Fo ecas ing Technological Dis up ions
in Plas ic Was e Managemen
Emma Nilsson & Na halie Kucha ski
Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca alunya
Ba celona School o Indus ial enginee ing (ETSEIB)
Abs ac
Plas ic is used e e ywhe e in he wo ld and has been o a long ime. Today, plas ic plays a
c i ical ole in nea ly e e y aspec o daily li e and human ac i i y. The p oduc ion o plas ics
has o e he decades inc eased conside ably, wi h an amoun o 350 million ons pe yea . In
2021, he ecycling o plas ic was e was only 9.7%, implying majo en i onmen al e ec s.
This emphasises he impo ance o inc easing he esou ces o handling he was e o i . The
pu pose o his esea ch assignmen is o explo e and p edic upcoming echnological
ad ancemen s ha could dis up and ans o m plas ic was e managemen p ac ices om he
ope a ions aspec s. Addi ionally his esea ch assignmen explains he inc emen al
inno a ions exis ing oday wi hin plas ic was e managemen and economical cons ain s as
well as new legal ac o s ha may a ec he u u e o plas ic was e managemen .
This esea ch explo es he po en ial o dis up i e echnological ad ancemen s o
e olu ionize he managemen o plas ic was e. The s udy iden i ies and e alua es six key
dis up i e echnologies: digi al wa e ma king o e icien was e so ing, biodeg adable
plas ics capable o na u al decomposi ion, enzyma ic depolyme iza ion o ecycling PET
plas ics, ecycling plas ic was e in o 3D p in ing ilamen s, co- ecycling o plas ic was e and
biomass o minimize ca bon losses, and he applica ion o nano echnology in PET ecycling
o enhance ma e ial p ope ies. Addi ionally his epo add esses inc emen al inno a ions,
economic cons ain s, and eme ging legal amewo ks ha shape he u u e landscape o
plas ic was e ecycling. The indings demons a e ha while economic ba ie s and scalabili y
emain key obs acles, he in eg a ion o ad anced dis up i e echnologies wi h inc emen al
inno a ions ha e he po en ial o signi ican ly imp o e ecycling a es.
2
Table o Con en s
Table o Con en s 3
1. In oduc ion 4
1.1 Cu en plas ic was e echnologies 4
1.1.1 Mechanical ecycling 5
1.1.2 Chemical ecycling 5
1.2 Cu en challenges wi hin plas ic was e managemen 6
1.2.1 Mic oplas ics 6
1.2.2 Chemical design and composi ion 7
1.3 Pu pose 8
2. Me hodology 9
2.1 Li e a u e e iew 9
2.2 Semi-s uc u ed In e iews 9
3. Economic and legal aspec s 10
3.1 Economical aspec 10
3.2 Legal aspec s 11
4. Inc emen al inno a ions 14
4.1 Inno a i e chemical ecycling 14
4.2 Machine lea ning and A i icial In elligence 15
4.3 E ol ing ends 16
5. Fu u e echnological dis up ions 18
5.1 Digi al wa e ma king o plas ic was e 18
5.2 Biodeg adable Plas ics 19
5.3 Enzyma ic depolyme isa ion 20
5.4 Recycling Was e Plas ic in o 3D P in ing Filamen s 21
5.5 Co- ecycling o plas ic was e and biomass 21
5.6 Nano echnology in PET ecycling 24
6. Discussion 27
6.1 Mos Po en ial Eme ging Technologies 27
6.2 In e connec i i y o Inno a ions 28
6.3 Economic Viabili y & Regula o y P essu e 29
7. Conclusion 31
Re e ences 33
3
1. In oduc ion
Plas ic is used e e ywhe e in he wo ld and has been o a long ime (Siddiqui & Pandey,
2013). Today, plas ic plays a c i ical ole in nea ly e e y aspec o daily li e and human
ac i i y. In anspo a ion, i is used in e e y hing om ehicle componen s o packaging
ma e ials. In he manu ac u ing sec o , plas ics a e essen ial o c ea ing he majo i y o
consume goods, om elec onics o household i ems. O he a eas whe e plas ics a e used a e
he medical sec o and wi hin ag icul u e. The p oduc ion o plas ics has o e he decades
inc eased conside ably, wi h an amoun o 350 million ons pe yea (Heidb ede e al, 2019).
Plas ic p oduc ion is addi ionally aimed o quad uple by 2050 compa ed wi h 2016 (Wo ld
Economic Fo um, 2016). Figu e 1 p esen s he expec ed g ow h o p oduc ion o plas ics. In
2021, he ecycling o plas ic was e was only 9.7%, implying majo en i onmen al e ec s
(Plas ics Eu ope, n.d.). Thus, plas ic’s p esence ac oss hese sec o s highligh s no only i s
economic impo ance, bu also he challenge o managing i s was e e ec i ely.
Figu e 1: The o ecas ed p oduc ion o plas ic in 2050, and en i onmen al e ec s o i (Siepen e al,
2024)
1.1 Cu en plas ic was e echnologies
Plas ic ecycling is a me hod commonly used wi hin plas ic was e managemen (Macheca e
al, 2024). I is a p ocess o con e ing plas ic was e in o new ma e ials. Mechanical ecycling
is oday he mos used app oach when i comes o ecycling o plas ic. Mechanical ecycling
accoun s o app oxima ely 20% o he global plas ic was e managemen (Bul kowska e al,
2024). The o he plas ic was e echnology used oday is chemical ecycling. Bo h o hem a e
explained u he in his chap e .
Plas ic has o be so ed based on colo , ype, and size in o de o a ain high-quali y ecycled
plas ic (Lubongo & Alexand idis, 2022). In mechanical ecycling he plas ic needs o be
sepa a ed wi h ega ds o colo and ype be o e ep ocessing. When i comes o ecycling, he
4
plas ic is classi ied in o he se en ollowing ca ego ies: High-densi y polye hylene (HDPE),
low-densi y polye hylene (LDPE), PET, PVC, polyp opylene (PP), polys y ene (PS), and
“o he ”. All he se en ca ego ies o plas ic can in heo y be so ed in o de o enable
ecycling. Howe e , so ing is no inancially ad an ageous o all plas ic ypes. PET and
HDPE a e he wo plas ic ypes ha a e aluable enough o make so ing hem and ecycling
hem p o i able.
1.1.1 Mechanical ecycling
The i s s ep o mechanical ecycling is he collec ion and so ing (Chen & Hu, 2024). The
plas ic was e is collec ed om di e en sou ces, o ins ance business and households, and
hen so ed depending on shape, size, chemical composi ion and colo . The second s ep
implies cleaning and ep ocessing. This p ocess is c ucial o main aining he quali y o he
ecycled ma e ial. The plas ic was e is cleaned o elimina e con aminan s in e ms o di and
esidues. A e he cleaning, he plas ic was e is sh edded and he size o he pa s is educed.
This is done o p epa e he plas ic and he su ace a ea o u he p ocessing and he mel ing
pa . Finally, he small pa s o plas ics a e mel ed and e o med. The p ocesses used o ha
a e ex usion o injec ion molding. Ex usion implies o cing he plas ic ma e ial h ough a
die o c ea e pelle s o shee s, bo h con inuous shapes. The la e p ocess, injec ion molding,
he mel ed plas ic is injec ed in o molds o c ea e p oduc s wi h speci ic o ms and
equi emen s. The e a e wo di e en le els o mechanical ecycling, p ima y and seconda y
(Macheca e al, 2024). The i s le el implies c ea ing simila plas ic p oduc s om he plas ic
was e. The second le el o ecycling o plas ics is he seconda y ecycling, whe e plas ic
was e is ans o med o plas ic p oduc s wi h lowe quali y.
1.1.2 Chemical ecycling
The chemical ecycling p ocess implies b eaking down he polyme chains o ex ac
molecules o low weigh , in o de o c ea e new p oduc s o he same, o highe quali y
(Schade e al, 2024). This ecycling me hod is also called e ia y ecycling and includes
p ocesses like py olysis and gasi ica ion and can handle mixed o con amina ed plas ics
(Macheca e al, 2024). Chemical ecycling is app op ia e o plas ics di icul o ecycle using
mechanical me hods. Chemical ecycling con ains i e di e en p ocesses. Py olysis is he
i s one, whe e oxygen is used in a he mal decomposi ion p ocess a empe a u es be ween
300 o 700 deg ees celsius ha ans o ms plas ic in o gases and liquid oil. Gasi ica ion is he
second one, implying syn hesis gas is c ea ed by using a con olled amoun o oxygen when
hea ing he plas ic was e. The empe a u e a gasi ica ion is high, usually be ween 700 and
1500 deg ees celsius. The high empe a u e acili a es he pa ial oxida ion o ca bonaceous
ma e ials. The hi d p ocess is hyd olysis, a me hod u ilizing wa e o b eak plas ic polyme s
in o monome s, called depolyme iza ion. The ou h p ocess is me hanolysis, and in his s ep
me hanol is used when managing he plas ic was e o p oduce dime hyl e eph hala e and
e hylene glycol. Finally, glycolysis is he las p ocess whe e polye hylene e eph hala e (PET)
is b oken down wi h he use o glycol. Monome s a e he e o e yield o epolyme iza ion.
5
Chemical ecycling con e s was e plas ics in o aw ma e ials ha a e aluable, and by ha i
o e s esou ce eco e y and he e o e con ibu es o he ci cula economy (Macheca e al,
2024). Chemical ecycling educes he amoun o plas ic was e ending up in land ills and he
plas ic was e e en ually ends up as new p oduc s. The p ocess o chemical ecycling has he
oppo uni y o handle p oduc s ha include mixed plas ics, making he p ocess e sa ile.
Howe e , i is a cos ly p ocess due o he ene gy equi emen s and he complex p ocesses.
Po en ial nega i e en i onmen al impac s can also occu , as some p ocesses may gene a e
ha m ul emissions i no p ope ly con olled.
Chemical ecycling leads o inc eased esou ce e iciency, and educes CO2 emissions
(Aimplas, 2022). Fu he mo e, using chemical ecycling closes he loop when ans o ming o
a ci cula economy wi hin he plas ic indus y. This in e ms o u ilizing esou ces ha would
o he wise be incine a ed o anspo ed o land ills. Las ly, he chemical ecycling p ocess
will con ibu e o a dec eased amoun o ossil esou ces by subs i u ing i gin ma e ial wi h
chemically ecycled ones.
1.2 Cu en challenges wi hin plas ic was e managemen
Plas ic as a ma e ial con ains se e al bene i s, o ins ance no expensi e o p oduce,
ligh weigh , s ong and bene icial o o m (Seay & Te nes, 2022). Un o una ely hese
bene i s con ibu e nega i ely o he en i onmen when he plas ic was e is no app op ia ely
handled. Wi hou p ope disposal o ecycling, plas ic was e can b eak down in o
mic oplas ics which end up in he en i onmen , which will be u he explained in his
chap e . Addi ionally, in 2021, he ecycling o plas ic was e was only 9.7%, implying majo
en i onmen al e ec s (Plas ics Eu ope, n.d.). This is due o some challenges ela ed o plas ic
was e managemen ha will be u he explained in his chap e .
1.2.1 Mic oplas ics
When plas ic becomes disposal, i emains in he en i onmen o cen u ies, implying all
plas ic e e p oduced is s ill in he en i onmen (Seay & Te nes, 2022). Plas ics do no
deg ade chemically, bu he ma e ial g adually b eaks down in o smalle pieces o e ime,
e en ually o ming insigni ican pa icles known as mic oplas ics. Mic oplas ics impac he
en i onmen nega i ely in se e al aspec s. Mic oo ganisms mis ake hem o ood, and
e en ually he mic oplas ics also a e included in he ood chain, c ea ing long- e m heal h
haza ds o humans.
Mic oplas ics a e pa icles o plas ics wi h a diame e o less han 5 mm (Macheca e al,
2024). They a e ca ego ized be ween p ima y and seconda y mic oplas ics. The p ima y ones
imply p oduc ion o a pa icula size o speci ic pu poses, and hen used in o example
household p oduc s and cosme ics. The seconda y on he o he hand implies mos commonly
non-biodeg adable mic oplas ic being agmen ed in o smalle pieces using di e en
p ocesses. Mic oplas ics can be ound anywhe e, om he ocean, o he blood o animals and
6
up in he ai . The main sou ces o mic oplas ics a e o ins ance cleaning p oduc s, indus ial
ab asi es and packaging ma e ials.
The mic oplas ics a e conside ed a majo cu en challenge wi hin plas ic was e managemen
(Seay & Te nes, 2022). This is due o hei wide en i onmen al dispe sion and pe sis ence.
Resea che s ecen ly disco e ed mic oplas ic pa icles om No h Ame ica and A ica o e
9000 ee abo e sea le el in he F ench Py enees moun ains, showing ha hese pa icles can
be anspo ed wo ldwide h ough he a mosphe e. This emphasizes ha you can ind
mic oplas ics e e ywhe e, i has e en been disco e ed in he ood chain. Acco ding o Seay
and Te nes (2022), mic oplas ic en i onmen al pollu ion needs o be p e en ed.
1.2.2 Chemical design and composi ion
Acco ding o Jung e al (2023) one o he majo challenges o he ecycling o plas ics a e
due o he cos s and di icul ies wi hin he p ocess o classi ica ion and sepa a ion o di e en
ypes o plas ics. Especially when i comes o mechanical ecycling. Plas ics can be di ided
in o wo di e en segmen s: commodi y plas ic and enginee ing plas ic. Figu e 2 p esen s he
main di e ences be ween he wo plas ic ypes. Commodi y plas ics a e cha ac e ized by
main aining high mechanical s eng h up o 100 deg ees celsius. Low-densi y polye hylene
(LDPE), high-densi y polye hylene (HDPE), polyp opylene (PP), polys y ene (PS), and
poly inyl chlo ide (PVC) a e some examples o commodi y plas ics. The commodi y plas ics
a e usually in mos cases ole in-based polyme s. Ole in-based polyme s chemis y demands
ele a ed empe a u es and high-e iciency ca alys s when ecycled. Because o his he
ole in-based polyme s ha e less han 10% ecycling a es. The o he ca ego y o plas ics is
enginee ing plas ics, which ese e mechanical s eng h e en a empe a u es exceeding 100
deg ees celsius. Plas ics wi hin his ca ego y a e polye hylene e eph hala e (PET) and
ac yloni ile bu adiene s y ene. This ca ego y o plas ics has a ecycling a e be ween 70 and
80%. Thus, he ecycling o plas ics aces signi ican challenges due o he complexi ies
in ol ed in classi ying and sepa a ing di e en ypes o plas ics.
7
Figu e 2: S uc u e, ype, cos , ecycling a e and po ion in he o al plas ic p oduc ion wi hin he wo
di e en ypes o plas ic (Jung e al., 2023).
1.3 Pu pose
The pu pose o his esea ch assignmen is o explo e and p edic upcoming echnological
ad ancemen s ha could dis up and ans o m plas ic was e managemen p ac ices om he
ope a ions aspec s. Addi ionally his epo will explain he inc emen al inno a ions exis ing
oday wi hin plas ic was e managemen and economical cons ain s as well as new legal
ac o s ha may a ec he u u e o plas ic was e managemen .
To achie e hem, wo esea ch ques ions a e p o ided.
1. Wha ac o s in luence he de elopmen o dis up i e plas ic was e echnologies?
2. Wha echnologies will dis up plas ic was e managemen in he u u e?
8
2. Me hodology
This sec ion o he epo p esen s he me hodology used in he p ojec . The me hodology
used has p ima ily been li e a u e s udies combined wi h semi-s uc u ed in e iews in o de
o acqui e ele an knowledge o he p ojec .
2.1 Li e a u e e iew
An ex ensi e li e a u e e iew was conduc ed o inc ease he knowledge wi hin he a ea o
plas ics, and mo e speci ic plas ic was e managemen . Se e al “da abases” , o ins ance
Google Schola and Scopus, we e used o c ea e an unde s anding o he majo challenges o
plas ic was e managemen oday. Fu he mo e, eliable scien i ic a icles we e used o ind
li e a u e abou po en ial dis up ions wi hin plas ic was e managemen . Repo s om
companies wi hin he plas ics indus y con ibu ed wi h aluable in o ma ion and insigh in o
he oo challenges o plas ic was e managemen , and how he u u e will be. Addi ionally,
epo s om he Eu opean Union we e also used in o de o p o ide in-dep h analyses, da a,
and policy amewo ks ele an o ha e an e ec on dis up ions wi hin he a ea o plas ic
was e managemen . By in eg a ing hese sou ces, he esea ch ensu ed a holis ic
unde s anding o he u u e o plas ic was e managemen .
The ollowing keywo ds we e used du ing he esea ch assignmen o sea ch o app op ia e
in o ma ion: Plas ic was e managemen , Plas ic Recycling, Machine lea ning, Mic oplas ics,
Nano echnology, Biodeg adable plas ics, Digi al Wa e ma king o plas ics, Enzymic
Depola iza ion, Addi i e Manu ac u ing wi h Plas ic Was e, Eu opean Union Plas ic Was e,
inno a i e ma e ials.
2.2 Semi-s uc u ed In e iews
Semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e used o ge mo e insigh s o opinions om p o esso s
wo king in he ield o plas ic was e managemen ega ding hei iews on dis up i e
echnologies wi hin his ield. This me hod was chosen because i allowed o a s uc u ed
s a ing poin , wi h a p ede ined lis o ques ions and hemes o add ess du ing he in e iews.
Howe e , he semi-s uc u ed o ma also p o ided lexibili y, enabling he in e iewe o
adjus he o de o ques ions and del e deepe in o eme ging ideas, which hus will lead o a
b oade discussion.
Indi iduals ha ha e been in e iewed:
● Hen ik Thunman, a p o esso specializing in Ene gy Technology wi hin he
Depa men o Space, Ea h, and En i onmen al Sciences a Chalme s Uni e si y o
Technology. 12/12/2024, Go henbu g, Sweden (in e iew conduc ed emo ely om
Ba celona, Spain).
● Ma in Ku d e, an adjunc docen in Supply and Ope a ions Managemen , wi hin he
depa men o Technology Managemen and Economics. 9/1/2025, Go henbu g,
Sweden.
9
(NIR) senso s, and ully au oma ed p ocesses and can he e o e so 12 di e en plas ic ypes.
Addi ionally because o he new echnology his acili y can e icien ly so 95% o all he
incoming plas ic, which is one o he highes in he wo ld. The use o hese digi al ools
enable analysis and moni o ing o so ing da a which issues ale s i any inconsis encies a ise
ha could impac he o e all pe o mance o he so ing line.
4.3 E ol ing ends
Plas ics Eu ope (2024) p esen s hei p edic ions ega ding he u u e o ci cula plas ics.
They s a e he impo ance o educing ossil eeds ock dependency and lowe GHG emissions
om he plas ic indus y. Figu e 5 below explains he u u e o plas ics, whe e ci cula
plas ics s ep by s ep will eplace ossil-based plas ics.
Figu e 5: Ci cula plas ics use by Eu opean con e e s and hei eeds ock (Plas ics Eu ope, 2024)
As seen in he igu e, mechanically ecycled plas ic and chemically ecycled plas ics will
inc ease he mos by 2050. Mechanically ecycled plas ic will inc ease wi h 300% and
chemically ecycled plas ic will go om none o 12M . 65% o all plas ics will a ise om
ci cula plas ics, and he ossil-based plas ics will educe o 35%.
Dogu e al (2021) emphasize chemical ecycling as a i al ole in he u u e plas ic was e
managemen . They desc ibe i as a key solu ion wi hin he ci cula economy, add essing he
challenges o solid plas ic was e disposal by con e ing was e in o aluable esou ces and
educing eliance on adi ional disposal me hods. Acco ding o Dogu e al (2021), py olysis
and gasi ica ion a e wo leading echnologies now and in he u u e because o hei
obus ness, lexibili y and bene icial om an economic poin o iew. Howe e , i is
impo an o inc ease he unde s anding o chemis y and o inc ease he e iciency in using
aluable na u al esou ces.
Aimplas, he plas ics echnology cen e in Spain conduc ed a epo abou chemical ecycling
(Aimplas, 2022). They explain chemical ecycling as he p omising ecycling me hod, wi h
16
se e al ad an ages. “Chemical ecycling is an eme ging echnology wi h clea po en ial o
g ow h. In he coming yea s, indus ial plan s will be buil on all con inen s. This will esul
in a clea dec ease in he amoun o plas ic was e going o land ills o incine a o s, leading
o esou ce eco e y.”
Howe e , Aimplas (2022) s a es he impo ance o using all ecycling echnologies o achie e
he a ge s o he Eu opean union ega ding ecycling. Only chemical ecycling will no be
enough o achie e hem, bu o use a holis ic app oach.
Plas ics Eu ope c ea ed a oadmap, called he Plas ics T ansi ion oadmap (Plas ic Eu ope,
2024). This implies in o ma ion ega ding he chemical ecycling whe e membe s o Plas ics
Eu ope will in es in pilo p ojec s and scale-ups. Mo e speci ically, eigh billion eu os by
2030. Fu he mo e, once he egula ions, economic and echnical condi ions a e de eloped,
chemical ecycling echnologies can apidly scale up. Examples o companies ocusing on
de eloping he chemical ecycling p ocess a e Dow and Lyondellbasell. Dow, oge he wi h
ano he company, Mu a, plan o build se e al acili ies in Eu ope o acili a e he chemical
ecycling p ocess. The collabo a ion would lead o adding agg ega e chemical ecycling
capaci y o 600 K by 2030. These examples emphasize he impo ance and willingness o
companies o imp o e and inc ease he chemical ecycling pa in he wo ld.
Ma in Ku d e, Docen a Chalme s Uni e si y o Technology p edic s he u u e o plas ic
was e managemen . Acco ding o Ku d e, he inc emen al inno a ions will be comp ehensi e
in he u u e. K u de says: “The e will be no hallelujah momen in he de elopmen o
echniques o plas ic was e managemen . Ins ead, i is abou lea ning he nex di icul
p oduc , and how o manage ha in daily ope a ion. The e is a s ong de elopmen implying
oday’s plas ic was e managemen ge s mo e and mo e p o i able, because o he inc easing
egula ions” (pe sonal communica ion, Janua y 9, 2025).
17
5. Fu u e echnological dis up ions
Inno a ion is a key enable o he ans o ma ion o he plas ics was e managemen . This
chap e con ains u u e echnological dis up ions ha will ha e an a ec on he u u e o he
plas ic was e managemen . Acco ding o Zhang and Xu (2020) he e is no echnology oday
ha can in an e icien way ecycle all ypes o plas ics. The e o e u u e echnological
dis up ions a e needed o each he goal o ne -ze o emissions by 2050 in Eu ope (Eu opean
Commission, n.d.).
5.1 Digi al wa e ma king o plas ic was e
Digi al wa e ma king o plas ic was e is an addi ional new echnology ha can enhance he
e iciency o plas ic was e so ing (Zhang and Xu, 2020). Wa e ma king means ha digi al
ma kings o ags a e added o he plas ic pa du ing p oduc ion. The ag should include da a
ega ding wha plas ic ype is used in he p oduc and he ecycling p ocess o ha speci ic
p oduc , s o ed in a scalable cloud-based da abase. Addi ionally, his echnology enhances
aceabili y and anspa ency o plas ics which makes i possible o e alua e i en i onmen al
s anda ds a e ollowed. Using wa e ma king would inc ease he possibili ies o au oma ing
so ing because high- esolu ion came as would be used o decode his in o ma ion and hus
enable a mo e e icien way o so ing. Zhang and Xu (2020) u he explain ha digi al
wa e ma king is a p omising echnology o he u u e howe e i equi es signi ican
in es men s wi hin bo h echnology and in as uc u e and de elopmen o indus y
s anda ds. The au ho s s a e ha blockchain digi al wa e ma king has he po en ial o
e olu ionize he managemen o ecyclable plas ic was e.
The Alliance o End Plas ic Was e (2024) also iews digi al wa e ma king as a p omising
solu ion o ma e ial so ing, indica ing i s po en ial o ans o m was e managemen sys ems
(King, 2024). Ma yn Tickne , Chie Ad iso o Ci cula Solu ions a he Alliance o End
Plas ic Was e, sugges s s a e he ollowing: “The echnology could e olu ionise a i al pa
o he was e managemen chain, demons a ing he po en ial o as ly imp o e so ing
accu acy, wi h ecen semi-indus ial ials showing a 99% de ec ion a e and a 93% o 95%
pu i y o so ed ma e ials. Wi h his le el o accu acy, he ini ia i e is capable o signi ican ly
imp o ing he quali y o inpu ma e ials o ecycling in o high alue applica ions and
ul ima ely, inc easing ecycling a es.” (King, 2024)
The Ellen MacA hu Founda ion (Binns, 2020) also iews digi al wa e ma king as a
p omising solu ion o ma e ial so ing, indica ing i s po en ial o ans o m was e
managemen sys ems. This by making he ecycling acili ies mo e e icien .
Acco ding o Digima c (2022), digi al wa e ma ks can signi ican ly imp o e he accu acy and
e iciency o ecycling p ocesses. In a s udy conduc ed as pa o he HolyG ail 2.0 ini ia i e,
digi al wa e ma ks embedded in o plas ic packaging demons a ed high pe o mance in
so ing sys ems, achie ing unp eceden ed le els o ma e ial sepa a ion. “These esul s
empha ically p o e ha Digima c digi al wa e ma ks can ans o m ecycling,” says
18
Digima c CEO Riley McCo mack. This b eak h ough highligh s he echnology’s po en ial o
e olu ionize plas ic was e managemen , pa icula ly in educing con amina ion and
inc easing ecycling a es.
5.2 Biodeg adable Plas ics
Biodeg adable plas ics a e ma e ials ha a e deg aded in o wa e , ca bon dioxide and biomass
by mic oo ganisms unde special condi ions (Plas ics Eu ope, n.d.). This ma e ial can
biologically decompose wi hou he need o adi ional plas ic was e managemen . Ins ead
biodeg adable plas ics o en equi e high empe a u es, mic obial ac i i y, oxygen, and
mois u e. How plas ics deg ade depends on bo h he aw ma e ial being used and he
chemical s uc u e o he inal plas ic (Rujnić-Sokele and Pilipo ić, 2017). Rujnić-Sokele and
Pilipo ić (2017) explain ha eu opean plas ics can be di ided in o ou ca ego ies wi hin a
wo axis model, see Figu e 6. Addi ionally, bioplas ics ha a e biobased and biodeg adable
ep esen less han 1% o he o al plas ic p oduc ion oday. This b eak h ough echnology
would enable plas ics o na u ally decompose in he en i onmen wi hou lea ing ha m ul
esidues.
Figu e 6: Ca ego iza ion o eu opean plas ics (Rujnić-Sokele and Pilipo ić, 2017)
Biological ecycling is used o biodeg adable plas ics, and consis s o ou s eps (Macheca e
al, 2024). In he i s s ep, mic oo ganisms and enzymes ha can e ec i ely b eak down
speci ic ypes o plas ics a e iden i ied and isola ed. Secondly, he mic oo ganisms a e
cul i a ed in con olled en i onmen s o enhance hei plas ic-deg ading e iciency. The hi d
s ep implies applying he mic oo ganisms o enzymes o plas ic was e, ei he wi hin
bio eac o s o di ec ly a was e si es. Finally, he plas ics a e b oken down in o smalle
molecules, o ins ance ca bon dioxide and wa e . Macheca e al (2024) explain ha his
me hod di e s signi ican ly om he adi ional ecycling me hods, because o he use o
biological p ocesses o manage he plas ic was e. “Biological ecycling is a p omising
19
me hod because, in addi ion o complemen ing exis ing ecycling echnologies, he me hod
con ibu es o mo e sus ainable was e managemen p ac ices han adi ional ecycling
me hods, educing ca bon oo p in and en i onmen al impac . The p ocess is e sa ile, as i
can po en ially handle a wide ange o plas ics, including hose ha a e di icul o ecycle
mechanically o chemically.”
Acco ding o Chalme s Uni e si y o Technology (2021) biodeg adable plas ics can wo k
owa ds sol ing he p oblem o he g owing plas ic was e i used co ec ly. They explain ha
he majo i y o biodeg adable plas ics oday canno simply be le in an open en i onmen o
deg ade. I is e y impo an o unde s and ha biodeg adable plas ic does no au oma ically
sol e he plas ic was e p oblem, bu i can be pa o he solu ion when p ope managemen is
used. An al Boldiza , esea che in en i onmen ally adap ed echnical polyme s a Chalme s
Uni e si y o Technology s a e ha : “I hink he mos impo an message is ha
biodeg adable plas ics ha e a ole o play in educing he accumula ion o plas ic in he open
en i onmen - bu only in some speci ic applica ions” (Chalme s Uni e si y o Technology,
2021).
Ch is iane Funk, esea che a Umeå Uni e si y, s a es ha biodeg adable ma e ial has a
limi ed use due o high p oduc ion cos s compa ed o plas ics de i ed om pe ochemicals
(Umeå Uni e si y, 2024). Umeå Uni e si y is oday de eloping a new biodeg adable ma e ial
wi h he aim o c ea ing a sus ainable bioplas ics indus y. Thei new echnology ans o ms
algae ha g ow in was e wa e in Umeå and a e con e ed o ca bon dioxide om lue gases
and inally in o biomass.
5.3 Enzyma ic depolyme isa ion
Enzyma ic depolyme isa ion is a new echnology ha makes i possible o ecycle any ype o
PET plas ic wi h he use o bac e ia. The momechanical ecycling p ocesses ha a e used
oday ha e huge limi a ions ha dec ease i s e iciency and use oday. The limi a ions a e:
only clea plas ic can be used, he quali y o he plas ic dec eases wi h each ecycling cycle
and loss o mechanical p ope ies. This new enzyma ic depolyme isa ion echnology emo es
hese limi a ions and makes i possible o ecycle PET plas ic ega dless o i s ype o colo .
Addi ionally when using his echnology he plas ic is e u ned o i s o iginal i gin quali y
meaning ha he plas ic's quali y is no a ec ed h oughou he ecycling p ocess. (Eu opean
Pa en O ice, 2021)
This new echnology is oday no used by plas ic ecycling companies, howe e i has g ea
po en ial applica ions wi hin plas ic was e managemen . Ca bios is a F ench company ha
has been de eloping his enzyma ic depolyme isa ion echnology. Ca bios de eloped his
echnology h ough supe cha ging he enzyme Pe ase which is a na u al lea -b anch compos
(Tou nie and Topham e .al., 2020). By supe cha ging his enzyme i enables PET
depolyme iza ion. Ca bios aims o secu e 4% o 8% o he global ecycled PET ma ke by
2030 and expand his sha e o be ween 8% and 12% by 2035 (Ca bios, 2023). This s a egy
20
unde sco es hei con idence in he scalabili y and e ec i eness o hei enzyma ic ecycling
echnology.
Acco ding o Kennedy (2024) enzyma ic ecycling explains se e al challenges ha may
dec ease he use o his echnology in he u u e. They explain ha he wo main cons ain s
a e he slow speed o he deg ada ion p ocess h ough enzyme enginee ing and he economic
iabili y. Kennedy (2024) u he explains ha he key ac o s o he enzyma ic
depolyme isa ion o dis up he plas ic was e managemen in he u u e is o de elop
cos -e ec i e p ocesses and inc ease he e iciency o he p ocess. They s a e ha : “The
u u e o enzyma ic ecycling depends on con inued inno a ion and esea ch”. (Kennedy,
2024)
Acco ding o 24 Chemical Resea ch (2023), he enzyma ic plas ic ecycling ma ke is poised
o signi ican g ow h in he coming yea s. They explain ha enzyma ic plas ic ecycling
ma ke size globally was alued a USD 45 million in 2023 and is expec ed o inc ease o
USD 183,47 million by 2032. They s a e ha : “By 2032, he enzyma ic ecycling ma ke is
expec ed o expand signi ican ly due o ising demand o sus ainable ma e ial, inc eased
undings and an inc eased ci cula economy commi men s”. (Chemical Resea ch, 2023)
5.4 Recycling Was e Plas ic in o 3D P in ing Filamen s
Resea ch has shown ha plas ic was e can be ans o med in o 3D p in ing ilamen s, o e ing
a sus ainable solu ion o ecycling (Mikula e al., 2020). The p ocess ypically in ol es
collec ing disca ded plas ics, cleaning, sh edding, and hen ex uding hem in o ilamen
o m. This me hod no only educes plas ic was e bu also dec eases he eliance on i gin
ma e ials o 3D p in ing, con ibu ing o a ci cula economy. Due o he g owing use o 3D
p in ing, his app oach has he po en ial o signi ican ly dis up plas ic was e managemen
oday. The 3D p in ing ma ke is expec ed o g ow om USD 18,33 million in 2022 o a
ma ke alue o USD 83,9 billion by 2029 (Nikman e al., 2024).
Acco ding o Nikman e al. (2024) expe imen s, sus ainable 3D p in ing ilamen s wi h 1.65
mm diame e can be de eloped h ough he use o PET plas ic bo les. They u he explain
ha based on hei indings his echnology has he po en ial o educe plas ic was e by
ans o ming i o ma e ial used o 3D p in ing.
Rashid and Koc (2023) s a e ha : “Wi h he de elopmen and adop ion o he p ope
echniques, addi i e manu ac u ing can be used widely o euse polyme was es o u n hem
in o aluable p oduc s. I can lead o much highe le els o euse a e y low cos and o
a ge ed applica ions. “ (Rashid and Koc, 2023)
5.5 Co- ecycling o plas ic was e and biomass
Acco ding o Hen ik Thunman and his colleagues, he solu ion o become ci cula wi hin he
plas ic indus y, is o use he esou ces al eady exis ing in socie y in a be e manne . The e
21
should be a shi o hinking om ma e ial ecycling o ca bon ecycling which will imp o e
esou ce managemen o plas ics.
Hen ik Thunman, oge he wi h o he esea che s has c ea ed a ecycling echnique ha
emo es he end o li e o plas ic. The demons a ion implies ca bon a oms in mixed was e
eplace all ossil aw ma e ials in he p oduc ion o new plas ics (Chalme s Uni e si y o
Technology, 2022). The ca bon a oms exis ing in was e a e enough o mee he needs o all
plas ic p oduc ion in he wo ld. By u ilizing hese a oms, he eliance on i gin ossil aw
ma e ials o new plas ic p oduc s can be elimina ed. The echnology in ol es co- ecycling o
biomass ma e ials, such as wood and pape , and ossil-based ma e ials, such as plas ics, using
he ca bon a oms om was e o p oduce new p oduc s and hen ecycling hem by using
elec ici y and hea . The mochemical ecycling echnologies ans o m ca bon-based was e
ma e ials in o syn he ic p oduc s wi h high quali y. This co- ecycling enables elimina ion o
ca bon losses in e ms o ca bon emissions and educ ion o land ill. Fu he mo e, enewable
sou ces can be used as ene gy o manage he p ocesses. Examples o enewable sou ces a e
wind, sola and biomass. Rega ding he hea , Thunman and he esea che s mean ha i can
be ex ac ed om he ecycling p ocess and he e o e con ibu e o he ci cula o y sys em.
Figu e 7a and 7b explain how he ecycling p ocess wo ks oday, and wha he u u e
co- ecycling p ocess could look like (Vela e al, 2022). As seen in he Figu e 7b, he u u e
means using he was e om biomass p oduc ion oge he wi h was e om plas ic p oduc ion
o manu ac u e new plas ic ma e ials. Today, he e a e wo di e en lows, one o biomass
ma e ials and one o plas ic ma e ials. The was e in e ms o ca bon ends up as a lo o
losses, since only a small pa is kep in he sys em. The es becomes CO2, as a consequence
o was e managemen .
In Figu e 7b, a lo o CO2 losses a e elimina ed, and ins ead used in u he p oduc ion o
plas ics. Ins ead o using ossil uels, he was e and CO2 a e used as eeds ock in o he
manu ac u ing p ocess (Vela e al, 2022). The p ocess begins by ex ac ing biomass, which
should be done in a sus ainable way o be a ac i e in he u u e. The same amoun o
biomass om ag icul u e and o es y is used as be o e. Ca bon inpu ha is ossil comes
om he plas ic pa o he co- ecycling p ocess. When he biomass becomes was e, named
“was e” in he igu e, he ca bon is no los in he a mosphe e bu used as eeds ock o
u he p oduc ion o biomass p oduc s and plas ic p oduc s. All ca bon om he was e is
needed o manage his echnique when co- ecycling.
22
Figu e 7a and 7b: The p esen and u u e ecycling p ocesses o biomass ma e ials and ossil
ma e ials (Vela e al, 2022)
Rega ding he ene gy needed o he p ocess, py olysis and gasi ica ion can be used o educe
he amoun o ene gy needed o be in es ed in he p ocess (Chalme s Uni e si y o
Technology, 2022). Py olysis will educe he ene gy by 50%, while gasi ica ion will educe i
by 20%. In o de o each he goals and ne ze o, he e is a need o ocus on enewable
sou ces. When using ene gy in e ms o hea , biomass is he mos app op ia e op ion.
Biomass con ains a lo o ene gy ha can be used as a sou ce o unning he manu ac u ing
p ocess o biomass and plas ic ma e ials. Ha es ing and manu ac u ing losses om biomass
p oduc ion can also be used as ene gy o un he manu ac u ing p ocess. The use o biomass
would educe he clima e impac wi h 80% when compa ing i wi h p oduc ion o ma e ial
using ossil. Ano he way o ene gy o py olysis and gasi ica ion is elec ici y, which can be
done by sola , nuclea , wind and hyd o. Thunman’s and he o he esea che s’ esul shows
ha hyd o is he one educing he clima e impac he mos , wi h a pe cen age o 97%.
23
This new echnique will close he loop o he plas ic indus y and make i sus ainable in he
u u e whe e he ca bon dioxide eleased in he ai will be minimized, and e en ually
elimina ed. Acco ding o Thunman, his p ocess enables mixed lows and by use o minimal
ene gy ge back o he g ound molecules. Today, he echnology is done on a small scale. The
nex s ep is o do a demons a ion o 4-5 billion Swedish K ona ha would ake ca e o
100000-150000 on plas ic was e a yea . I his p ocess succeeds, we could double he
ecycling o plas ics, and c ea e possibili ies o going back o he basic ma e ial, implying
p oducing exac ly he same ma e ials as i we p oduce hem om ossil uels. This p ocess
would also be a pa o emo ing he majo pa s o he mechanical ecycling indus y.
O he esea ch and e iews ega ding co- ecycling has been conduc ed. No speci ically o
p oducing plas ics, bu o use he plas ic was e in combina ion wi h biomass o c ea e new
p oduc s. Co-lique ac ion is a co- ecycling me hod p omising o he plas ic was e
managemen (Baloyi & Pa el, 2024). I implies u ilizing plas ic was e and biomass o
gene a ing liquid uels by using he mochemical echniques. Co-lique ac ion o e s a
p omising solu ion o managing plas ic was e, p o iding an e ec i e me hod o p oduce
liquid uels by combining biomass and plas ic was e. Lique ac ion is also a p omising
s a egy o plas ic was e alo iza ion, because i enables he b eakdown o plas ics unde
high p essu e and empe a u e in he p esence o sol en s. This p ocess con e s plas ic was e
in o aluable bio uel p oduc s, including low oxygen-con en c ude oil, high-ene gy hyd oca ,
and gas. I is especially e ec i e o he simul aneous decomposi ion o plas ics and o he
solid eeds ocks, such as biomass. Yang e al (2019) conduc ed a s udy wi hin co-lique ac ion
using plas ic was e as eeds ock. By using hyd o he mal lique ac ion, di e en ma e ials can
be co- ecycled o c ea e new liquids. Mukundan e al (2022) also s udied he co-lique ac ion
o biomass and plas ic was e, whe e hose wo c ea ed bio-oil. The esea ch esul ed in
p oduc i i y o bio-oil was imp o ed when adding 25% plas ic subs i u ion. The esea ch
opinion in his case goes in line wi h he o he men ioned in his chap e . The use o plas ic
was e in co- ecycling educes he en i onmen al impac o plas ic was e managemen . The
co- ecycling has po en ial in con ibu ing o e ec i e was e managemen s a egy.
5.6 Nano echnology in PET ecycling
The applica ion o nano echnology in PET (polye hylene e eph hala e) ecycling has
eme ged as a ans o ma i e app oach in plas ic was e managemen , o e ing p omising
solu ions o enhance he p ope ies o ecycled ma e ials and imp o e p ocess e iciency
(Anusha e al, 2024). By inco po a ing nanoma e ials in o PET ecycling p ocesses,
esea che s ha e de eloped ad anced nanocomposi es wi h supe io mechanical, he mal, and
chemical cha ac e is ics, making ecycled PET mo e sui able o high- alue applica ions.
By imp o ing he p oduc ion me hod o Polye hylene Te eph hala e (PET), he p ope ies o
ecycled o was e PET will be mo e bene icial (Mehme e al, 2024). Today, PET does no
ha e su icien mechanical p ope ies when being ecycled, since you need o add some new
plas ic when p oducing new PET p oduc s om was e o e ain he quali y (Pan ame a,
2021). Fu he mo e, when PET is hea ed in he ecycling p ocess, i causes deg ada ion
24
eac ions du ing he epea ed p ocess, leading o dec eased molecula weigh and s uc u al
changes. I is he e o e impossible o use epea ed hea ea men s and s ill e ain he quali y
o he PET.
Mehme , Di la a and Rumeysa ha e come up wi h an in e en ion o add ess he p oblem
wi h educing pe o mance p ope ies wi hin PET (Mehme e al, 2024). The p ima y pu pose
o his in en ion is o enhance he molecula weigh o p oduc ion was e and/o ecycled PET
du ing epea ed ex usion. This implies imp o ing i s mechanical p ope ies and ecyclabili y.
I also enables p oduc ion o sus ainable, high-quali y p oduc s while con ibu ing o bo h he
na ional economy and en i onmen al p o ec ion h ough he use o ad anced chain ex ende s.
The mos common p oduc ion me hod o inc ease he p ope ies o PET oday is o ex end he
chains (Mehme e al, 2024). Common chain ex ende s used oday a e epoxies, diisocyana es
and bis-oxazolines. Howe e , he e a e challenges wi h he chain ex ende s used oday. Some
lead o educed e iciency because hey do no comple ely eac wi h he PET end g oups.
The in en ion by Mehme e al (2024) is o iginal because o he use o polyhed al oligome ic
silsesquiozane (POSS) nanopa icles. POSS nanopa icles a e lexible in e ms o physical
and chemical p ope ies. They can also easily be dispe sed wi hin he polyme ma ix,
c ea ing a nanocomposi e ha imp o es pe o mance. Fu he mo e, POSS nanopa icles a e
economically bene icial when used in la ge scales and he e o e an a ea whe e esea ch is
inc easing. POSS nanopa icles a e supe io o adi ional chain ex ende s, as hey also a e
non- oxic. Compa ed o o he nanoma e ials, POSS is mo e bene icial because o i s abili y o
ca y eac i e g oups, s a ed as a challenge when using he o he nanoma e ials.
The e has been esea ch on POSS nanopa icles as chain ex ende s o ecycled PET. Fo
example, Zeng e al (2005) in es iga ed h ee POSS ypes in he PET p ocess, om mel o
ibe . The e ec o he in es iga ion implied he molecula mass o PET could inc ease wi h
he co ec POSS selec ion. Howe e , he e is a gap in he esea ch ega ding epea edly
p ocessed PET, which makes his in en ion unique. The p ocess con ains 80-99% PET was e,
and 1-20% Epoxy POSS. The esul s om es s done show ha Epoxy POSS in e ac s wi h
di e en g oups o PET, esul ing in inc eased molecula weigh and mechanical p ope ies
imp o ing.
This echnique demons a es ha he pe o mance ea u es o he p oduc s managed wi hin
his p ocess a e imp o ed, and he eby he e is po en ial ha he quali y o PET will emain
he same o e en inc ease when being ea ed in o he p ocesses a e wa ds. This will lead o
less plas ics used in he manu ac u ing o PET since one wi h his me hod does no need o
add new plas ic o imp o e he quali y o ecycled PET.
Polyme nano cen um emphasizes he inc easing pe o mance o PET bo les when boos ed
wi h nanoma e ials (Polyme nano cen um, 2024). Acco ding o hem, he combina ion o
nano echnology and polyme s esul s in educed weigh , imp o ed s eng h and lowe
eeds ock cos s. Nanoma e ials could he e o e con ibu e as a pe ec aw ma e ial om
25
Inno a i e chemical ecycling me hods o e he possibili y o b eak down plas ics in o
undamen al componen s o ans o m hem in o aluable compounds. The second
combina ion o echnologies is digi al wa e ma king and machine lea ning and a i icial
in elligence. This echnological combina ion can signi ican ly imp o e he e iciency and
enable scalabili y, and hus make i economically iable enough. Thus o ecas ing his
echnological combina ion as dis up i e.
32
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