Jou nal o
Func ional Mo phology
and Kinesiology
A icle
Body Fa Assessmen in In e na ional Eli e
Socce Re e ees
C is ian Pe i 1, F ancesco Campa 2, Vi o Hugo Teixei a 3,4, Pascal Izzicupo 5,
Gio gio Galan i 1, Angelo Pizzi 6, Geo gian Badicu 7,* and Gab iele Masche ini 1
1Spo s and Exe cise Medicine Uni , Clinical and Expe imen al Depa men , Uni e si y o Flo ence,
50121 Fi enze, I aly; [email p o ec ed] (C.P.); [email p o ec ed] (G.G.);
[email p o ec ed] (G.M.)
2
Depa men o Li e Quali y S udies, Uni e si y o Bologna, 47921 Rimini, I aly; [email p o ec ed]
3Facul y o Nu i ion and Food Sciences (FCNA), Uni e si y o Po o, 4200-465 Po o, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed]
4Resea ch Cen e in Physical Ac i i y, Heal h and Leisu e (CIAFEL), Facul y o Spo s, Uni e si y o Po o,
4099-002 Po o, Po ugal
5Depa men o Medicine and Aging Science, “G. D’Annunzio” Uni e si y o Chie i-Pesca a,
66100 Chie i, I aly; [email p o ec ed]
6A.I.A., I alian Re e ees Associa ion, 00187 Rome, I aly; [email p o ec ed]
7Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Special Mo ici y, T ansil ania Uni e si y o B aso ,
500068 B aso , Romania
*Co espondence: geo gian.badicu@uni b . o
Recei ed: 14 Ap il 2020; Accep ed: 5 June 2020; Published: 6 June 2020


Abs ac :
Socce e e ees a e a speci ic g oup in he spo s popula ion ha a e ecei ing inc easing
a en ion om spo s scien is s. A lowe a mass pe cen age (FM%) is a use ul pa ame e o moni o
i ness s a us and ae obic pe o mance, while being able o e alua e i wi h a simple and quick
ield-based me hod can allow a egula assessmen . The aim o his s udy was o p o ide a speci ic
p o ile o e e ees based on mo phological and body composi ion ea u es while compa ing he
accu acy o di e en skin old-based equa ions in es ima ing FM% in a coho o socce e e ees.
Fo y- h ee eli e in e na ional socce e e ees (age 38.8
±
3.6 yea s), who pa icipa ed in he 2018 Russian
Wo ld Cup, unde wen body composi ion assessmen s wi h skin old hickness and dual-ene gy X- ay
abso p iome y (DXA). Six equa ions used o de i e FM% om skin old hickness we e compa ed
wi h DXA measu emen s. The pe cen age o body a es ima ed using DXA was 18.2
±
4.1%, whe eas
skin old-based FM% assessed om he six o mulas anged be ween 11.0%
±
1.7% o 15.6%
±
2.4%.
Among he six equa ions conside ed, he Faulkne ’s o mula showed he highes co ela ion wi h
FM% es ima ed by DXA ( =0.77; R
2
=0.59 p<0.001). Addi ionally, a new skin old-based equa ion
was de eloped: FM% =8.386 +(0.478
×
iliac c es skin old) +(0.395
×
abdominal skin old, =0.78;
R
2
=0.61; s anda d e o o he es ima e (SEE) =2.62 %; p<0.001). Due o hese indings, na ional
and in e na ional ede a ions will now be able o pe o m egula body composi ion assessmen s
using skin old measu emen s.
Keywo ds:
an h opome y; body composi ion; DXA; equa ion; a mass; socce ; soma o ype; skin olds
1. In oduc ion
No ma e he compe i ion le el, he e is no o icial socce game wi hou he p esence o he 23 d
key elemen : he e e ee. The e a e mo e han 840,000 egis e ed e e ees who a bi a e socce games
each week e i ying and en o cing he ules o he game [
1
]. Howe e , scien i ic li e a u e on e e ees
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38; doi:10.3390/j mk5020038 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/j mk
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 2 o 10
in ela ion o physiological demands, body composi ion, and nu i ion- ela ed aspec s [
2
–
4
] is limi ed
when compa ed o wha is a ailable on playe s.
No only do eli e-class socce e e ees need o pe o m hei bes in pe cep ual-cogni i e abili ies
and decision-making asks [
5
], bu hey mus also achie e an ele a ed ae obic pe o mance simila o a
mid ield socce playe [
6
]. Al hough he e a e signi ican di e ences be ween games, e e ees co e
on a e age a dis ance be ween 9 and 13 km pe game, depending on he le el o compe i ion [
3
,
7
–
9
].
Due o he high-in ensi y ma ches in ecen yea s [
10
] and as a consequence o he inc ease in physical
demand he e is a end owa ds a dec ease in body mass index (BMI) and body a le els in eli e
e e ees [
11
]. In ac , ecen s udies on eli e e e ees (FIFA) show lowe le els o BMI and body a han
p e iously epo ed in P emie League e e ees [12,13].
In socce playe s, body a is gene ally es ima ed by skin old hickness assessmen , bioelec ical
impedance analysis, and dual-ene gy X- ay abso p iome y (DXA). DXA is widely accep ed as a
p ac ical me hod o assessing a mass in a hle es [
14
–
16
] and is becoming mo e popula in eli e
spo s as an analysis used by bo h p ac i ione s and esea che s [
17
]. An h opome ic assessmen is
ano he popula me hod used o p edic body a in a hle es [
18
–
20
]. The measu emen o skin olds is
widely adop ed o moni o changes in body composi ion due o aining and/o die a y in e en ions.
Skin old hickness measu emen s ha e long been u ilized o p edic body a and o e he yea s
mul iple equa ions ha e been de eloped o his pu pose [
21
–
26
]. Howe e , o he bes o he au ho s’
knowledge, he e a e no s udies compa ing esul s ob ained by skin old-based measu emen s and
DXA in socce e e ees.
This s udy was designed o p esen body composi ion ea u es o socce e e ees called o he
Russian Wo ld Cup in 2018 wi h wo main aims. The i s pu pose was o compa e di e en equa ions
o es ima e a mass om skin old assessmen wi h da a de i ed om DXA. The second aim was o
de elop a p edic ion equa ion o es ima ing he pe cen age o a mass (FM%) based on an h opome ic
a iables speci ic o his coho .
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy Popula ion
Using a c oss-sec ional design, 43 eli e in e na ional socce e e ees (age 38.8
±
3.6 yea s) om
6 con ede a ions we e en olled in he s udy du ing a semina held in he Fede al Technical Cen e
o Co e ciano (I aly) in Ap il 2018, du ing he compe i i e season. They we e classi ied as eli e
because hey we e ei he egis e ed a he maximum le el in he a hle ic ede a ion o ha e ecei ed
inancial suppo o hei dedica ion o aining and games. The s udy was designed and conduc ed
in acco dance wi h he Helsinki Decla a ion. The e hics commi ee o he I alian oo ball associa ion
app o ed his s udy and all he pa icipan s signed w i en in o med consen p io o hei inclusion in
he s udy (app o al code: 03032018).
2.2. P ocedu es
Pa icipan s unde wen body composi ion assessmen s ea ly in he mo ning, in an o e nigh - as ed
s a e, and a leas 12 h pos exe cise, wi h no long ips du ing he p e ious day. Fu he , he consump ion
o alcohol and s imulan be e ages we e no allowed o a leas 15 h p io o es ing.
The me hodology used o he assessmen o body composi ion was in acco dance wi h ou
p e ious s udies [
26
,
27
], using he in eg a ion o an h opome y, skin old hickness, and DXA.
An h opome ic measu emen s we e aken ollowing he p o ocol o The In e na ional Socie y o he
Ad ancemen o Kinan h opome y (ISAK) [
28
] by he same esea che (an ISAK le el an h opome is ),
whose echnical e o was 5% and 1.5% o skin olds and all o he measu emen s, espec i ely. Heigh
(m) and body weigh (kg) we e measu ed o he nea es 0.1 cm and 0.01 kg, espec i ely, using a
high-p ecision mechanical scale (SECA, Basel, Swi ze land). BMI was calcula ed using he o mula
body mass/heigh
2
(kg/m
2
). Biceps gi h, wais gi h, and hip gi h (cm) we e measu ed wi h a na ow,
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 3 o 10
me allic, and inex ensible measu ing ape (Lu kin
®
model W606PM, London, UK; p ecision =1 mm).
Skin olds we e measu ed wi h a skin old calipe (Hol ain L d., C ymych, UK; p ecision =0.2 mm) a
nine ana omical si es ( iceps, subscapula , biceps, iliac c es , sup aspinal, pec o al, abdominal, high,
and cal ). Hume us and emu b ead hs we e measu ed o he nea es 0.1 cm wi h a sliding calipe
(GMP, Zü ich, Swi ze land). Soma o ype was calcula ed acco ding o he Hea h-Ca e me hod [29].
Body densi y was calcula ed om he Si i equa ion [
30
] adap ed o age [
31
], which was hen used
o es ima e FM%. The ollowing six skin old-based equa ions we e used o es ima e FM%:
•Yushaz [21];
•Faulkne [22];
•Es on e al. [24];
•Du nin and Wome sley [23];
•Reilly e al. [25];
•Sua ez e al. [26].
Addi ionally, he a e age FM% measu ed by all o hese equa ions was conside ed. Fa -F ee Mass
(FFM) was calcula ed sub ac ing a mass om body weigh .
A DXA scanne (Hologic QDR Se ies, Delphi A model, Bed o d, MA, USA) wi h Hologic APEX
13.3:3 so wa e e sion, was used o es ima e FM%. The ins umen was calib a ed wi h phan oms as
pe he manu ac u e ’s guidelines each day p io o measu emen s. Pa icipan s assumed a s a iona y
supine posi ion on he scanning able. All scanning and analyses we e pe o med by he same
echnician o ensu e consis ency and in acco dance wi h s anda dized es ing p o ocols ecognized as
bes p ac ice [17,32,33].
2.3. S a is ical Analysis
Da a we e exp essed as mean
±
s anda d de ia ions (SD) and no mali y o dis ibu ion o he
da a was e i ied by he Kolmogo o –Smi no es . Compa isons be ween FM% calcula ed wi h he
di e en o mulas and hose measu ed by DXA we e made using linea eg ession analysis, as well as
be ween he sum o skin old measu emen s wi h FM% ob ained by DXA.
Gi en he ac ha di e en e hnic g oups pa icipa ed, he e ec o e hnici y on FM% was es ed
using he K uskal–Wallis es . No in e ac ions we e ound be ween e hnici y and o he independen
a iables; he e o e, we used he whole sample in he model de elopmen . The abili y o he ollowing
a iables (age, s a u e, weigh , and skin olds) in p edic ing FM% in he in e na ional socce e e ees
was assessed using s epwise eg ession analysis. Du ing model de elopmen , no mali y o esiduals
and homogenei y o a iance we e es ed. Signi icance a p
≤
0.05 was es ablished as he c i e ion
o inclusion o a p edic o whe eas emo al c i e ia we e se a p
≤
0.1. I mo e han one a iable
emained in he model, and o assess mul icollinea i y, a a iance in la ion ac o ( h eshold as 5) was
calcula ed o each independen a iable. The da a we e analyzed using he s a is ical package IBM
SPSS S a is ics ( e sion 13.0) o Windows. (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
3. Resul s
Gene al and an h opome ic cha ac e is ics and desc ip i e alues o FM% es ima ed om
DXA and skin old-based equa ions a e shown in Table 1. The e e ees showed an a e age balanced
mesomo ph soma o ype, cha ac e ized by a dominan mesomo ph componen and simila alues
be ween endomo ph and ec omo ph componen s (no mo e han a di e ence o 0.5 uni s, Figu e 1).
Co ela ion coe icien s and le el o signi ican di e ences be ween FM% wi h DXA and o he
p ac ical es ima es in he socce e e ees a e shown in Table 2. Gi en ha no di e ence be ween e hnic
g oups in FM% was ound (p=0.241), all he alues we e p esen ed oge he .
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 4 o 10
Table 1. Gene al and an h opome ic cha ac e is ics o he in e na ional-le el eli e e e ees.
Va iable Mean SD Minimum Maximum
Age (yea ) 38.8 3.6 29.5 44.1
Body Mass (kg) 75.7 6.5 61.0 94.0
Heigh (m) 1.8 0.1 1.7 1.9
Body mass index (kg/m2)23.1 1.3 20.6 25.8
Endomo phy 2.7 0.9 1.2 5.1
Mesomo phy 6.5 1.2 4.2 8.5
Ec omo phy 2.9 0.7 1.2 4.6
Fa Mass by DXA (%) 18.2 4.1 11.5 28.0
Fa Mass by Es on e al. [24] (%) 12.0 2.4 9.4 18.8
Fa Mass by Yuhasz [21] (%) 12.8 2.5 8.8 21.0
Fa Mass by Faulkne [22] (%) 12.7 2.1 9.2 18.5
Fa Mass by Reilly e al. [25] (%) 11.0 1.7 8.2 16.5
Fa Mass by Sua ez e al. [26] (%) 15.6 2.4 12.6 24.6
Fa Mass by Du nin and Wome sley [23] (%) 13.3 2.9 8.5 20.5
Fa Mass by Mean (%) 12.9 2.2 9.7 19.4
P2sk (mm) 14.1 5.0 7.8 29.6
P4sk-a (mm) 32.4 8.5 21.0 57.3
P4sk-b (mm) 38.6 11.4 21.6 75.6
P5sk (mm) 41.7 10.7 27.9 74.5
P6sk (mm) 59.6 16.4 34.0 112.6
P7sk (mm) 62.9 16.6 38.9 116.8
P9sk (mm) 73.7 18.2 46.5 130.8
Abb e ia ions:
Σ
2sk =an e io high, medial cal ;
Σ
4sk-a =biceps, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es ;
Σ
4sk-b =
iceps, abdominal; an e io high, medial cal ;
Σ
5sk =biceps, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , an e io high;
Σ
6sk
= iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , abdominal, an e io high, medial cal ;
Σ
7sk = iceps, subscapula , iliac c es ,
sup aspinal, abdominal, an e io high, medial cal ;
Σ
9sk =biceps, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal,
pec o al, abdominal, an e io high, medial cal .
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 10
Table 1. Gene al and an h opome ic cha ac e is ics o he in e na ional-le el eli e e e ees.
Va iable Mean SD Minimum Maximum
Age (yea ) 38.8 3.6 29.5 44.1
Body Mass (kg) 75.7 6.5 61.0 94.0
Heigh (m) 1.8 0.1 1.7 1.9
Body mass index (kg/m
2
) 23.1 1.3 20.6 25.8
Endomo phy 2.7 0.9 1.2 5.1
Mesomo phy 6.5 1.2 4.2 8.5
Ec omo phy 2.9 0.7 1.2 4.6
Fa Mass by DXA (%) 18.2 4.1 11.5 28.0
Fa Mass by Es on e al. [24] (%) 12.0 2.4 9.4 18.8
Fa Mass by Yuhasz [21] (%) 12.8 2.5 8.8 21.0
Fa Mass by Faulkne [22] (%) 12.7 2.1 9.2 18.5
Fa Mass by Reilly e al. [25] (%) 11.0 1.7 8.2 16.5
Fa Mass by Sua ez e al. [26] (%) 15.6 2.4 12.6 24.6
Fa Mass by Du nin and Wome sley [23] (%) 13.3 2.9 8.5 20.5
Fa Mass by Mean (%) 12.9 2.2 9.7 19.4
∑2sk (mm) 14.1 5.0 7.8 29.6
∑4sk-a (mm) 32.4 8.5 21.0 57.3
∑4sk-b (mm) 38.6 11.4 21.6 75.6
∑5sk (mm) 41.7 10.7 27.9 74.5
∑6sk (mm) 59.6 16.4 34.0 112.6
∑7sk (mm) 62.9 16.6 38.9 116.8
∑9sk (mm) 73.7 18.2 46.5 130.8
Abb e ia ions: Σ2sk = an e io high, medial cal ; Σ4 sk-a = biceps, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es ;
Σ4sk-b = iceps, abdominal; an e io high, medial cal ; Σ5sk = biceps, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es ,
an e io high; Σ6sk= iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , abdominal, an e io high, medial cal ; Σ7sk=
iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, abdominal, an e io high, medial cal ; Σ9sk = biceps,
iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, pec o al, abdominal, an e io high, medial cal .
Figu e 1. Rep esen a ion o he soma o ype o he In e na ional eli e male socce e e ees.
Figu e 1. Rep esen a ion o he soma o ype o he In e na ional eli e male socce e e ees.
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 5 o 10
Table 2.
Co ela ion coe icien s and le el o signi icance be ween a mass pe cen age (FM%) es ima ed
by dual-ene gy X- ay abso p iome y (DXA) wi h he sum o skin old measu emen s, and FM%
ob ained om skin old-based equa ions.
Va iable R2p-Value
P2sk 0.41 0.165 0.007
P4sk 0.75 0.559 <0.001
P4sk 0.70 0.491 <0.001
P5sk 0.72 0.519 <0.001
P6sk 0.76 0.585 <0.001
P7sk 0.77 0.588 <0.001
P9sk 0.76 0.581 <0.001
Fa Mass by Es on e al. [24] 0.60 0.363 <0.001
Fa Mass by Yuhasz [21] 0.76 0.585 <0.001
Fa Mass by Faulkne [22] 0.77 0.598 <0.001
Fa Mass by Reilly e al. [25] 0.71 0.497 <0.001
Fa Mass by Sua ez e al. [26] 0.74 0.549 <0.001
Fa Mass by Du nin and Wome sley [23] 0.76 0.580 <0.001
Fa Mass by Mean 0.78 0.606 <0.001
All FM% alues ob ained by he skin old-based equa ions showed la ge o e y la ge posi i e
co ela ions ( om 0.60 o 0.78) o hose measu ed by DXA. The FM% es ima ed om all o he
equa ions showed signi ican di e ences (p<0.001) in compa ison o he DXA esul s. The sum o
skin old measu emen s showed mode a e o e y la ge posi i e co ela ions wi h FM% ob ained by
DXA, excep o he sum o wo skin old measu emen s. Rela ionships be ween DXA-de i ed FM%
and skin old hicknesses o di e en ana omical si es a e shown in Table 3. The as majo i y o
skin old measu emen s ci ed showed mode a e o e y la ge posi i e ela ionships wi h FM% ( om
0.57 o 0.71), excep biceps, pec o al, an e io high, and medial cal .
Table 3.
Rela ionships be ween DXA-de i ed FM% and di e en skin olds measu ed in he in e na ional-
le el eli e e e ees.
Va iable R2p-Value
Biceps 0.25 0.060 0.113
T iceps 0.57 0.321 <0.001
Subscapula 0.63 0.394 <0.001
Iliac c es 0.71 0.510 <0.001
Sup aspinal 0.53 0.285 <0.001
Pec o al 0.02 0.001 0.885
Abdominal 0.68 0.464 <0.001
An e io high 0.37 0.135 0.016
Medial cal 0.39 0.154 0.009
BMI 0.10 0.011 0.505
Table 4shows he skin old-based model o FM% gene a ed o he in e na ional socce e e ees.
Only a iables con ibu ing as signi ican p edic o s using backwa d s epwise app oach we e used in
he model. The inal p edic ion model included: FM% =8.386 +(0.478
×
iliac c es skin old) +(0.395
×
abdominal skin old, =0.781; R2=0.610; SEE =2.62 %; p<0.001, Table 4; Figu e 2).

J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 6 o 10
Table 4. De eloped models o FM% p edic ion.
Va iable Coe icien R2SEE (%)
Model 1
0.510
2.90
In e cep 9.727
Iliac c es skin old (mm) 0.714
Model 2
0.610
2.62
In e cep 8.386
Iliac c es skin old (mm) 0.478
Abdominal skin old (mm) 0.395
Abb e ia ions: R2, coe icien o de e mina ion; SEE, s anda d e o o he es ima e.
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 10
Va iable Coe icien R
2
SEE (%)
Model 1 0.510 2.90
In e cep 9.727
Iliac c es skin old (mm) 0.714
Model 2 0.610 2.62
In e cep 8.386
Iliac c es skin old (mm) 0.478
Abdominal skin old (mm) 0.395
Abb e ia ions: R
2
, coe icien o de e mina ion; SEE, s anda d e o o he es ima e.
Figu e 2. The sca e plo illus a es he esul s o he eg ession analysis o FM% ob ained by he
e e ence me hod (DXA) and p edic ed by he equa ion de eloped in he sample o in e na ional
socce e e ees.
4. Discussion
This s udy compa ed six skin old-based equa ions showing he di e en esul s in FM%
es ima ion in in e na ional eli e socce e e ees, using DXA as a e e ence me hod. Addi ionally, ou
s udy is he i s o ha e p o ided a speci ic equa ion o his pa icula sample g oup, as well as
desc ip i e body composi ion pa ame e s. Ou esul s highligh ha he sum o skin old hickness
measu emen s aken in se en ( iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, abdominal, an e io high,
and medial cal ) o in nine (biceps, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, pec o al, abdominal,
an e io high, and medial cal ) si es show a high associa ion wi h he FM% es ima ed wi h DXA.
Secondly, among he equa ions conside ed, ha o Faulkne [22] showed he bes sensi i i y in
assessing FM% in he in e na ional eli e socce e e ees. Las ly, a new equa ion based on he
an h opome ic measu emen s aken on he sample g oup was p oposed.
While excessi e FM% may a ec pe o mance, body composi ion is an aspec o conside able
in e es o scien is s, a hle es, and coaches [34]. Typical FM% alues ( anging om 5% o 19%)
epo ed in male a hle es depends on he spo , playing posi ion, and me hodology used o he
assessmen [35–37]. In pa icula , male socce playe s show a pe cen age o a mass anging be ween
11.7–13.7% [20,38]. Fu he mo e, he es ed e e ees in his s udy showed a balanced mesomo ph
soma o ype.
Figu e 2.
The sca e plo illus a es he esul s o he eg ession analysis o FM% ob ained by he
e e ence me hod (DXA) and p edic ed by he equa ion de eloped in he sample o in e na ional
socce e e ees.
4. Discussion
This s udy compa ed six skin old-based equa ions showing he di e en esul s in FM% es ima ion
in in e na ional eli e socce e e ees, using DXA as a e e ence me hod. Addi ionally, ou s udy is
he i s o ha e p o ided a speci ic equa ion o his pa icula sample g oup, as well as desc ip i e
body composi ion pa ame e s. Ou esul s highligh ha he sum o skin old hickness measu emen s
aken in se en ( iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, abdominal, an e io high, and medial cal )
o in nine (biceps, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, pec o al, abdominal, an e io high,
and medial cal ) si es show a high associa ion wi h he FM% es ima ed wi h DXA. Secondly, among
he equa ions conside ed, ha o Faulkne [
22
] showed he bes sensi i i y in assessing FM% in he
in e na ional eli e socce e e ees. Las ly, a new equa ion based on he an h opome ic measu emen s
aken on he sample g oup was p oposed.
While excessi e FM% may a ec pe o mance, body composi ion is an aspec o conside able
in e es o scien is s, a hle es, and coaches [
34
]. Typical FM% alues ( anging om 5% o 19%) epo ed in
male a hle es depends on he spo , playing posi ion, and me hodology used o he assessmen [
35
–
37
].
In pa icula , male socce playe s show a pe cen age o a mass anging be ween 11.7–13.7% [
20
,
38
].
Fu he mo e, he es ed e e ees in his s udy showed a balanced mesomo ph soma o ype.
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 7 o 10
Simila ly, high-le el socce playe s a e cha ac e ized by a balanced mesomo ph mo phology
bu hei soma o ype can also be endomo phic mesomo ph, ec omo phic mesomo ph, mesomo ph
ec omop h, and mesomo phic ec omo ph [
39
]; in all hese cases, he dominan componen is he
mesomo phy, bu he e is a di e en balance be ween endomo phy and ec omo phy, p obably due o
he di e en oles o he game.
Ou esul s showed subs an ial disc epancies in FM% p edic ion depending on he me hod plied.
The e o e, ca e mus be aken when eedback on FM% is p o ided o socce e e ees since alues a e
likely o be me hod dependen . Wi h he excep ion o FM% ob ained using Sua ez’s equa ion [
26
] o
es ima ed by DXA, mos o he da a ound was wi hin he ange desc ibed in he li e a u e. As opposed
o Faulkne ’s equa ion [
22
], he new o mula sugges ed appea s o be a simple and as e al e na i e as
i is speci ic o socce e e ees. Fu he mo e, he use o only wo skin old si es, p o ides an ad an age
in he ield-based assessmen o FM%, ep esen ing a mo e e icien use o ime.
Con a y o p e ious s udies o eli e socce playe s [
25
,
26
], da a collec ed in he p esen s udy
showed ha measu emen s o he lowe body skin olds a e no accu a e when p edic ing FM%. In his
s udy, high skin old hickness was no en e ed in he de eloped model ep esen ing s eng h in he
new o mula because i has been acknowledged ha he an e io high skin old is one o he leas
accu a e si es o measu e [
23
,
24
]. Fu he mo e, ou esul s showed ha di e en sums o skin olds
measu ed on he e e ees showed mode a e o la ge co ela ions wi h DXA da a, used as a c i e ion
me hod. The esul s o he p esen s udy showed e y la ge co ela ions be ween Σ4SKF-a, Σ4SKF-b,
Σ
6SKF,
Σ
7SKF, and
Σ
9SKF wi h FM% es ima ed by DXA, simila o he associa ions wi h he da a ound
in he li e a u e o eli e socce playe s [
40
,
41
]. Thus, conside ing he subs an ial di e ences obse ed
be ween he di e en equa ions and hei simila and/o lowe co ela ions wi h he DXA-de i ed
FM%, e en he sum o skin old measu emen s appea s o be a good al e na i e app oach in ob aining
in o ma ion on body a dis ibu ion in eli e socce e e ees.
Some o he s eng hs in his s udy include he selec ion o in e na ional-le el male socce e e ees,
all wi h expe ience in in e na ional ma ches. Skin old measu emen is a p ac ical, low cos , and easily
accessible al e na i e o mo e complex and expensi e me hods such as DXA. Consequen ly, he p esen
s udy p o ides a nonin asi e, cos - ee, and as ool o accu a ely es ima e FM% in he in es iga ed
coho . Mo eo e , he DXA me hod migh no be easible o use ul when inancial esou ces a e limi ed
o when a whole g oup is epea edly measu ed, because up o 10 min o each pe son is equi ed.
Howe e , he use o DXA as a e e ence me hod poses some limi a ions in he de elopmen and
compa ison o new equa ions o assessing a mass. Mos o he equa ions in he li e a u e a e based on
he e e ence o hyd os a ic weighing. This could p edispose ou equa ion o an o e es ima ion o body
a . Addi ional limi a ions ega ding sample size should be add essed. The sample consis ed exclusi ely
o male subjec s hus, u he s udies in ol ing eli e emale e e ees a e needed. Fu he mo e, he lack
o a alida ion sample did no allow he es o he pe o mance o he new equa ion a a g oup le el
(e.g., analysis o he eg ession coe icien s, line o iden i y, R
2
, RMSE) and a he indi idual le el using
he Bland–Al man analysis.
The p ac ical applica ion o his equa ion acili a es an inc easingly accu a e e alua ion o he
a hle e. The socce e e ee can be conside ed in all espec s as an a hle e, e en spo s esea ch has
deepened his pa icula popula ion. Fi s , he componen s o he physical load equi ed du ing a
compe i ion [
3
,
7
,
9
] ha e been e alua ed, mo e ecen ly he nu i ional aspec s ha e had an inc ease
in in e es [
4
,
12
,
42
,
43
]. In his con ex o ene gy balance, he de elopmen o a new equa ion o he
e alua ion o he a mass wi h a speci ic e e ence o he analyzed popula ion allows a mo e accu a e,
eliable, and epea able e alua ion du ing he compe i i e season o he socce e e ee h ough a
ield me hodology.
5. Conclusions
All he equa ions in es iga ed (Es on e al. [
24
], Yuhasz [
21
], Reilly e al. [
25
], Sua ez e al. [
26
],
and Du nin and Wome sley [
23
]) showed posi i e co ela ions in compa ison wi h DXA da a.
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 8 o 10
In pa icula , he equa ions de eloped by Faulkne [
22
] showed he bes sensi i i y in assessing
FM% compa ed o DXA. Addi ionally, he sum o se en skin olds, which included iceps, subscapula ,
iliac c es , sup aspinal, abdominal, an e io high, and medial cal measu emen s showed a high
co ela ion wi h FM% measu ed by DXA, ep esen ing an al e na i e app oach in body composi ion
assessmen . Finally, his s udy p o ides a new o mula o FM% es ima ion in in e na ional-le el male
socce e e ees [FM% =8.386 +(0.478 ×iliac c es skin old) +(0.395 ×abdominal skin old)].
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, C.P. and G.M. me hodology, C.P., F.C., and P.I.; o mal analysis,
C.P., F.C., and P.I.; in es iga ion, A.P., G.G., and C.P.; da a cu a ion, C.P., F.C., and P.I.; w i ing—o iginal d a
p epa a ion, V.H.T., C.P., F.C., and G.B.; isualiza ion, G.B., V.H.T., and G.M.; supe ision, F.C., G.B., and G.M.
All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Acknowledgmen s:
The au ho s g a e ully acknowledge FIFA o hei suppo o his esea ch du ing
he expe imen s.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
FIFA Big Coun 2006. A ailable online: h p://www. i a.com/mm/documen / i a ac s/bco su /bigcoun .
s a spackage_7024.pd (accessed on 14 Ma ch 2019).
2.
Caballe o, J.A.R.; Ojeda, E.B.; Sa mien o, S.; Valdi ielso, M.N.; Ga c
í
a-Manso, J.M.; Ga c
í
a-A anda, J.M.;
Mallo, J.; Helsen, W. Physiological p o ile o na ional-le el Spanish socce e e ees. In . Spo med. J.
2011
,51,
633–638.
3.
Wes on, M.; Cas agna, C.; Impellizze i, F.M.; Bizzini, M.; Williams, A.M.; G egson, W. Science and medicine
applied o socce e e eeing: An upda e. Spo s Med. 2012,42, 615–631. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
4.
Teixei a, V.H.; Gonçal es, L.; Meneses, T.; Mo ei a, P. Nu i ional in ake o eli e oo ball e e ees. J. Spo s Sci.
2014,32, 1279–1285. [C ossRe ]
5.
Helsen, W.; Bul ynck, J.B. Physical and pe cep ual-cogni i e demands o op-class e e eeing in associa ion
oo ball. J. Spo s Sci. 2004,22, 179–189. [C ossRe ]
6.
Bizzini, M.; Junge, A.; Bah , R.; D o ak, J. Female socce e e ees selec ed o he FIFA Women’s Wo ld Cup
2007: Su ey o inju ies and musculoskele al p oblems. B . J. Spo s Med.
2009
,43, 936–942. [C ossRe ]
[PubMed]
7.
K us up, P.; Helsen, W.; Rande s, M.B.; Ch is ensen, J.F.; Macdonald, C.; Rebelo, A.N.; Bangsbo, J. Ac i i y
p o ile and physical demands o oo ball e e ees and assis an e e ees in in e na ional games. J. Spo s Sci.
2009,27, 1167–1176. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
8.
Mallo, J.; Veiga, S.; Lopez de Subijana, C.; Na a o, E. Ac i i y p o ile o op-class emale socce e e eeing in
ela ion o he posi ion o he ball. J. Sci. Med. Spo 2010,13, 129–132. [C ossRe ]
9.
Wes on, M.; D us , B.; G egson, W. In ensi ies o exe cise du ing ma ch-play in FA P emie League e e ees
and playe s. J. Spo s Sci. 2011,29, 527–532. [C ossRe ]
10.
Ba nes, C.; A che , D.T.; Hogg, B.; Bush, M.; B adley, P.S. The e olu ion o physical and echnical pe o mance
pa ame e s in he English P emie League. In . J. Spo s Med. 2014,35, 1095–1100. [C ossRe ]
11.
Casaj
ú
s, J.A.; Gonzalez-Ague o, A. Body composi ion e olu ion in eli e e e ees; an ele en-yea s e ospec i e
s udy. In . J. Spo s Med. 2015,36, 550–553. [C ossRe ]
12.
Schenk, K.; Bizzini, M.; Ga e e , H. Exe cise physiology and nu i ional pe spec i es o eli e socce e e ee
ing. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Spo s 2018,28, 782–793. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
13.
Reilly, T.; G egson, W. Special popula ions: The e e ee and assis an e e ee. J. Spo s Sci.
2006
,24, 795–801.
[C ossRe ] [PubMed]
14.
Campa, F.; Ma ias, C.N.; Ma ini, E.; Heyms ield, S.B.; Toselli, S.; Sa dinha, L.B.; Sil a, A.M. Iden i ying
A hle e Body Fluid Changes Du ing a Compe i i e Season Wi h Bioelec ical Impedance Vec o Analysis.
In . J. Spo s Physiol. Pe o m. 2020,15, 361–367. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
15.
Ma ini, E.; Campa, F.; Toselli, S.; S agi, S.; Ma ias, C.N.; Toselli, S.; Sa dinha, L.B.; Sil a, A.M. Phase Angle
and Bioelec ical Impedance Vec o Analysis in he E alua ion o Body Composi ion in A hle es. Clin. Nu .
2020,39, 447–454. [C ossRe ]
J. Func . Mo phol. Kinesiol. 2020,5, 38 9 o 10
16.
N
ú
ñez, J.; Diego, M.I.; Su
á
ez- A ones, L. Validi y o Field Me hods o Es ima e Fa -F ee Mass Changes
Th oughou he Season in Eli e You h Socce Playe s. F on . Physiol. 2020,11, 16. [C ossRe ]
17.
Milsom, J.; Naugh on, R.; O’Boyle, A.; Iqbal, Z.; Mo gans, R.; D us , B.; Mo on, J.P. Body composi ion
assessmen o English p emie league socce playe s: A compa a i e DXA analysis o i s eam, U21 and
U18 squads. J. Spo s Sci. 2015,33, 1799–1806. [C ossRe ]
18.
Toselli, S.; Campa, F. An h opome y and Func ional Mo emen Pa e ns in Eli e Male Volleyball Playe s o
Di e en Compe i i e Le els. J. S eng h Cond. Res. 2018,32, 2601–2611. [C ossRe ]
19.
Campa, F.; Semp ini, G.; J
ú
dice, P.B.; Messina, G.; Toselli, S. An h opome y, Physical and Mo emen
Fea u es, and Repea ed-sp in Abili y in Socce Playe s. In . J. Spo s Med. 2019,40, 100–109. [C ossRe ]
20.
Campa, F.; Pi as, A.; Ra i, M.; Toselli, S. Func ional Mo emen Pa e ns and Body Composi ion o High-Le el
Volleyball, Socce , and Rugby Playe s. J. Spo Rehabil. 2019,28, 740–745. [C ossRe ]
21.
Yuhasz, M.S. The E ec s o Spo s T aining on Body Fa in Man wi h P edic ions o Op imal Body Weigh ; Uni e si y
o Illinois a U bana-Champaign: U bana, IL, USA, 1962.
22.
Faulkne , J.A. Physiology o Swimming and Di ing; Bal imo e Academic P ess: New Yo k, NY, USA, 1968;
pp. 415–446.
23.
Du nin, J.V.; Wome sley, J. Body a assessed om o al body densi y and i s es ima ion om skin old
hickness: Measu emen s on 481 men and women aged om 16 o 72 yea s. B . J. Nu .
1974
,32, 77–97.
[C ossRe ]
24.
Es on, R.G.; Rowlands, A.V.; Cha leswo h, S.; Da ies, A.; Hoppi , T. P edic ion o DXA-de e mined whole
body a om skin olds: Impo ance o including skin olds om he high and cal in young, heal hy men
and women. Eu . J. Clin. Nu . 2005,59, 695–702. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
25.
Reilly, T.; Geo ge, K.; Ma ell-Jones, M.; Sco , M.; Su on, L.; Wallace, J.A. How well do skin old equa ions
p edic pe cen body a in eli e socce playe s? In . J. Spo s Med. 2009,30, 607–613. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
26.
Sua ez-A ones, L.; Pe i, C.; Maldonado, R.A.; To eno, N.; Mungu
í
a-Izquie do, D.; Di Sal o, V.; M
é
ndez-
Villanue a, A. Body a assessmen in eli e socce playe s: C oss- alida ion o di e en ield me hods. Sci.
Med. Foo b. 2018,2, 203–208. [C ossRe ]
27.
Masche ini, G.; Pe i, C.; Galan i, G. In eg a ed o al body composi ion and localized a - ee mass assessmen .
Spo Sci. Heal h 2015,11, 217–225. [C ossRe ]
28.
S ewa d, A.; Ma ell-Jones, M. In e na ional S anda ds o An h opome ic Assessmen ; In e na ional Socie y o
he Ad ancemen o Kinan h opome y: Lowe Hu , New Zealand, 2014.
29.
Ca e , J.E.L. The Hea h-Ca e An h opome ic Soma o ype; San Diego S a e Uni e si y: San Diego, CA,
USA, 2002.
30. Si i, W.E. The g oss composi ion o he body. Ad . Biol. Med. Phys. 1956,4, 239–280. [PubMed]
31.
Wells, J.C.K. The E olu iona y Biology o Human Body Fa ness: Th i and Con ol; Camb idge Uni e si y P ess:
Camb idge, UK, 2009.
32.
Rod iguez-Sanchez, N.; Galloway, S.D. E o s in dual ene gy x- ay abso p iome y es ima ion o body
composi ion induced by hypohyd a ion. In . J. Spo Nu . Exe c. Me ab.
2015
,25, 60–68. [C ossRe ]
[PubMed]
33.
Nana, A.; Sla e , G.J.; Hopkins, W.G.; Halson, S.L.; Ma in, D.T.; Wes , N.P.; Bu ke, L.M. Impo ance o
s anda dized DXA p o ocol o assessing physique changes in a hle es. In . J. Spo Nu . Exe c. Me ab.
2016
,
26, 259–267. [C ossRe ]
34.
Malina, R.M. Body composi ion in a hle es: Assessmen and es ima ed a ness. Clin. Spo s Med.
2007
,26,
37–68. [C ossRe ]
35.
Campa, F.; Ma ias, C.; Ga e e , H.; Toselli, S.; Kou y, J.C.; And eoli, A.; Melchio i, G.; Sa dinha, L.B.;
Sil a, A.M. Classic Bioelec ical Impedance Vec o Re e ence Values o Assessing Body Composi ion in
Male and Female A hle es. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2019,16, 5066. [C ossRe ]
36.
Campa, F.; Toselli, S. Bioimpedance Vec o Analysis o Eli e, Subeli e, and Low-Le el Male Volleyball Playe s.
In . J. Spo s Physiol. Pe o m. 2018,13, 1250–1253. [C ossRe ]
37.
Jeukend up, A.; Gleeson, M. Spo Nu i ion: An In oduc ion o Ene gy P oduc ion and Pe o mance; Human
Kine ics Publishe s: Champaign, IL, USA, 2010.
38.
Campa, F.; Sil a, A.M.; Iannuzzi, V.; Masche ini, G.; Benede i, L.; Toselli, S. The ole o soma ic ma u a ion
on bioimpedance pa e ns and body composi ion in male eli e you h socce playe s. In . J. En i on. Res.
Public Heal h 2019,16, 4711. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]