aimplas (2022) states the importance of using all recycling technologies to achieve the targets of the European union regarding recycling. Only chemical recycling will not be enough to achieve them, but to use a holistic approach. Plastics Europe created a roadmap, called the Plastics Transition roadmap (Plastic Europe, 2024). This implies information regarding the chemical recycling where members of Plastics Europe will invest in pilot projects and scale-ups. More specifically, eight billion euros by 2030. Furthermore, once the regulations, economic and technical conditions are developed, chemical recycling technologies can rapidly scale up. Examples of companies focusing on developing the chemical recycling process are Dow and Lyondellbasell. Dow, together with another company, Mura, plan to build several facilities in Europe to facilitate the chemical recycling process. The collaboration would lead to adding aggregate chemical recycling capacity of 600 Kt by 2030. These examples emphasize the importance and willingness for companies to improve and increase the chemical recycling part in the world. Martin Kurdve, Docent at Chalmers University of Technology predicts the future of plastic waste management. According to Kurdve, the incremental innovations will be comprehensive in the future. Kvurde says: “There will be no hallelujah moment in the development of techniques for plastic waste management. Instead, it is about learning the next difficult product, and how to manage that in daily operation. There is a strong development implying today’s plastic waste management gets more and more profitable, because of the increasing regulations” (personal communication, January 9, 2025). 17 5. Future technological disruptions Innovation is a key enabler for the transformation of the plastics waste management. This chapter contains future technological disruptions that will have an affect on the future of the plastic waste management. According to Zhang and Xu (2020) there is no technology today that can in an efficient way recycle all types of plastics. Therefore future technological disruptions are needed to reach the goal of net-zero emissions by 2050 in Europe (European Commission, n.d.). 5.1 Digital watermarking of plastic waste Digital watermarking of plastic waste is an additional new technology that can enhance the efficiency of plastic waste sorting (Zhang and Xu, 2020). Watermarking means that digital markings or tags are added to the plastic part during production. The tag should include data regarding what plastic type is used in the product and the recycling process for that specific product, stored in a scalable cloud-based database. Additionally, this technology enhances traceability and transparency of plastics which makes it possible to evaluate if environmental standards are followed. Using watermarking would increase the possibilities of automating sorting because high-resolution cameras would be used to decode this information and thus enable a more efficient way of sorting. Zhang and Xu (2020) further explain that digital watermarking is a promising technology for the future however it requires significant investments within both technology and infrastructure and development of industry standards. The authors state that blockchain digital watermarking has the potential to revolutionize the management of recyclable plastic waste. The Alliance to End Plastic Waste (2024) also views digital watermarking as a promising solution for material sorting, indicating its potential to transform waste management systems (King, 2024). Martyn Tickner, Chief Advisor of Circular Solutions at the Alliance to End Plastic Waste, suggests state the following: “The technology could revolutionise a vital part of the waste management chain, demonstrating the potential to vastly improve sorting accuracy, with recent semi-industrial trials showing a 99% detection rate and a 93% to 95% purity of sorted materials. With this level of accuracy, the initiative is capable of significantly improving the quality of input materials for recycling into high value applications and ultimately, increasing recycling rates.” (King, 2024) The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (Binns, 2020) also views digital watermarking as a promising solution for material sorting, indicating its potential to transform waste management systems. This by making the recycling facilities more efficient. According to Digimarc (2022), digital watermarks can significantly improve the accuracy and efficiency of recycling processes. In a study conducted as part of the HolyGrail 2.0 initiative, digital watermarks embedded into plastic packaging demonstrated high performance in sorting systems, achieving unprecedented levels of material separation. “These results emphatically prove that Digimarc digital watermarks can transform recycling,” says 18 Digimarc CEO Riley McCormack. This breakthrough highlights the technology’s potential to revolutionize plastic waste management, particularly in reducing contamination and increasing recycling rates. 5.2 Biodegradable Plastics Biodegradable plastics are materials that are degraded into water, carbon dioxide and biomass by microorganisms under special conditions (Plastics Europe, n.d.). This material can biologically decompose without the need of traditional plastic waste management. Instead biodegradable plastics often require high temperatures, microbial activity, oxygen, and moisture. How plastics degrade depends on both the raw material being used and the chemical structure of the final plastic (Rujnić-Sokele and Pilipović, 2017). Rujnić-Sokele and Pilipović (2017) explain that european plastics can be divided into four categories within a two axis model, see Figure 6. Additionally, bioplastics that are biobased and biodegradable represent less than 1% of the total plastic production today. This breakthrough technology would enable plastics to naturally decompose in the environment without leaving harmful residues. Figure 6: Categorization of european plastics (Rujnić-Sokele and Pilipović, 2017) Biological recycling is used for biodegradable plastics, and consists of four steps (Macheca et al, 2024). In the first step, microorganisms and enzymes that can effectively break down specific types of plastics are identified and isolated. Secondly, the microorganisms are cultivated in controlled environments to enhance their plastic-degrading efficiency. The third step implies applying the microorganisms or enzymes to plastic waste, either within bioreactors or directly at waste sites. Finally, the plastics are broken down into smaller molecules, for instance carbon dioxide and water. Macheca et al (2024) explain that this method differs significantly from the traditional recycling methods, because of the use of biological processes to manage the plastic waste. “Biological recycling is a promising 19 method because, in addition to complementing existing recycling technologies, the method contributes to more sustainable waste management practices than traditional recycling methods, reducing carbon footprint and environmental impact. The process is versatile, as it can potentially handle a wide range of plastics, including those that are difficult to recycle mechanically or chemically.” According to Chalmers University of Technology (2021) biodegradable plastics can work towards solving the problem of the growing plastic waste if used correctly. They explain that the majority of biodegradable plastics today cannot simply be left in an open environment to degrade. It is very important to understand that biodegradable plastic does not automatically solve the plastic waste problem, but it can be part of the solution when proper management is used. Antal Boldizar, researcher in environmentally adapted technical polymers at Chalmers University of Technology state that: “I think the most important message is that biodegradable plastics have a role to play in reducing the accumulation of plastic in the open environment - but only in some specific applications” (Chalmers University of Technology, 2021). Christiane Funk, researcher at Umeå University, states that biodegradable material has a limited use due to high production costs compared to plastics derived from petrochemicals (Umeå University, 2024). Umeå University is today developing a new biodegradable material with the aim of creating a sustainable bioplastics industry. Their new technology transforms algae that grow in waste water in Umeå and are converted to carbon dioxide from flue gases and finally into biomass. 5.3 Enzymatic depolymerisation Enzymatic depolymerisation is a new technology that makes it possible to recycle any type of PET plastic with the use of bacteria. Thermomechanical recycling processes that are used today have huge limitations that decrease its efficiency and use today. The limitations are: only clear plastic can be used, the quality of the plastic decreases with each recycling cycle and loss of mechanical properties. This new enzymatic depolymerisation technology removes these limitations and makes it possible to recycle PET plastic regardless of its type or color. Additionally when using this technology the plastic is returned to its original virgin quality meaning that the plastic's quality is not affected throughout the recycling process. (European Patent Office, 2021) This new technology is today not used by plastic recycling companies, however it has great potential applications within plastic waste management. Carbios is a French company that has been developing this enzymatic depolymerisation technology. Carbios developed this technology through supercharging the enzyme Petase which is a natural leaf-branch compost (Tournier and Topham et.al., 2020). By supercharging this enzyme it enables PET depolymerization. Carbios aims to secure 4% to 8% of the global recycled PET market by 2030 and expand this share to between 8% and 12% by 2035 (Carbios, 2023). This strategy 20 underscores their confidence in the scalability and effectiveness of their enzymatic recycling technology. According to Kennedy (2024) enzymatic recycling explains several challenges that may decrease the use of this technology in the future. They explain that the two main constraints are the slow speed of the degradation process through enzyme engineering and the economic viability. Kennedy (2024) further explains that the key factors for the enzymatic depolymerisation to disrupt the plastic waste management in the future is to develop cost-effective processes and increase the efficiency of the process. They state that: “The future of enzymatic recycling depends on continued innovation and research”. (Kennedy, 2024) According to 24 Chemical Research (2023), the enzymatic plastic recycling market is poised for significant growth in the coming years. They explain that enzymatic plastic recycling market size globally was valued at USD 45 million in 2023 and is expected to increase to USD 183,47 million by 2032. They state that: “By 2032, the enzymatic recycling market is expected to expand significantly due to rising demand of sustainable material, increased fundings and an increased circular economy commitments”. (Chemical Research, 2023) 5.4 Recycling Waste Plastic into 3D Printing Filaments Research has shown that plastic waste can be transformed into 3D printing filaments, offering a sustainable solution for recycling (Mikula et al., 2020). The process typically involves collecting discarded plastics, cleaning, shredding, and then extruding them into filament form. This method not only reduces plastic waste but also decreases the reliance on virgin materials for 3D printing, contributing to a circular economy. Due to the growing use of 3D printing, this approach has the potential to significantly disrupt plastic waste management today. The 3D printing market is expected to grow from USD 18,33 million in 2022 to a market value of USD 83,9 billion by 2029 (Nikman et al., 2024). According to Nikman et al. (2024) experiments, sustainable 3D printing filaments with 1.65 mm diameter can be developed through the use of PET plastic bottles. They further explain that based on their findings this technology has the potential to reduce plastic waste by transforming it to material used for 3D printing. Rashid and Koc (2023) state that: “With the development and adoption of the proper techniques, additive manufacturing can be used widely to reuse polymer wastes to turn them into valuable products. It can lead to much higher levels of reuse at very low cost and for targeted applications. “ (Rashid and Koc, 2023) 5.5 Co-recycling of plastic waste and biomass According to Henrik Thunman and his colleagues, the solution to become circular within the plastic industry, is to use the resources already existing in society in a better manner. There 21 should be a shift of thinking from material recycling to carbon recycling which will improve resource management of plastics. Henrik Thunman, together with other researchers has created a recycling technique that removes the end of life of plastic. The demonstration implies carbon atoms in mixed waste replace all fossil raw materials in the production of new plastics (Chalmers University of Technology, 2022). The carbon atoms existing in waste are enough to meet the needs of all plastic production in the world. By utilizing these atoms, the reliance on virgin fossil raw materials for new plastic products can be eliminated. The technology involves co-recycling of biomass materials, such as wood and paper, and fossil-based materials, such as plastics, using the carbon atoms from waste to produce new products and then recycling them by using electricity and heat. Thermochemical recycling technologies transform carbon-based waste materials into synthetic products with high quality. This co-recycling enables elimination of carbon losses in terms of carbon emissions and reduction of landfill. Furthermore, renewable sources can be used as energy to manage the processes. Examples of renewable sources are wind, solar and biomass. Regarding the heat, Thunman and the researchers mean that it can be extracted from the recycling process and therefore contribute to the circulatory system. Figure 7a and 7b explain how the recycling process works today, and what the future co-recycling process could look like (Vela et al, 2022). As seen in the Figure 7b, the future means using the waste from biomass production together with waste from plastic production to manufacture new plastic materials. Today, there are two different flows, one for biomass materials and one for plastic materials. The waste in terms of carbon ends up as a lot of losses, since only a small part is kept in the system. The rest becomes CO2, as a consequence of waste management. In Figure 7b, a lot of CO2 losses are eliminated, and instead used in further production of plastics. Instead of using fossil fuels, the waste and CO2 are used as feedstock into the manufacturing process (Vela et al, 2022). The process begins by extracting biomass, which should be done in a sustainable way to be attractive in the future. The same amount of biomass from agriculture and forestry is used as before. Carbon input that is fossil comes from the plastic part of the co-recycling process. When the biomass becomes waste, named “waste” in the figure, the carbon is not lost in the atmosphere but used as feedstock for further production of biomass products and plastic products. All carbon from the waste is needed to manage this technique when co-recycling. 22 Figure 7a and 7b: The present and future recycling processes of biomass materials and fossil materials (Vela et al, 2022) Regarding the energy needed for the process, pyrolysis and gasification can be used to reduce the amount of energy needed to be invested in the process (Chalmers University of Technology, 2022). Pyrolysis will reduce the energy by 50%, while gasification will reduce it by 20%. In order to reach the goals and net zero, there is a need to focus on renewable sources. When using energy in terms of heat, biomass is the most appropriate option. Biomass contains a lot of energy that can be used as a source for running the manufacturing process of biomass and plastic materials. Harvesting and manufacturing losses from biomass production can also be used as energy to run the manufacturing process. The use of biomass would reduce the climate impact with 80% when comparing it with production of material using fossil. Another way of energy for pyrolysis and gasification is electricity, which can be done by solar, nuclear, wind and hydro. Thunman’s and the other researchers’ result shows that hydro is the one reducing the climate impact the most, with a percentage of 97%. 23 This new technique will close the loop of the plastic industry and make it sustainable in the future where the carbon dioxide released in the air will be minimized, and eventually eliminated. According to Thunman, this process enables mixed flows and by use of minimal energy get back to the ground molecules. Today, the technology is done on a small scale. The next step is to do a demonstration of 4-5 billion Swedish Krona that would take care of 100000-150000 ton plastic waste a year. If this process succeeds, we could double the recycling of plastics, and create possibilities of going back to the basic material, implying producing exactly the same materials as if we produce them from fossil fuels. This process would also be a part of removing the major parts of the mechanical recycling industry. Other research and reviews regarding co-recycling has been conducted. Not specifically for producing plastics, but to use the plastic waste in combination with biomass to create new products. Co-liquefaction is a co-recycling method promising for the plastic waste management (Baloyi & Patel, 2024). It implies utilizing plastic waste and biomass for generating liquid fuels by using thermochemical techniques. Co-liquefaction offers a promising solution for managing plastic waste, providing an effective method to produce liquid fuels by combining biomass and plastic waste. Liquefaction is also a promising strategy for plastic waste valorization, because it enables the breakdown of plastics under high pressure and temperature in the presence of solvents. This process converts plastic waste into valuable biofuel products, including low oxygen-content crude oil, high-energy hydrocar, and gas. It is especially effective for the simultaneous decomposition of plastics and other solid feedstocks, such as biomass. Yang et al (2019) conducted a study within co-liquefaction using plastic waste as feedstock. By using hydrothermal liquefaction, different materials can be co-recycled to create new liquids. Mukundan et al (2022) also studied the co-liquefaction of biomass and plastic waste, where those two created bio-oil. The research resulted in productivity of bio-oil was improved when adding 25% plastic substitution. The research opinion in this case goes in line with the other mentioned in this chapter. The use of plastic waste in co-recycling reduces the environmental impact of plastic waste management. The co-recycling has potential in contributing to effective waste management strategy. 5.6 Nanotechnology in PET recycling The application of nanotechnology in PET (polyethylene terephthalate) recycling has emerged as a transformative approach in plastic waste management, offering promising solutions to enhance the properties of recycled materials and improve process efficiency (Anusha et al, 2024). By incorporating nanomaterials into PET recycling processes, researchers have developed advanced nanocomposites with superior mechanical, thermal, and chemical characteristics, making recycled PET more suitable for high-value applications. By improving the production method for Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), the properties for recycled or waste PET will be more beneficial (Mehmet et al, 2024). Today, PET does not have sufficient mechanical properties when being recycled, since you need to add some new plastic when producing new PET products from waste to retain the quality (Pantamera, 2021). Furthermore, when PET is heated in the recycling process, it causes degradation 24 reactions during the repeated process, leading to decreased molecular weight and structural changes. It is therefore impossible to use repeated heat treatments and still retain the quality of the PET. Mehmet, Di lara and Rumeysa have come up with an intervention to address the problem with reducing performance properties within PET (Mehmet et al, 2024). The primary purpose of this invention is to enhance the molecular weight of production waste and/or recycled PET during repeated extrusion. This implies improving its mechanical properties and recyclability. It also enables production of sustainable, high-quality products while contributing to both the national economy and environmental protection through the use of advanced chain extenders. The most common production method to increase the properties of PET today is to extend the chains (Mehmet et al, 2024). Common chain extenders used today are epoxies, diisocyanates and bis-oxazolines. However, there are challenges with the chain extenders used today. Some lead to reduced efficiency because they do not completely react with the PET end groups. The invention by Mehmet et al (2024) is original because of the use of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquiozane (POSS) nanoparticles. POSS nanoparticles are flexible in terms of physical and chemical properties. They can also easily be dispersed within the polymer matrix, creating a nanocomposite that improves performance. Furthermore, POSS nanoparticles are economically beneficial when used in larger scales and therefore an area where research is increasing. POSS nanoparticles are superior to traditional chain extenders, as they also are non-toxic. Compared to other nanomaterials, POSS is more beneficial because of its ability to carry reactive groups, stated as a challenge when using the other nanomaterials. There has been research on POSS nanoparticles as chain extenders for recycled PET. For example, Zeng et al (2005) investigated three POSS types in the PET process, from melt to fiber. The effect of the investigation implied the molecular mass of PET could increase with the correct POSS selection. However, there is a gap in the research regarding repeatedly processed PET, which makes this invention unique. The process contains 80-99% PET waste, and 1-20% Epoxy POSS. The results from tests done show that Epoxy POSS interacts with different groups of PET, resulting in increased molecular weight and mechanical properties improving. This technique demonstrates that the performance features of the products managed within this process are improved, and thereby there is potential that the quality of PET will remain the same or even increase when being treated in other processes afterwards. This will lead to less plastics used in the manufacturing of PET since one with this method does not need to add new plastic to improve the quality of recycled PET. Polymer nano centrum emphasizes the increasing performance of PET bottles when boosted with nanomaterials (Polymer nano centrum, 2024). According to them, the combination of nanotechnology and polymers results in reduced weight, improved strength and lower feedstock costs. 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