24 h Annual Con e ence o he In e na ional G oup o Lean Cons uc ion
- Bos on, USA - 2016
(/Pape s/Con e ence/26)
Using Lean o Coun e ac Complexi y
An onio N. de Mi anda Filho , Luiz F. M. Heineck & Jo ge Mo ei a da
Cos a
Ci il Enginee , Ph.D., CEO, Cons u o a San o Ama o L da., Fo aleza, Cea á, B azil, anmi an[email p o ec ed]
Ci il Enginee , Ph.D., Senio P o esso , Business Adminis a ion Depa men , Cea á S a e Uni e si y (UECE), B azil.
[email p o ec ed]
Ci il Enginee , Ph.D., Associa e P o esso , Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Po o (FEUP), Po ugal,
[email p o ec ed].p
Abs ac
Based on a li e a u e e iew and d awing om he expe ience o lean implemen a ion in mul iple
cons uc ion p ojec s, his pape explo es he no ion ha simplici y and in eg ali y migh be c ucial o any
p oduc ion sys em seeking o de elop compe ences agains a ia ions de i ed om bo h in e nal and
ex e nal sou ces. A discussion using di e en sys ems hinking app oaches is conduc ed o p o ide a be e
unde s anding o he ola ile beha iou o complex o ganiza ions. The aim is o encou age ini ia i es ha
add ess o ganiza ional simplici y and in eg ali y in cons uc ion p ojec s and, mo e impo an , o highligh
he impo an ole o lean ools and p inciples o his endea ou .
Keywo ds
Sys ems hinking, o ganiza ional complexi y, p oduc ion sys em design, lean ools
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Filho, A.N.D.M. , Heineck, L.F.M. & Cos a, J.M.D. 2016, 'Using Lean o Coun e ac Complexi y' In:, 24 h
Annual Con e ence o he In e na ional G oup o Lean Cons uc ion. Bos on, USA, 20-22 Jul 2016.
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Founded in 1993, he IGLC is an in e na ional ne wo k o esea che s om p ac ice and academia in
a chi ec u e, enginee ing, and cons uc ion (AEC) who eel ha he p ac ice, educa ion, and esea ch o he
AEC indus y ha e o be adically enewed in o de o espond o he global challenges ahead.
2015 © All Righ s Rese ed.
Mi anda Filho, A.N., Heineck, L.F.M., and Cos a, J.M. (2016). “Lean as a coun e balance o complexi y.”
In: P oc. 24 h Ann. Con . o he In ’l. G oup o Lean Cons uc ion, Bos on, MA, USA, sec .1 pp. 133–142.
A ailable a : <www.iglc.ne >.
133
Sec ion 1: Theo y
USING LEAN TO COUNTERACT
COMPLEXITY
An onio N. de Mi anda Filho1, Luiz F. M. Heineck2, and Jo ge Mo ei a da Cos a3
ABSTRACT
Based on a li e a u e e iew and d awing om he expe ience o lean implemen a ion in
mul iple cons uc ion p ojec s, his pape explo es he no ion ha simplici y and
in eg ali y migh be c ucial o any p oduc ion sys em seeking o de elop compe ences
agains a ia ions de i ed om bo h in e nal and ex e nal sou ces. A discussion using
di e en sys ems hinking app oaches is conduc ed o p o ide a be e unde s anding o
he ola ile beha iou o complex o ganiza ions. The aim is o encou age ini ia i es ha
add ess o ganiza ional simplici y and in eg ali y in cons uc ion p ojec s and, mo e
impo an , o highligh he impo an ole o lean ools and p inciples o his endea ou .
KEYWORDS
Sys ems hinking, o ganiza ional complexi y, p oduc ion sys em design, lean ools.
INTRODUCTION
The challenge o managing complex p ojec o ganiza ions poin s o he impo ance o
shedding ligh on he easons why lean ools ha e been success ully applied in he
cons uc ion en i onmen while o he so-called bes p ac ices ha e no . The cu en s udy
pu s o wa d ha he pe cei ed gains migh come om o ganiza ional simplici y and
in eg ali y suppo ed by lean ools. Simplici y is a desi able ea u e o a p ojec
o ganiza ional s uc u e because he low deg ee o e ical and ho izon al di e en ia ion
be ween pa icipan s helps o educe he numbe o changes and e en s ha cause
dynamics (e.g., Bacca ini 1996; Ashkenas 2007). Addi ionally, in eg ali y is based on
solu ions ha enhance o ganiza ional p oximi y in di e en dimensions and he eby
imp o e in e ac ions be ween pa icipan s (e.g., Voo dijk e al 2006).
In o de o p o ide a deepe unde s anding, he discussion he ein e isi s he issue o
complexi y caused by he he e ogenei y o p ojec pa icipan s and hei in e ac ion
di icul ies. I is ini ially a gued ha a clea dis inc ion be ween he complex and
complica ed aspec s o p ojec p oduc ion is necessa y o unde s anding he e ec i eness
o ce ain ools. Wi h his di ec i e he discussion ocuses on nonlinea in e ac ions
1 Ci il Enginee , Ph.D., CEO, Cons u o a San o Ama o L da., Fo aleza, Cea á, B azil,
anmi anda @yahoo.com.b
2 Ci il Enginee , Ph.D., Senio P o esso , Business Adminis a ion Depa men , Cea á S a e Uni e si y
(UECE), B azil. [email p o ec ed]
3 Ci il Enginee , Ph.D., Associa e P o esso , Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Po o
(FEUP), Po ugal, jm cos a@ e.up.p
An onio N. de Mi anda Filho , Luiz F. M. Heineck , and Jo ge Mo ei a da Cos a
134 P oceedings IGLC-24, July 2016 | Bos on, USA
wi hin he p ojec o ganiza ion because hese a e he mos ob iously pe cei ed p oblems
associa ed wi h complexi y. Va ia ions in p oduc i i y a es, ewo k and o he
pe o mance measu es a e he ein desc ibed as he inal esul s o nonlinea dynamics.
Thus, ideas om se e al sys em hinking app oaches a e combined o comp ehend how
hese dynamics o igina e and p opaga e wi hin complex p ojec o ganiza ions.
Two main guidelines o coun e measu ing dynamics ha cause de ia ions in
pe o mance a e iden i ied. Rela ed o sys em design and ope a ion, hese guidelines help
o explain he e icacy o he exis ing lean ools and should con ibu e o new
de elopmen s seeking o s abilize p oduc ion sys ems. The pape concludes by pu ing
o wa d he idea ha he sea ch o simplici y and in eg ali y, in con as o complexi y, is
wha in ui i ely guides he success ul enewal solu ions in p ojec p oduc ion.
DISTINGUISHING COMPLEX FROM COMPLICATED
Inside he p ojec o ganiza ion, nonlinea i ies cause wo k e o s o be disp opo iona e o
he esul s. The nonlinea in e ac ions be ween p ojec pa icipan s a e behind wha
cons uc ion esea che s (e.g., Koskela 2000; Balla d e al. 2001) call he a iabili y o
sys ems and subsys ems. This means ha a ia ions in pe o mance measu es a e he
inal esul o nonlinea dynamics be ween pa icipan s. The e o e, ega dless o ha ing
been s a ed by an ex e nal o in e nal e en , he dynamics a e agg a a ed by laws in he
in e connec ions wi hin he o ganiza ional s uc u e.
This no ion leads o a e iew o he common unde s anding o p ojec complexi y. To
begin wi h, Snowden (2003) de ines p oduc s (engine, e ige a o , ca , house, e c.) as
complica ed sys ems, since hei componen s a e s able wi h ime and can be imp o ed by
op imiza ion. In his case he whole is equal o he sum o i s pa s. Di e en ly, complex
sys ems a e complica ed and uns able, which means hey change shape and pa e n wi h
ime (e.g., O osson and Bjö k 2004). A business o ganiza ion is a good example o a
complex sys em whe e small changes exp essed h ough managemen decisions a e
ampli ied by o he ac o s and disp opo iona ely cause la ge e ec s. The mo e people
in ol ed he mo e p obable i is ha comple ely uncon olled dynamic changes will
occu . The nonlinea in e ac ions among hem make he whole di e om he sum o he
pa s.
Fo a long ime, he common assump ion was o in e p e p ojec s solely as
complica ed sys ems, as demons a ed by he use o ans o ma ion model concep s and
ools like PERT/CPM and Line o Balance (e.g., Mendes J . and Heineck 1999).
A e wa ds he e was a endency o in e p e p ojec s exclusi ely as complex sys ems
(e.g., Be elsen 2003; Be elsen and Koskela, 2003). Howe e , bo h app oaches need o
be econside ed and combined so as o isualize each p ojec as a blend o complica ed
sys em (p oduc ) and complex sys em (o ganiza ion). The wo ealms mus be deal wi h
in di e en bu complemen a y ways (e.g., Figu e 1).
A p oduc is cha ac e ized by a se o a ibu es like pu pose, c i e ia, unc ionali ies,
componen s and alue. These a ibu es es ablish he p oduc ’s cos , quali y s anda ds and
deg ee o cons uc abili y. Changes in a ibu es a ec how simple o complica ed will be
a p oduc . On he o he hand, an o ganiza ion is cha ac e ized by he policies, p ocesses,
Using lean o Coun e ac complexi y
Sec ion 1: Theo y 135
s a egic choices, esou ces, capabili ies and compe ences ha gene a e i s obus ness and
cons ain s. Changes in hese cha ac e is ics al e he sys em’s obus ness and ans o m
he way he a ious subsys ems in e ac ou inely o when submi ed o spo adic e en s.
The e is no di ec ela ionship be ween he p oduc ’s le el o complica ion and
o ganiza ional complexi y. A complica ed p oduc can be en i ely designed and buil by a
small eam i he e is su icien ime and skills. This co obo a es he no ion ha
o ganiza ional complexi y is no jus a consequence o p oduc ype, bu a he he
cumula i e esul o decisions ega ding business selec ion, s uc u e and managemen
(e.g. G öble e al. 2006; Ashkenas 2007). The e o e, a small p ojec can be mo e
complex han a la ge one i he e is a g ea amoun o unce ain y, ei he in p oduc goals
o in o ganiza ional me hods, added o ime and cos cons ain s (e.g., Williams 2002).
Figu e 1: A Model o P ojec Realms, whe e Complexi y is mo e Di ec ly De i ed om
O ganiza ional Cha ac e is ics and no Necessa ily om P oduc A ibu es
Dis inguishing a complica ed sys em om a complex sys em is an impo an s ep o guide
imp o emen s in p ojec pe o mance. As men ioned by Sa gu and McG a h (2012),
se ious, expensi e mis akes a e made when a complex o ganiza ion is managed as i i
we e jus a complica ed one. O osson and Bjö k (2004) obse e ha adi ional
managemen p ac ices can deal well wi h complica ed sys ems, i.e. sys ems consis ing o
many componen s ha a e s able o e ime. Complex sys ems, on he o he hand, canno
be deal wi h in he same way as s able sys ems, because he changes a e g ea e in each
chosen ime in e al. The nonlinea in e ac ions in complex sys ems canno be p edic ed

An onio N. de Mi anda Filho , Luiz F. M. Heineck , and Jo ge Mo ei a da Cos a
136 P oceedings IGLC-24, July 2016 | Bos on, USA
by adi ional budge and schedule ools, as hey a e he esul s o ela ionships inside and
among he a ious subg oups in he s uc u e. Thus, coun e ing he ha m ul e ec s o
nonlinea in e ac ions equi es paying close a en ion o he design o unc ional a eas in
he o ganiza ion s uc u e and managing wo k e o s in eal ime as much as possible.
UNDERSTANDING NONLINEARITIES AND VARIATIONS
Unde s anding nonlinea dynamics and how hey a e agg a a ed is a p e equisi e o
de ising solu ions o s uc u ing and managing la ge p ojec o ganiza ions. When acing
a p oblem, manage s end o assume ha some ex e nal e en caused i . Bu no e e y
p oblem is caused by an ex e nal e en and secondly, he way ex e nal e en s e ol e and
a e deal wi h p e y much depends on he o ganiza ion’s in e nal capabili ies. F om he
iewpoin o sys ems hinking, he in e nal s uc u e is o en mo e impo an han ex e nal
e en s in gene a ing p oblems ha a ec pe o mance (e.g., Ki kwood 1998).
The p oblems aced o e and o e by he managemen eam a e, e y o en,
symp oms o an unde lying cause in he o ganiza ional s uc u e. Focusing on a symp om
leads o co ec i e in e en ions ha may ampli y he p oblem o e en gene a e o he
de ia ions. Fo his eason, Toyo a’s s a egy says “ask why 5 imes”, which is i s way o
poin ing ou he need o ind he unde lying cause. Howe e , pe cei ing how nonlinea
dynamics o igina e and p opaga e equi es combining ideas om di e en sys ems
hinking app oaches like heo y o cons ain s, sys em dynamics and complexi y heo y.
To begin wi h, Ki kwood (1998) s a es ha many business p ocesses a e nonlinea ,
especially when p essed o ex emes. Fo example, while i may be ue ha i an
employee wo ks en pe cen longe hou s he will accomplish en pe cen mo e wo k, i is
p obably no ue ha i he wo ks wice as many hou s he will accomplish wice as much
wo k. By ying o inc ease e en u he he amoun o o e ime he employee soon
su e s om a igue, which leads o a educ ion in his wo king e ec i eness. Simila ly,
despi e he e o s o he sales eam, i he deg ee o cus ome demand g ows oo apidly
he a ailable p oduc ion capaci y o a manu ac u ing plan may limi he amoun o a
p oduc ha can be sold, making cus ome sa is ac ion gi e way o dissa is ac ion. These
a e bo h p ac ical examples o nonlinea esponses encoun e ed by business
o ganiza ions. In bo h cases he inal esul is qui e di e en om wha was o iginally
in ended.
Wha s ands ou om hese examples is ha he nonlinea beha iou o he
in e ac ions is agg a a ed by cons ain s in he sys ems. Di e en cons ain s ha e in
common he ac ha hey a e ela ed o he capaci y o he esou ces in ol ed. Indeed,
esou ces a e de ined as hings ha ha e a limi ed capaci y o bea s ain; e.g., labo ,
ools, equipmen , space, and ime (e.g., Balla d e al. 2001; Balla d and Howell 2003).
Al hough sys ems a e some imes cons ained by policies (e.g., Gold a 1990), i is a ac
ha ules can be s e ched while esou ces a e o en physical en i ies ha canno . This
shows he need o conside he impac o o e loaded esou ces in cause-e ec chains.
Rega dless o ha ing been s a ed by an in ended o unin ended e en , he dynamics
o igina ed a e exceeding a esou ce’s load capaci y will always be ha m ul o business
pe o mance. As a ma e o ac , i he desi ed s a e o a subsys em is cha ac e ized by
Using lean o Coun e ac complexi y
Sec ion 1: Theo y 137
speci ic alues o a ele an se o a iables, an e en causing one o hose a iables o
change beyond a ole able limi al e s he s a e and is, he eby, conside ed o be
dis u bing he cou se o he subsys em (e.g., Campagne e al. 1995). Fo his eason, Van
de Me we (2002) men ions ha o en he op imal ope a ing poin o a subsys em is nea
he limi s o cons ain s in he ope a ing window.
Howe e , in cons uc ion p ojec s he cu en ly impeding cons ain ypically changes
wi h ime and si ua ions. The e o e, he e may be li le ime o iden i y and exploi
in e nal cons ain s in complex adap i e sys ems ha ha e a con inuously changing
s uc u e (e.g., Meije , 1998). To make ma e s wo se, he hie a chic laye s and di e en
occupa ional specializa ions wi hin he o ganiza ional s uc u e added o he peculia i ies
o si e p oduc ion ha e a nega i e e ec on he deg ee o ope a ional in e ac ion be ween
p ojec elemen s. This implies ha he e can be no one, bu many unknown cons ain s
ha a e being pushed o he limi as he dynamics p opaga e h oughou he o ganiza ion
all he way o he on line wo ke s. Consequen ly, wha may seem like a simple decision
o eques o a p ojec s akeholde can u n in o a majo exe cise o hund eds o o he
people. Connec ion p oblems be ween componen s o a la ge sys em and he lack o
su icien in o ma ion ega ding he exis ing cons ain s explain why a se ies o ou pu s
may appea andom o an ou side obse e .
The no ion ha dynamics o bo h in ended and unin ended e en s can cause posi i e
and nega i e in luences shows ha i is pa adoxical ha a cons uc ion p ojec is i sel a
p ocess o con inuous change, bu wi hin he p ojec e e y change may be haza dous
(e.g., Lo e e al. 2002). In cons uc ion, manage ial in e en ions o cope wi h
en i onmen al dynamics o o ini ia e planned ac i i ies s a dynamics ha apidly c ea e
in e media e s a es o mo e he p oduc ion sys em om one p ojec phase o ano he
(e.g., Be elsen 2003). Al e a ions in p oduc speci ica ions o scope, hando s be ween
specialis s, inc eases in he wo k o ce, and changes in he cons uc ion si e layou a e jus
a ew examples o such e en s.
Knowing ha dynamics causing posi i e and nega i e in luences co-exis h oughou
a p ojec ’s li e cycle implies ha app op ia e solu ions need o be de ised o maximize
he posi i e e ec s and minimize he nega i e ones. Al hough a sou ce o manage ial
conce n, his ola ile sys emic beha io can be p e en ed i add essed ea ly in he p ocess
o p oduc ion s a egy o mula ion. The decisions made when designing he p oduc ion
sys em can no only c ea e capabili ies ha educe he nega i e in luences o ha m ul
dynamics, bu also induce a p ojec o unde go less in e sec ing phase ansi ions.
Unde lying he p oduc ion sys em design and ope a ion should be he philosophy ha a
sys em canno achie e managemen goals no be imp o ed i i is no s able. E en hough
cons uc ion p ojec s need o pass h ough a se ies o phase ansi ions, i is necessa y o
place emphasis in unde s anding how p oduc ion sys ems can be designed and ope a ed
o deal wi h dynamics ha cause a p ocess o a y om he expec ed o desi ed s a e.
PROPOSING GUIDELINES FOR STABILIZATION
Field obse a ions suppo he no ion ha o e loaded esou ces in cause-e ec chains
agg a a e he nonlinea beha iou o in e ac ions. Ano he in e es ing no ion is ha
An onio N. de Mi anda Filho , Luiz F. M. Heineck , and Jo ge Mo ei a da Cos a
138 P oceedings IGLC-24, July 2016 | Bos on, USA
nonlinea i ies be ween p ojec s akeholde s na u ally a ise om hei dis ance in e ms o
communica ion, geog aphy, wo k pa e n, cul u e, and echnology. Those wo insigh s a e
pa icula ly impo an o app ecia e he di icul y o making decisions in a empo a y
o ganiza ion cha ac e ized by high di ision o wo k and many hie a chic laye s.
E en so, decision-making in cons uc ion managemen is mainly based on he
educ ionis hinking, whe e he ocus is on a smalle numbe o decision a eas and
possible ou comes. This is especially ue o ime-s essed si ua ions. Reduc ionis
hinking causes manage ial in e en ions o be mo e equen and commonly aken om a
mac oscopic pe spec i e. A la ge p ojec obse ed mac oscopically is cha ac e ized and
e alua ed based on ew a iables, which c ea es he illusion o a p edic able beha iou .
Hence, decisions a e made conside ing a ela i ely small numbe o a iables, such as he
ma ch be ween esou ces and asks o accomplish a p ojec schedule. Howe e , as
men ioned by O osson and Bjö k (2004), decision-making cen alized in uppe
hie a chic le els will ha e se ious p oblems in g asping he small hings, which include
in e ela ionships and cons ain s. Thus, in a pa icula p ojec he di e en in e en ions
a e ei he done: op imis ically, wi h unknown cons ain s being o e loaded and s a ing
ha m ul dynamics; o pessimis ically, wi h unknown cons ain s being deal wi h by
bu e s placed in p ojec plans. This p o ides a pa ial explana ion o why de ailed long-
e m planning and budge ing a e a he meaningless in p ac ice.
The combina ion be ween educ ionis hinking and mac oscopic pe spec i e
illus a es he p oblem wi h s a egies ha allow he occu ence o many e en s and ha
os e cen alized decision-making. The high p obabili y o occu ing uncon ollable
dynamics ha cause de ia ions indica es ha manage s should no y o manage
complexi y, bu a he o o ganize hei way a ound i (e.g., Meije 1998). The e o e, wo
complemen a y guidelines o a be e s abiliza ion o la ge p ojec p oduc ion sys ems
a e p oposed:
Reduce he numbe o in ended and unin ended e en s/changes o be handled by he
p oduc ion sys em. This i s guideline is mo e ela ed o o ganiza ional
simplici y. In ense and o e lapping manage ial in e en ions o abso b
en i onmen al dynamics o o ini ia e planned ac i i ies a e likely o o e load
esou ces and he eby s a ha m ul dynamics. Fo his eason, o e -in e en ion,
which is quan i ied by he magni ude and he equency o changes, is coun e -
p oduc i e.
Imp o e he p oduc ion sys em’s in eg a ion by inc easing he quali y and quan i y o
in e ac ions be ween p ojec s akeholde s. This second guideline is mo e ela ed o
o ganiza ional in eg ali y. Designing a p oduc ion sys em in a way ha enhances
he deg ee o p oximi y be ween pa icipan s imp o es hei in e ac ions and
allows hem o help in keeping he subsys ems ope a ing op imally nea he limi s
o he closes ac i e cons ain s. This educes nonlinea i ies in he sys em and
consequen ly enhances p ojec pe o mance.
Using lean o Coun e ac complexi y
Sec ion 1: Theo y 139
FOLLOWING THE GUIDELINES THROUGH LEAN
In o de o ollow he guidelines, i is impo an o pe cei e he d i e s o o ganiza ional
complexi y ha can be minimized. The i s in luence comes om ex e nal d i e s o
complexi y. The business s a egy es ablishes he ex e nal en i onmen al complexi y in
which he i m will compe e. As a esul , he complexi y o he o ganiza ion’s in e nal
s uc u e ends o ma ch ha o he ex e nal en i onmen . E en i ms ha ha e
ou sou ced many o hei p oduc ion asks s ill need o ake in o accoun a numbe o
aspec s and o emphasize con ol on he in e ela ions wi h he ou sou cees (e.g., Meije ,
2002). This is especially ue o he lead i m in a la ge-scale p oduc de elopmen
cha ac e ized by si e p oduc ion and pe o med unde a igh schedule.
Fo una ely, business o ganiza ions a e able o selec o a ce ain deg ee he ex e nal
en i onmen hey wan o li e in depending on i s complexi y (e.g. G öble e al. 2006). I
is up o op manage s o decide abou a speci ic s a egic o ien a ion o pa icula
geog aphic a ea in which he i m will compe e. The e o e, complexi y is conside ed
lowe o i ms wi h a ocus on ce ain cus ome segmen s o highe deg ee o
geog aphical concen a ion. The choice o c ea e alue o a limi ed well-chosen se o
cus ome s helps o educe he numbe o aspec s ha need o be aken in o accoun
simul aneously and o lowe he bandwid h and andomness o in e ela ions (Meije ,
2002). In o he wo ds, ocusing he business p oposi ion can no only educe he exposu e
o e en s and unplanned changes ha cause dynamics bu also imp o e he quali y o
in e ac ions be ween s akeholde s. This is well aligned wi h he abo emen ioned wo
guidelines o imp o ing sys emic s abili y.
Rega ding he second in luence o o ganiza ional complexi y, i is impo an o
ecognize he in e nal d i e s ha la gely con ibu e o he he e ogenei y o pa icipan s,
unc ions, and p ocesses pe o med wi hin he sys em. As men ioned be o e, he way an
o ganiza ion is s uc u ed s ongly shapes i s inne complexi y. The e o e, despi e he
in luence o con ex ual ac o s in he ex e nal en i onmen , a leas o a ce ain deg ee,
o ganiza ions a e able o educe in e nal complexi y (e.g. G öble e al. 2006).
The educ ion o in e nal complexi y is jus i ied by he need o coun e nonlinea i ies.
The no ion ha bo h in ended and unin ended e en s can s a ha m ul dynamics
highligh s he impo ance o o ganiza ional ea u es ha shield downs eam ac i i ies
om dis u bances o ha os e adap i e managemen schemes (e.g., Mawby and
S upples 2002; Balla d and Howell 2003). To do so, o ganiza ional s uc u ing in ci il
cons uc ion should pay mo e a en ion o s a egies and p ac ices ha enhance simplici y
and in eg ali y. O ganiza ional simplici y based on low di e en ia ion can educe
changes and e en s ha cause dynamics. Complemen a ily, o ganiza ional in eg ali y
based on p oximi y in di e en dimensions can educe nonlinea i ies wi hin dynamics.
Ini ia i es aimed o s eng hen linkages be ween pa icipan s in empo a y
o ganiza ions allow hem o help in keeping he dynamics om o e loading he cu en ly
ac i e cons ain s. The lowe deg ee o di e en ia ion and he highe deg ee o p oximi y
elimina e in e media e ba ie s o lows, including laye s o au ho i y ela ionships in he
chain o command, and empowe people a each le el o make decisions and sol e
e e yday p oblems. Hence, each wo k eam becomes an a ac o ha ensu es ha a