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BELGIAN, DUTCH, LITHUANIAN AND PORTUGUESE WOMEN HAVE
A SAY: COUNTRIES’ SOCIAL POLICIES WITHIN EUROPE
So ia Almeida San os, MA
Po o Uni e si y, Facul y o Psychology and Educa ional Sciences
Cen e o Educa ional Resea ch and In e en ion
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Eunice Macedo,1 MA
Po o Uni e si y, Facul y o Psychology and Educa ional Sciences
Cen e o Educa ional Resea ch and In e en ion
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Submi ed on 9 o Sep embe 2010
Accep ed o publica ion on 18 o No embe 2010
Abs ac
Pa icula ly in he las hi y o hi y- i e yea s, conce ns wi h gende equali y in ci izenship ha e
gi en oom o a g ea di e si y o policies aimed a o e coming inequali ies in he o ganiza ion o labou ,
in he amily and in imacy, in poli ics, and so o h. These policies ha e eme ged wo ldwide and in he
Eu opean Union, ha ing been ( e)con ex ualized in he na ional spaces. Building on alks wi h women
om Belgium, Li huania, he Ne he lands and Po ugal, his a icle ga he s hei iews on he social poli-
cies in hei coun ies wi hin his Eu opean con ex . This a icle ies o analyse he ways social policies in
hese coun ies, ha e (o ha e no ) aken in o accoun he issue o gende equali y as a igh and a p io -
i y. Fi s we will ocus on he eme gence o he gende conce n and he consequen p oduc ion o legis-
la ion in Eu ope. Then we mo e on o analyze e ec i e cons ain s o he inse ion o women in o he la-
bou ma ke and he inhe en social bene i s, acco ding o he coun ies’ loca ions. Women oices gi e a
glance in o coun ies’ policies, by e e encing some speci ic examples.
Keywo ds: social policies, gende equali y, ci izenship.
In oduc ion
The oppo uni y o his e lec ion eme ged om he in e p e a ion o he con ibu ions o women
om di e en coun ies. I occu ed in an E asmus In ensi e P og amme called “WASPOLSS – T ack-
ing New Eu opean Ways in Social Policy, Legal and Social Se ices”, which in ol ed highe educa ion
s uden s om Belgium, Li huania, The Ne he lands and Po ugal. I s aims a e sha ing and compa ing
social policies om di e en coun ies. Ou g oup speci ically wo ked on he sub opic o he si ua ion o
women in he labou ma ke . Each s uden had o esea ch he sub opic o hei own coun y, in ad-
ance. Plena y sessions ook place, in ol ing he whole g oup, which was comp ised o a o al o 20
s uden s (5 pe coun y). A se o 12 ocus g oup discussions, which ook he s a ing poin o indi idual
expe iences, embodied he “gende specialis sessions” wi h a o al o 5 women—4 s uden s and 1 u-
o . This wo k led o he p oduc ion o se e al ables, mind maps, and so o h, all o which esul ed in
a w i en epo being pu oge he .
1 We hank he con ibu ion o Ma iska Decke s, Plan ijnhogeschool; Sheila de Wi , Inholland Uni e si y; and Raimonda
Ažubaly ė, Mykolas Rome is Uni e si y, who pa icipa ed in g oup discussions, con ibu ed o he o ganisa ion o wo king ma e-
ials and esea ch abou hei coun ies.
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The use o he Focus G oup Discussion, as a con ex ual esea ch me hod allowed o he con-
s uc ion o ansna ional “knowledge” which was daily summa ized and ma ched up wi h some s a is-
ical da a. Wi h his me hod, powe is ans e ed o he pa icipan s who lead he discussion and de-
cide wha he mos pe inen opics a e. Pa o he da a ga he ed is used as s a ing poin o his a i-
cle.
The e o e, he objec o his pape is a discussion o how women a e in a agile posi ion in he
labou ma ke as a cen al conce n in labou social policies. I analyses he a ibu ion o social bene i s
o women and amilies, on he basis o women discussion.
Ou esea ch ques ions a e: How did labou and amily social policies o gende equali y
eme ge and e ol e in Eu ope? Wha measu es we e implemen ed in Belgium, Li huania, he Ne he -
lands and Po ugal wi hin he Eu opean con ex ? How do women om each coun y in e p e hese
policies?
In o de o achie e his we s a by ocusing on how di e en coun ies wi h di e en loca ions in
Eu ope, in geog aphic, powe and de elopmen e ms, manage o p oduce social policies ha open
he ield o equal ci izenship and igh s. This p oblem gains g ea e pe inence wi hin he con ex o
agmen a ion and des abiliza ion o he labou ma ke which does no p o ide he bes con ex o
wo k inse ion and p og ession, ei he o he ecogni ion o empowe men o women o men. Simul a-
neously, he in e na ional gene al economic and inancial esec ion does no seem o p o ide oom o
he c ea ion o jobs ha would gua an ee he human igh o au onomous su i al o all.
1. Eme gence and E olu ion o Gende Social Policies in Eu ope
Especially since he mid 90s, he Eu opean Union (as a clus e o coun ies) and he Eu opean
coun ies (i s membe s a es) ha e concen a ed on he p oduc ion and implemen a ion o social poli-
cies, which aim a p omo ing equali y be ween women and men. This came as esul o he ecogni ion
o gende equali y as an impo an poli ical issue, no only o gua an ee women’s ci izenship enla ge-
men bu o p omo e democ acy as well. Women’s mo emen s all o e he wo ld ga he ed a he Bei-
jing Summi in 1995 and made he ci izens and decision make s concen a e on gende issues as a
p oblem o human de elopmen . The Beijing Summi b ough o ligh ha women igh s a e essen ial
bo h in o hemsel es and in hei ole o edi y peace and p ospe i y. I made go e nmen s and non-
go e nmen al in e na ional o ganiza ions mo e o y o de elop a se o ins umen s o u n Beijing’s
claims in o eali y (Beijing, 1995).
Acco ding o Ru h Lis e (2003), he Beijing Summi , as a p ocess and an ou come, cons i u es
a miles one in he de elopmen o eminis ci izenship in e na ionalis p axis ha is s ill cu en ly being
edi ied. Beijing exp essed he will and hough o he eminis ne ha had p eceded i . As Lis e pu s i ,
eminis in e en ion has been c ucial o an in e na ional unde s anding ha “human igh s a e women
igh s”, i was collec i e in e na ional ac ion on he pa o women— ecognized in 1993 in he Uni ed
Na ions Decla a ion— ha lead o his conclusion in he Vienna Con e ence abou human igh s. In a
simila line o hough , Rosiska Da cy de Oli ei a (2009) a ibu es o he Beijing Summi he b oad-
cas ing o a di e en beginning o he wen y i s Cen u y, whe e he meaning o wo k, among o he
dimensions o human li e, needs o be ques ioned.
The Beijing Decla a ion and he Pla o m o Ac ion (1995), he Con en ion o Elimina e all
Fo ms o Disc imina ion Agains Women (CEDAW, 1979),1 he Secu i y Council Resolu ion 1325
(2000)2 abou women, peace and sa e y, and he Millennium De elopmen Goals (MDGs, 2000) we e
based on one ano he o o e a de ailed plan o he u u e, on he basis o eedom wi hou ea and
mise y. I aimed a be e access o wo k, as a gua an ee o economic independence, au onomy and
1 “The Con en ion on he Elimina ion o All Fo ms o Disc imina ion agains Women (CEDAW), adop ed in 1979 by he
UN Gene al Assembly, is o en desc ibed as an in e na ional bill o igh s o women. Consis ing o a p eamble and 30 a icles,
i de ines wha cons i u es disc imina ion agains women and se s up an agenda o na ional ac ion o end such disc imina ion.
The Con en ion de ines disc imina ion agains women as "...any dis inc ion, exclusion o es ic ion made on he basis o sex
which has he e ec o pu pose o impai ing o nulli ying he ecogni ion, enjoymen o exe cise by women, i espec i e o hei
ma i al s a us, on a basis o equali y o men and women, o human igh s and undamen al eedoms in he poli ical, economic,
social, cul u al, ci il o any o he ield."
By accep ing he Con en ion, EU membe s a es commi hemsel es o unde ake a se ies o measu es o end disc imi-
na ion agains women in all o ms, including: o inco po a e he p inciple o equali y o men and women in hei legal sys em,
abolish all disc imina o y laws and adop app op ia e ones p ohibi ing disc imina ion agains women; o es ablish ibunals and
o he public ins i u ions o ensu e he e ec i e p o ec ion o women agains disc imina ion; and o ensu e elimina ion o all ac s
o disc imina ion agains women by pe sons, o ganiza ions o en e p ises.”
CEDAW (1979). <h p://www.un.o g/womenwa ch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.h m>.
2 Resolu ion 1325 (2000), Adop ed by he Secu i y Council a i s 4213 h mee ing. 31 Oc obe 2000 <h p://www.un.
o g/e en s/ es_1325e.pd >.
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sel ul ilmen . These guidelines e lec he awa eness ha no p og ess will be made i women igh s
a e no a he co e o all hese e o s (Beijing, 1995).
Access o he labou ma ke , he possibili y o ea n a sala y and o be in ol ed in decision mak-
ing abou he use o hei ime, as a “ esou ce o ci izenship” (Lis e , 1999), may embody and many
imes limi he exe ion o poli ical, economic, social as well as cul u al igh s (Lis e , 2003). The e o e,
he cons ain s imposed on women in he pa h owa ds occupying igh ul posi ions in he labou ma -
ke cons i u e a limi o hei ci izenship in e ms o he possibili y o choose a ca ee o in be ween ca-
ee s, wi hin he iew o happiness and sel - ul ilmen . This does happen, e en hough he Communi-
a ian Righ guidelines aim a implemen ing gende equali y, as a law, and di e en membe s a es
ha e made an e o o ansla e i in o ules and legisla ion (ha d law) (Palma Ramalho, 2004).
Pa icula ly in he 1990s and also in he 1980s, Eu opean gende speci ic policy has been sus-
ained on he p inciple o equal oppo uni ies in he labou ma ke . As e e ed by Meie & Lomba do
(2008: 481) “Equal oppo uni ies was ensh ined in A icle 119 EC (now 141) on equal pay o equal
wo k and in a numbe o legally binding di ec i es in he a eas o equal pay, equal ea men in em-
ploymen and wo king condi ions, and equal ea men in social secu i y.”
Though, as hey e e o i , he concep o equal oppo uni ies seems sho o assu e women
wi h a desi able equali y o ou come, a concep ha o he iews con es due o i s limi s, as we will u -
he see. Hence, he ocus on equali y o ou come a ises in he EU as a consequence o li iga ion
abou his ma e in he Eu opean Cou o Jus ice. I opened he ield o he eme gence o poli ical
s a egies, which include posi i e ac ion measu es and gende mains eaming. The academic and po-
li ical discussion a ound ecogni ion, in he amewo k o he claim o cul u al igh s, is no alien o his
ei he .
The e o e, he e is a need o unde line ha gende equal ci izenship should add ess “no only a
o mally equal legal s a us o men and women bu also he elimina ion o ba ie s o a ull pa icipa ion
in social li e and o biases o an equal alo isa ion” (Meie , Lomba do, 2008: 482). Acco ding o his
iew, he s uggle o equali y mus add ess di e en means, such as equali y be o e he law, he im-
plemen a ion o posi i e ac ions o o he di e en ia ing ea men , and so o h, which would p o ide
women wi h he oppo uni y o gain space in he public sphe e and g ea e ci ic pa icipa ion. In his
sense, one may say ha oom seems o be opened o he a ainmen by women o a ype o cul u al
ci izenship embodied in communica ion and dialogue, wi hin a communica ion-based socie y (S e en-
son, 2003).
Though, whe eas g ea p og ess can be obse ed in he legal a ena, he e a e s ill g ea lacu-
nae be ween he appa en p o ec ion o women, in ju idical e ms, and he e ec i e social and eco-
nomic condi ions many women li e in (Ama al, 2004). Thei inse ion in he labou ma ke is seen as a
nodal poin in his a icle. To be no ed ha “EU o mal de ini ions o ci izenship based on he concep
o equali y, while p omo ing legal gende equali y and acknowledging he exis ence o gende obs a-
cles o he enjoymen o an equal ci izenship o women, a e no by de ini ion ansla ed in o policy ini-
ia i es ans o ma i e o adi ional gende oles” (Meie , Lomba do, 2008: 482).
Rosá io Palma Ramalho (2004) summa izes in a use ul manne he de elopmen o gende
equali y in he Communi a ian Righ , emphasising he de elopmen o six main a eas since 1975.
These a eas a icula e wi h wo k and deno e a pe inen e olu ion. I s a ed wi h he no ma i e p o i-
sion o he Roma T ea y, in a icle 119, which had a e y limi ed cha ac e . I only es ablished equali y
o emune a ion be ween men and women. The e o e, he se o p e equisi es in he p ima y and sec-
onda y Communi a ian Righ and he acquis o so law, ha oday cons i u e he communi a ian igh
o equali y, comp ise a g ea ad ancemen .
As e e ed by his au ho , hese a eas include equal pay o equal wo k be ween women and
men (Di . 117/75, 10.02.75); equal access o employmen , job condi ions, ca ee and p o essional
aining (Di . 76/207, 09.02.76); equali y in social secu i y (Di . 79/7, 19.12.87 and Di . 86/378,
24.07.86); equal ea men in he uni e se o independen and u al wo ke s, including ma e ni y p o-
ec ion (Di . 86/613, 11.12.86); ma e ni y and pa e ni y p o ec ion (Di . 92/85, 19.10.85); pa en al lea e
(Di . 96/34, 03.07.96); gua an ee o e ec i i y o igh s in e ms o gende equali y in wha conce ns
he pa i ion o he onus o p oo in case o gende disc imina ion (Di . 97/80, 15.12.97).
As Rosá io Palma Ramalho (2004) pu s i , he p inciple o gende equali y, p oduced on he ba-
sis o he Eu opean Communi y T ea y, (a icle 2), is conside ed oday as one o he pilla s o he
Eu opean Union. This helps o unde line he posi i e o mula ion and ans e sal cha ac e o his p in-
ciple. Though, he e is he need o insis on he di icul ies o pu his legal p inciple in o p ac ice.
Wi hin he same conce ns, Meie & Lomba do (2008: 484) also discuss “ he limi s o he concep
o equal oppo uni ies in b inging abou equali y o ou come.” As hey e e o he in oduc ion o his
p oblem in he EU a ena legi ima ed posi i e ac ion measu es, which, in u n, esul ed in he app o al
o a Communica ion on posi i e ac ions aimed a amending Di ec i e 76/207/EEC and a including a
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new p o ision in he Ams e dam T ea y. I his Di ec i e p oclaims he p inciple o gende equali y in
he access o employmen , aining, p o essional p omo ion and wo k condi ions, in he same manne
o a icle 141. 4 o he Ams e dam T ea y “se s he goal o equali y o ou come and allows membe
s a es o in oduce posi i e ac ions as a compensa o y o p e en i e measu e, hus ecognising he
disc imina ion women ace as a collec i e and he need o a s a egy o e e sal.” And he new a icle
3.2 o his T ea y, wi h a ocus on gende mains eaming pu s in place a mo e ex ensi e concep o
gende equali y, by s a ing ha in all i s ac i i ies “ he Communi y shall aim o elimina e inequali ies
and o p omo e equali y be ween men and women” (ibid., see also CIG, 2007).
In i s u n, A icle II-23 o he Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s o he EU s a es ha “equali y be-
ween women and men mus be ensu ed in all a eas, including employmen , wo k and pay.” None he-
less, as hese au ho s illumina e, his ep esen s a p og ess when “compa ed o an acquis communau-
ai e mainly cen ed on equali y a wo k, as i en ails a mo e encompassing concep o gende equali y”
(Meie & Lomba do, 2008: 485).
In he nex session we will gi e a sho o e iew o he loca ion and his o y o he ou coun ies
which we e discussed by he g oup o women, in o de o p o ide a clea e unde s anding o he ways
hey y o os e gende equali y h ough social policies.
2. Coun ies’ Recen His o y and Cu en Posi ion in Eu ope: Laws and P ac ices
A sho o e iew o he ecen his o y o Belgium, Li huania, he Ne he lands and Po ugal helps
o emphasize some pa allel e en s which shape hei cu en posi ions in Eu ope. Belgium and he
Ne he lands, in 1957, we e pa o he small g oup o signa o y coun ies in he o igin o he hen Eu o-
pean Economic Communi y (EEC). I , on one hand, such ci cums ances allowed hese coun ies o
pa icipa e e ec i ely in he de ini ion and cons uc ion o he EEC poli ical undamen s and e ms o
ac ion, on he o he , i ga e hem a long pe iod o solidi y hei posi ion among he membe s a es. Po -
ugal joined he communi y in 1985 in a qui e agile posi ion, and had a small chance o in e ene in
he decision making p ocess and had weak compliance o he Eu opean equisi es. In i s u n, Li hua-
nia only joined he Eu opean Union in 2004, and made a signi ican e o o comply o he communi y
a all le els. These di e en pe iods o Eu opean in eg a ion mus necessa ily ha e had an impac in
he social policies in he di e en coun ies, namely in wha conce ns he ea lie o la e e lec ion and
p oduc ion o policies o gende equali y wi hin a Eu opean amewo k.
3. A Glance a Coun ies’ Policies: Some Examples
The policies o gende equali y in he labou ma ke and he inhe en social secu i y policies
conce ned wi h social suppo and edis ibu ion a e he main ocus o his poin .
Da a showed ha in he Ne he lands he conce n abou gende equali y has been p esen since
1986. Since hen, men and women ecei e simila social secu i y bene i s, o ins ance, h ough he
access o he same e i emen pensions (Ca ysse, 2004). The social secu i y sys em in Belgium has
also de eloped e o s owa ds gende equali y h ough legal measu es and he con ibu ions o bene-
icia ies. Though, inequali ies s ill p e ail a he le el o unemploymen and heal h unds and in peo-
ples’ e i emen pensions. This is due, in pa icula , o he a ypical and p eca ious p o essional ca ee s
o women, which s and on he concilia ion be ween pa - ime wo k and housewo k.
Po ugal wen h ough a e y long pe iod o 48 yea s o dic a o ship—a o ali a ian and opp es-
si e ascis egime, which las ed up un il he Ca na ion Re olu ion1 o 25 Ap il 1974. Only hen some
oppo uni ies we e opened o women in he labou ma ke , and in social secu i y policies as a esul ,
which announced he p inciples o uni e sali y and equali y, among o he s (Law 28/84, 14 Augus ). In
1979, Dec ee-Law 392/79, 20 Sep embe , es ablished he equali y o oppo uni ies and posi ioning be-
ween men and women in wo k and employmen . La e on his was e oked by he Law 99/2003, 27
Augus (see CIG, 2007).
In i s u n, Li huania wen h ough i y yea s o So ie Occupa ion (1940–1990), a pe iod when i
was subjec ed o a au ho i a ian, so-called socialis , s a e capi alis one pa y egime, which esul ed in
s ong economic and ci izenship ecession ha pu a isk people’s social igh s. Li huania only s a ed
i s p ocess o democ a ic change a e i s up u e om he So ie Union. Acco ding o he Fi s Pe i-
odic Repo on he Implemen a ion o he P o isions o he Con en ion o he Uni ed Na ions “on he
1 The Po uguese e olu ion is called such due o he o al absence o iolence e en hough i was pe o med by he
a my wi h open suppo om he popula ion.
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elimina ion o all o ms o disc imina ion agains women” in Li huania, “in compliance wi h he UN ec-
ommenda ions and EU guidelines on he issues ela ed o equal oppo uni ies, on 1 Decembe 1998,
he Seimas o he Republic o Li huania passed he Law on Equal Oppo uni ies which came in o o ce
on 1 Ma ch 1999”1. I de ines and p ohibi s sexual disc imina ion, egula es ela ionships in labou
ma ke and educa ion sys em, and p ohibi s sexual ha assmen .
La e , on 1 Janua y 2003, in an a emp o ge close o Wes e n Eu opean law, pa i y was con-
solida ed in he new Li huanian Labou Code. In e es ingly, in 2007, he Global Economic Fo um con-
side ed Li huania he coun y wi h he g ea es deg ee o p og ess in he ield o “sexual” (sic) equali y,
in wha conce ned employmen o women and men. I go an honou able hi d place, s aigh a e
Finland and Sweden (Saukienė,2008). Finally, a he end o 2009 he Eu opean Ins i u e o Gende
Equali y was launched in Vilnius.
4. Social Bene i s A ibu ed o Women and o Families: Building on Empi ical
Da a
Social bene i s a ibu ed o women and amilies, wi hin he di e se a eas unde he scope o
social secu i y and social assis ance, a e ano he ele an aspec o poin ou in o de o unde s and
he condi ions behind inse ion o women in o he labou ma ke . Table 1 b ings in o e idence womens’
iews abou he social bene i s a ibu ed o hem in hei di e en oles, in e ms o i s adequacy o
lack o i . A i s sigh i becomes clea ha social bene i s a y widely in be ween he cen al coun ies
and he (semi)pe iphe al coun ies. Social sys ems in Belgium and in he Ne he lands a e desc ibed by
women as powe ul, well de eloped, and consis en , when compa ed wi h Li huania and Po ugal.
Table 1. Women diagnose o he social bene i s a ibu ed o women and amilies in Belgium, he Ne he lands,
Li huania and Po ugal
Coun ies Belgium
The Ne he -
lands Li huania Po ugal
A eas Co e age
Heal h High High A e age A e age
Educa ion High-a e age High A e age High
Single Mo he s High-a e age High-a e age Low A e age
Elde ly Women High A e age Low Low-a e age
Child en High High A e age Low
Re i emen Pensions High High Low Low
T aining and Quali ica ion A e age No applicable A e age High
Ma e ni y Suppo High High High High
Suppo o People wi h Disa-
bili ies A e age High A e age Low-a e age
Unemploymen Fund Low-a e age High Low Low
Sou ce: Focus G oup Discussion (04-2008)
A global iew o his able ga he s ep esen a ions o women and b ings o ligh ha cen al
coun ies a e pe cei ed o ha e highe le els o social p o ec ion. Conce ning Po ugal, pa icipan s
only a ibu ed he bes le el o Educa ion (because compulso y educa ion is ee o all), T aining and
Quali ica ion (an a ea ha has been subjec o qui e an in es men in he las ew yea s), and suppo
du ing Ma e ni y. O he social bene i s a e desc ibed as medium, medium-low and low. Social bene i s
co e age is seen by Li huanian women as poo , in mos cases, excep o he p o ec ion o ma e ni y.
This is con a y o he ep esen a i es o he cen al coun ies whose iew o he social policies in hei
home coun ies is e y posi i e in all a eas. Educa ion is mainly seen as a public bene i and heal h is
loca ed in be ween he p i a e and public esponsibili y in he ou coun ies (in o ma ion no in o-
duced on he able).
I is impo an o no e ha he p o ision o adul quali ica ion and aining, a social miles one in
Po ugal and in Li huania, lacks applicabili y in he Ne he lands due o he high le el o quali ica ions o
he popula ion, and as a esul o he high loans and public subsidies o educa ion. As a ma e o ac ,
1 <h p://www.hadobaan.com/con en ion-elimina ion- o ms/53277/Con en ion-on- he-Elimina ion-o -all- o ms-o -
Disc imina ion.h ml.10.07.2010>

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pa icula ly in he las decade, in Po ugal, s a e in es men in ee adul aining has inc eased signi i-
can ly. Cen es o Second Oppo uni ies ha e been opened, acco ding o Dispa ch n. 11, 203/2007,
which ecognize, alida e and ce i y wo ke s’ quali ica ion and p o essional imp o emen .1 Though,
cos s o highe educa ion cha ged by public educa ion ins i u ions a e s ill e y high. E en hough high
educa ional cos s a e common o he ou coun ies, s a e suppo has a posi i e co ela ion o educa-
ional cos s. This means ha he highe he cos s, he highe he suppo . As cen al coun ies ha e
he highe cos s, hei public suppo is highe han in Li huania o Po ugal (OCDE, 2007).
Ma e ni y bene i s and day ca e, which a e seen as social measu es ha p omo e gende equal-
i y and pa i y o e amily esponsibili ies, also dese ed a en ion. As a ma e o ac , he p inciple o
concilia ion be ween p o essional and pe sonal li e, which is ein o ced by he Cha e o Fundamen al
Righ s o he EU, a ises as one o he g ea es obs acles o labou equali y o condi ion.
I many women gi e up hei p o essional ca ee s in o de o become mo he s ha ha e ime o
educa e and ca e o hei child en as well as o housekeeping, many o he women ha e o gi e up
ha ing o s a ing hei amilies in o de o ake o e hei p o essional wo k, o a a ie y o easons,
sus enance o amily income in pa icula . P egnancy equen ly comes oge he wi h he amily’s con-
ce n o being able o ensu e hei child en a decen li e. In his sense, social bene i s a ibu ed o
women in he cen al coun ies as well as he possibili y o wo k pa ime we e seen as posi i e o
women as hey assu e be e li e quali y. Women om (semi)pe iphe al coun ies a e no en i led o he
same “choice” as hey ha e o con ibu e o he inancial suppo o hei amilies.
The legisla ion o suppo ma e ni y and pa e ni y, which allows couples o choose who will ake
he ma e ni y and pa e ni y lea e, is ano he posi i e example o a social bene i ha is con ibu ing
owa ds he change in he gende o de . Based on women’s discussion, only in Po ugal ma e ni y
bene i s we e conside ed medium. E en hough equali y o igh s and obliga ions be ween a he s and
mo he s has been p edic ed in he Po uguese Cons i u ion (a .68) and has been equi ed since 1984
(Law 4/84, 5 Ap il), which consec a es ha “Pa en s a e equal in igh s and obliga ions in wha con-
ce ns child en suppo and educa ion,” only in 1999 (Law 142/99, 31 Augus ) he ma e ni y lea e was
inc eased o 120 days. Du ing his pe iod mo he s a e en i led o ecei e hei o al sala y. Recen ly, in
2009, aiming o ein o ce equal gende equali y in couples, he social p o ec ion sys em elec ed he in-
cen i e o gi e bi h as a p io i y, ein o cing he igh s o he a he and implemen ing he sha ing o
pa en al lea e by he couple (Dec ee – Law 91/2009, 9 Ap il). Acco ding o his dec ee, pa en s may
choose o keep he 120 lea e o hey may p olong i o 150 days, wi h 100% subsidy when he lea e is
sha ed by bo h pa en s, o e en 180 days, wi h a subsidy o 83%. Du ing p egnancy women a e also
en i led o ee doc o appoin men s, medical examina ions and hospi aliza ion (APF, n/d). This new
dec ee also inc eased men’s pa e ni y lea e om 5 o 10 compulso y days (5 be o e and 5 a e bi h)
and en non-compulso y days in he i s mon h du ing he pa en al subsidy. Though, couples may
choose who is going o enjoy he lea e when hey bo h wo k. When a he s op o use he 120 days o
lea e, i is compulso y o women o e u n o wo k 6 weeks a e bi h (CIG, 2007).
In Li huania, women a e en i led o 2 yea s o ma e ni y lea e (Law X-1400, 20 Decembe
2007), in he 1s yea hey ecei e hei o al sala y, and hen i dec eases o 85%. S a ing in July
2010, ma e ni y lea e will su e cons ain s. I will dec ease o 90% in he i s yea , and o 75% in he
2nd. The pa e ni y lea e las s o 1 mon h wi h a ull sala y (MSSL, 2010). A e hei ma e ni y lea e
pe iod, women may y o be ein eg a ed in hei o me wo k pos s. Though, employe willingness o
ein eg a e hem a e wo yea s o absence and dis ancing om he compe i i e s uc u e is o be
ques ioned.
In he Ne he lands, women a e en i led o 16 weeks o ma e ni y lea e, 6 be o e and 10 a e
bi h, keeping he same wage, whe eas in Belgium hey a e only en i led o 15 weeks o ma e ni y
lea e. They ecei e 82% o hei o al wage in he i s ou weeks, and his is educed o 75% om
hen on (Missoc, 2006). Pa e ni y lea e is ex emely limi ed in hese coun ies, 3 compulso y days o
Belgian a he s and 2 days o Du ch a he s, ull paid. In e es ingly, Li huania is he coun y ha
seems o p o ide be e ma e ni y bene i s and o a longe pe iod.
I , on he one hand, he social bene i s in oduce new o ms o suppo o he amily o ganiza-
ion, and y o decons uc gende s e eo ypes in he p i a e sphe e, on he o he , eali y shows ha
mos “ca e” wo k is a ibu ed o women. Day ca e is qui e equen in cen al coun ies ha p omulga e
laws o suppo amilies, which make accoun able he go e nmen and employe s. Since 2007, in he
Ne he lands, employe s ha e o con ibu e o day ca e se ices as hey a e o a ibu e a he s and
mo he a subsidy o child en nu se ies. Young a he s and mo he s ha a e s ill s udying o looking o
1 See h p://www.cen im.p /opo unidades_main_en.h m o de ailed in o ma ion. “CENFIM in eg a es he ne wo k o he
Recogni ion, Valida ion and Ce i ica ion o Compe ences Cen es (CRVCC) acc edi ed by he Na ional Acc edi a ion Sys em o
he Di ec o a e Gene al o Voca ional T aining (DGFV), Minis y o Educa ion.”
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a job a e he ones ha mos bene i om his, as hey a e issued a special subsidy by he Belas ingdi-
ens , a Du ch o ganiza ion suppo ed by con ibu o axes. Belgium is also e y awa e o his p oblem
and has de eloped se e al e o s o suppo bi h and child de elopmen . They ha e in es ed in he
es uc u ing and enewal o day ca e in as uc u es, and ha e ocused pa icula a en ion on policies
aimed a emale and male concilia ion be ween wo k and amily.
Whe eas in he wo cen al coun ies employe s and he go e nmen ha e p omo ed ac ions o
suppo amilies, in Po ugal and Li huania he day ca e sys em is seen as e y expensi e and unde -
de eloped. Ye , in Po ugal, e en hough day ca e is dilu ed in a ne o public, p i a e and coope a i e
(mix) sys ems, he public p e-school educa ional sys em seems o be a good example o he Po u-
guese e o s o suppo amilies. The public p e-school sys em was o icialised in 1980, Dec ee-Law
542/79, 31 Decembe , which was aimed a con ibu ing owa ds he co ec ion o he disc imina o y e -
ec s o socio-cul u al condi ions in he access o he school sys em (a .1b). Since hen, his sys em
has been exemp ing o educing school ees acco ding o he amily income. Though, he s a e in a-
s uc u es a e no enough o ensu e each child a place in hese public ins i u ions. This s ill cons i u es
a se ious p oblem o young couples wi h child en, which a icula es wi h hei alloca ion in s uc u es
o class, social and p o essional s a us. This helps o emphasize he pe inence o s a e p o ision o
day ca e o help amilies in hei sea ch o employmen , o inc ease he bi h a e and, in pa icula , o
ou in e es s, o p omo e o women equali y o condi ion in he access and p og ession wi hin he pub-
lic sphe e o paid wo k and o he ields o social li e.
In Li huania, in compliance wi h he p o isions o he Law on Social Se ices, in 2007, p o ision
o social long- e m (sho - e m) and day ca e was s a ed in municipali ies o almos 4 housand peo-
ple, ou o whom almos a hal (45 pe cen ) comp ised o child en dep i ed o pa en al ca e and chil-
d en a social isk (Six Repo , 163). Acco ding o he SocRepo 2006-2007 (MSSL, 2007), se ices
p o ided by child en day ca e cen e s a e conside ed o be essen ial in helping o deal wi h and de-
c ease he numbe o socially dys unc ional amilies. As e e ed in his documen “Acco ding o he
da a o he Child en and You h Di ision o he Minis y o Social Secu i y and Labou , … in 2006, abou
4,200 child en isi ed child en day ca e cen e s, including 3,600 child en who ecei ed social and edu-
ca ional se ices on a con inuous basis. Child en day ca e cen e s p o ided se ices o 2,500 amilies,
including 2,100 amilies ha ecei ed such se ices on a con inuous basis” (MSSL, 2007: 114). As a
esul o hese s a emen s, we may in e ha day ca e in Li huania is no ye gene alized o he o e all
popula ion bu has had o in es in p io i y a eas, in a ime o gene alized wo ld c isis.
Conclusions
The compa a i e s udy o labou ma ke policies se ing and implemen a ion in wha conce ns
p o iding women wi h he possibili y no only o wo k bu o ocus on he de elopmen o hei p o es-
sional ca ee a ose some in e es ing ea u es. Fi s o all, he s udy helped o emphasize he di e ence
be ween es ablishing Eu opean o ien a ions and na ional policies and i s e ec i e implemen a ion in
peoples’ daily li e and well being. E en hough se e al policies ha e o mally been pu in o ac ion, in
he ou di e en coun ies, in wha conce ns women’s inse ion in his unse led ield o social li e, i
seems ha he e is s ill a lo o be done in his a ea. In gene al e ms, e en hough some ju idical e -
o s ha e been made in ecen yea s o suppo amilies, o make pa en s accoun able o hei chil-
d en and, somehow, suppo inse ion o women in o he labou ma ke , i seems ha g ea s uc u al
changes a e s ill needed o p o ide o e ec i e gende equali y. Fo example, in so-called de eloped
coun ies like Belgium and he Ne he lands, measu es ha e been de eloped and implemen ed o sup-
po amilies, as well as in espec o child and elde ly ca e, so his is eleasing women om his adi-
ionally emale job. In newe EU Membe S a es hese policies a e s ill eme ging. In his speci ic case,
Po ugal has he o ically adop ed such a ca e policy bu did no manage o implemen i ully ye ,
whe eas, in Li huania, ca e is s ill conside ed o be a woman’s job and p io i y a eas such as child en
a isk and dys unc ional amilies a e inc easingly being add essed. In gene al e ms, one mus in e
ha nowadays a g owing numbe o women (and also an inc easing numbe o men) in Eu ope ha e
o deal wi h di e en bu di icul challenges in hei daily li e and wo k.
Re e ences
1. Ama al, M. L. Um po o de homens e de mulhe es em país de cons i uição débil. Ex aequo. 2004, 10: 17–28.
2. Associação pa a o Planeamen o Familia (s/d) Biblio eca de Legislação. [accessed 2008-02-05].
<h p://www.ap .p /?a ea=001&mid=009&sid=002&ssid=000>.
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3. Beijing Syn hesis Repo , 1995. [accessed 2008-09-14]<h p://www.uni em.o g/a achmen s/p oduc s/ Pa -
ne ships4Gende Equali y_po >.
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bel. go .be/s udies/ac122_nl.pd >.
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6. Comissão pa a a Cidadania e Igualdade de Géne o (CIG) (2007). A igualdade de géne o em Po ugal. Lis-
boa: Comissão pa a a Cidadania e Igualdade e Géne o.
7. Con en ion o Elimina e all Fo ms o Disc imina ion Agains Women (CEDAW), 1979 [accessed 2010-07-29].
<h p://www.un.o g/womenwa ch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.h m>.
8. Lis e , R. "P omo ing women’s economic independence" In Geo Dench (ed.), Rew i ing The Sexual Con-
ac . New B unswick: T ansac ion Publishe s, 1999, p. 180–191.
9. Lis e , R. Cidadania, um desa io e uma opo unidade pa a as eminis as. Ex aequo. 2003, nº 7, p. 165-178.
10. Meie , P. & Lomba do, E. (2008) Concep s o ci izenship unde lying EU gende equali y policies, Ci izenship
S udies. 2003, 12(5), 481–493.
11. Minis y o Social Secu i y and Labou (MSSL). Social Repo , 2006–2007. Vilnius: Minis y o Social Secu i y
and Labou , 2007.
12. Minis y o Social Secu i y and Labou (MSSL). Ma e ni y (Pa e ni y) bene i , 2010 [accessed 2010-07-29].
<h p://www.socmin.l /index.php?-1725653123>.
13. Missoc, Commission Eu opéenne, La p o ec ion Sociale dans les é a s membe s de l'Union Eu opéenne, Di-
ec ion géné ale Emploi e A ai es Sociales, 2006.
14. OCDE Pano ama da Educação 2007. Indicado es OCDE. B asil: Edi o a Mode na, 2007.
15. Oli ei a, R. D. Mulhe es e(m) Lide ança: Géne o, educação e pode . In E. Macedo e M. Koning (coo d.s).
ReIn en ando Lide anças: Géne o, educação e pode , p. 43-57. Po o: Fundação Cuida o Fu u o e Li Psic,
2009.
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17. Saukienė,I. Lyčių lygybės Lie u oje nė a?, 2008 [accessed 2009-03-11]. <www.DELFI.l >.
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o g/millenniumgoals>.
Consul ed Legisla ion
1. Dec ee-Law n. 392/79, 20 h Sep embe , Diá io da República.
2. Dec ee-Law n. 542/79, 31s Decembe , Diá io da República.
3. Dec ee-Law 91/2009, 9 h Ap il, Diá io da República.
4. Di ec i e 76/207/EEC, 9 h Feb ua y, Eu opean Economic Communi y.
5. Dispa ch 11 203/2007, Diá io da República.
6. Law n. 4/84, 5 h Ap il, Diá io da República.
7. Law n. 28/84, 14 h Augus , Diá io da República.
8. Law n. 142/99, 31s Augus [4 h amend o Law n. 4/84, 31s Augus ], Diá io da República.
9. Law n. 99/2003, 27 h Augus , Diá io da República.
10. Li huania (2007), Republic o Li huania Law on Sicness and Ma e ni y Social Insu ance, Nº X-1400, 20 h De-
cembe .
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BELGIJOS, OLANDIJOS, LIETUVOS IR PORTUGALIJOS MOTERŲ BALSAS:
ŠALIŲ SOCIALINĖ POLITIKA EUROPOJE
So ia Almeida San os, MA
Po o uni e si e as
Eunice Macedo1, MA
Po o uni e si e as
San auka
Pe pasku iniuosius 30–35 me us susi ūpinimas lyčių lygiomis eisėmis pilie iškumo aspek u lėmė
poli ikų į ai o ę, ku ių ikslas sumažin i nelygybę da bo inkoje, šeimoje, poli ikoje i . . Tokios poli ikos
a si ado isame pasaulyje, įskai an Eu opos Sąjungą, i bu o p i aiky os nacionalinėse e d ėse. Remian-
is dokumen ų analize i pokalbiais su mo e imis Belgijoje, Lie u oje, Olandijoje bei Po ugalijoje, šiame
s aipsnyje analizuojamas mo e ų požiū is į jų šalyse ykdomą Eu opos socialinę poli iką i bandoma a -
skleis i, kokiais būdais ši poli ika kiek ienoje šalyje a siž elgia į mo e ų lygias eises kaip p io i e inę s i į.
Pi miausia s aipsnyje ašoma apie lyčių p oblemos a si adimą i eisinės bazės Eu opoje kū imą. Po o
analizuojamos e ek y ios mo e ų į aukimo į da bo inką p iemonės i socialinė pagalba, p iklausomai nuo
šalies. Mo e ų pasakojimai, pa em i konk ečiais pa yzdžiais, a skleidžia šalių socialinę poli iką.
Empi iniai duomenys, ku iais emiamasi šiame s aipsnyje, bu o su ink i Fokus g upės diskusijos
me u. P adžioje bu o ap a iamos asmeninės pa i ys, ėliau su ink a medžiaga bu o pe keliama į len e-
les, minčių žemėlapius i galiausiai apibend in a a askai oje. Fokus g upių diskusijų me odas y a kon eks-
inis y imo me odas, leidžian is kons uo i in o maciją bend ada biaujan g upėje, kai įgaliojimai y a pe -
duodami daly iams, ado aujan iems diskusijoms i nusp endžian iems, kokios emos y a labiausiai in-
kamos. Todėl a odo šis me odas bū ų inkamiausias siekian paskleis i mo e ų nuomonę.
S aipsnyje keliami šie y imo klausimai: Kaip Eu opoje a si ado i plė ojosi da bo i šeimos sociali-
nės poli ikos, o ien uo os į lyčių lygybę? Kokios poli ikos p iemonės bu o įgy endin os Belgijoje, Lie u o-
je, Nyde landuose i Po ugalijoje, a siž elgian į Eu opos ak ualijas? Kaip a i inkamų šalių mo e ys in e p-
e uoja šias poli ikos k yp is?
Pag indinės są okos: socialinė poli ika, lyčių lygios eisės, pilie iškumas.
1 Dėkojame Ma iskai Decke s (Plan ijn uni e si e as); Sheilai de Wi (Inholland uni e si e as) i Raimondai Ažubaly ei
(Mykolo Rome io uni e si e as), ku ios daly a o g upės diskusijose, įnešė indėlį, a kan empi inę medžiagą, i a liko y inėji-
mus apie sa o šalis.