Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a
Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
July 2016
Leono Fe ei a Bessa Babo
Disse ação do MIEM
O ien ado no BIT: P o . Bai-gang Sun
O ien ado na FEUP: P o . Ca los Pinho
Faculdade de Engenha ia da Uni e sidade do Po o
Mes ado In eg ado em Engenha ia Mecânica
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
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“一步一个脚印儿” by Laoshe （老舍）
“E e y s ep lea es i s p in ” by Laoshe
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
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Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
Abs ac
This wo k was de eloped wi hin he amewo k o discipline Disse a ion, o he 5 h yea , o
The mal Ene gy b anch o he Mas e Deg ee in Mechanical Enginee ing o Facul y o Enginee ing o he
Uni e si y o Po o (FEUP) and was ca ied unde a pa ne ship ag eemen wi h he Vehicle Enginee ing
Labo a o y o he Beijing Ins i u e o Technology.
In his documen i is p esen ed an o e all e iew o hyd ogen ueled in e nal combus ion
engines. Subsequen ly, using WAVE so wa e, an analysis o b eak powe ou pu o a hyd ogen engine
changing he in ake pa ame e s is made. Using he same so wa e, an op imiza ion o he in ake and
exhaus al e imings o opening and closing was made. Finally, a gene al analysis on he in luence o
igni ion iming, ai uel equi alence a io and h o le angle on he espec i e o que esponse o he
engine was ca ied ou .
Key wo ds: hyd ogen in e nal combus ion engines; WAVE so wa e;

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
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Resumo
Es e abalho oi desen ol ido no âmbi o da disciplina Disse ação, do 5º ano, da opção Ene gia
Té mica do Mes ado In eg ado em Engenha ia Mecânica da Faculdade de Engenha ia da Uni e sidade
do Po o (FEUP) e em pa ce ia com o Labo a ó io de Engenha ia Au omó el do Beijing Ins i u e o
Technology (BIT).
Nes e documen o é ap esen ado o es ado da a e dos mo o es de combus ão in e na com
combus í el de hid ogénio. De seguida, eco endo ao p og ama WAVE, é ei a uma a aliação da po ência
e e i a do mo o a hid ogénio al e ando as condições de en ada do combus í el. Ainda com o mesmo
p og ama o am o imizados os empos de abe u a e echo das ál ulas de en ada e saída do mo o . Po
im, oi ei a uma análise ge al de in luência do empo ignição, azão a combus í el e ângulos de abe u a
e echo da ál ula de admissão, sob e o biná io e e i o do mo o .
Pala as-cha e: mo o es de combus ão a hid ogénio; p og ama WAVE;
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
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Acknowledgemen s
Long was he way o ge he e. My exp ess g a i ude goes o Beijing Ins i u e o Technology and
Uni e si y o Po o o o e ing me he oppo uni y o doing his p ojec in Beijing, China. To p o esso Bai-
gang Sun o ecei ing me so well in ehicle labo a o y o BIT. To PhD S uden and co-supe iso Xiao-Luo
o all he suppo e en on weekends. To all my colleagues in he labo a o y.
I would specially like o hank, P o esso Ca los Pinho, ha accep ed being he p o esso
supe iso o his p ojec and whose help was essen ial.
Finally, o my amily o all he suppo du ing my s ay in China.
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
x i
Symbol
Desc ip ion
Uni s

Ai - o- uel equi alence a io
a
Combus ion e iciency

C ank angle

Fuel- o-ai equi alence a io
γ
Speci ic hea a io
[J/K]

0
S a o combus ion c ank angle
∆R
Unce ain y on he compu ed esul

1
1. In oduc ion
This p ojec will be di ided in h ee main s ages. Fi s ly, he mo i a ions o he need o al e na i e
ene gies o he ossil uels, and a deepe analysis o he ene gy consump ion and CO2 emissions in China
will be ca ied ou . Then, i will be made a li e a u e e iew o he hyd ogen as a uel: s a e o a ,
de elopmen s and echnologies. An economic and en i onmen al analysis o he a ious op ions will also
be aken in o accoun
The second pa o he p ojec , will be h ough he use o he so wa e Rica do WAVE, he
simula ion o di e en combus ion condi ions o hyd ogen in a i ual engine, ollowed by an analysis o
he esul s.
The las s ep, will be a p ac ical app oach using a labo a o y o do some es s and compa e he
expe imen al wi h he nume ical esul s.
1.1. Mo i a ions
Comba ing pollu ion and emissions is a mus o educe he global wa ming. Wi h he COP21
(clima e change ag eemen ) ea y signed in Decembe 2015 by China and 195 o he coun ies, he e is
now a global comp omise o educe o g eenhouse emissions and o se a goal o limi ing global
wa ming o less han 2 deg ees Celsius (°C) compa ed o p e-indus ial le els.
China, being he mos popula ed coun y in he wo ld and wi h p ospec i e o g owing 45 million
people in he nex 5 yea s, needs o sea ch o new and enewable ene gies [1].
I is also he coun y in he wo ld wi h highes ene gy consump ion and CO2 emissions. This is
caused no jus because o he la ge popula ion bu also due o he highly indus ialized a eas and he
ossil uel used in anspo s. Nowadays, he e a e many a eas o esea ch o c ea e sus ainable ene gy
sys ems. The use o hyd ogen as an ene gy ca ie is one o he op ions pu o wa d [2].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
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2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. The need o clean ene gy in anspo s
The sea ch o new uel al e na i es is mo i a ed by he ends in pe oleum p ices and
en i onmen al p oblems caused by he use o hese. The in oduc ion o al e na i e uels has o combine
echnical easibili y, en i onmen al impac and economic iabili y.
T anspo accoun s o 25% o global CO2 emissions and is one o he ew indus ial sec o s whe e
emissions a e s ill g owing. The cu en ends poin o a g ow h o 50% by 2030 and 80% by 2050, which
makes i unsus ainable. Wo ldwide, popula ion and incomes ising is s ongly ela ed wi h anspo sec o
ene gy and CO2 ends while he anspo sec o con inues o ely p ima ily on oil [2].
Figu e 1 - CO2 emissions om anspo [2]
Looking a he e olu ion o he CO2 emissions om 1990 un il 2013, i inc eased by 68% in oad
sec o and accoun ed o h ee qua e s o anspo emissions in 2013. Fo he in e na ional anspo ,
he g ow h o people a elling and he g ow h on impo a ion and expo a ion o goods made he ma ine
and a ia ion o g ow e en as e , 64% and 90% in 2013 han in 1990 espec i ely [2].
Cu en and eme ging echnologies which ha e he po en ial o educe subs an ial CO2 emissions
should be apidly in oduced.
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
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2.1.1. China
Conce ning da a om 2013 and conside ing all sec o s o CO2 emissions, China was esponsible
o 29% (10.3 billion ons) o wo ld CO2 emissions ollowed by U.S. esponsible o 15% o he emissions
(5.3 billion ons) and he Eu opean Union wi h 11% (EU28) (3.7 billion ons) [2]. China is, a he momen ,
he la ges indus ialized na ion and in esul o his he e is a g owing demand o ene gy. The inc easing
impo s o ene gy, pa icula ly pe oleum, has go global a en ion, specially ega ding he co esponding
g eenhouse gas emissions. Since he end o he 1970s Chinese ehicle indus y de eloped massi ely.
Du ing he las h ee decades, he oad ehicle popula ion inc eased om 1.36 million uni s o 70 million
uni s [2].
I s pe capi a ese es o coal, pe oleum and na u al gas (NG) a e 67.0%, 5.4%, and 7.5% o wo ld
a e age ese es, espec i ely. Howe e , hese ese es canno ul il all he coun y demand o
pe oleum by he inc easing o ehicles, which makes China become a ne pe oleum impo ing coun y
since 1993. In esponse o popula ion g ow h and ise o income he e is a con inuous inc ease in p i a e
ehicle owne ship. Figu e 2 illus a es a p ojec ion o ehicle owne ship in China up o 2050, conside ing
h ee di e en scena ios [3].
Figu e 2 - P ojec ed Chinese ehicle owne ship [3].
The boom in China’s au omo i e indus y poses a g ea challenge o he en i onmen , especially
in ela ion o g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. I is he e o e essen ial o p omo e he use o low-emission
ehicles. New s a egies should be conside ed o inc ease ehicle ene gy e iciency s anda ds, changing
consume ene gy consump ion pa e ns and educing he anspo a ion sec o high dependency on ossil
uels [3].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
5
2.1.2. EU-28 and Po ugal
Da a om 2012 o he ene gy consump ion dis ibu ion in EU-28 by sec o shows ha esiden ial,
oad anspo and indus y accoun ed o he bigges sha es, 26 % each. The se ice sec o accoun ed
o 13 %, anspo o 6 % and he o he emaining sec o s o 3 %. As a as he ene gy dependency in
2012 was conce ned, he highes need was o pe oleum p oduc s, 24 million TJ, o which 93 % we e
impo ed [4].
The anspo sec o is esponsible o he second g eenhouse gas emissions in he EU. Mo e han
wo hi ds o anspo - ela ed g eenhouse gas emissions a e om oad anspo . G eenhouse gas
emissions in o he sec o s dec eased 15% be ween 1990 and 2007, bu emissions om anspo
inc eased 36% du ing he same pe iod. This inc ease has happened despi e imp o ed ehicle e iciency
because he amoun o pe sonal and eigh anspo has inc eased. The e was also an inc ease in numbe
o ca s pe inhabi an be ween 2006 and 2012. Since 2008, g eenhouse gas emissions om anspo ha e
s a ed o dec ease. Despi e his end, anspo emissions we e in 2012 s ill 20.5 % abo e 1990 le els
[5].
In Po ugal, he anspo sec o is he bigges ene gy consume , accoun ing wi h 36%, ollowed
by he indus y sec o , 31%, and he esiden ial sec o , 17%. The anspo sec o is esponsible o 24%
o g eenhouse gas emissions. Po ugal is s ill, as mos o EU-28, e y dependen on ossil uels. In igu e 3
a e ep esen ed he g eenhouse gas emissions o he anspo sec o om 1990 un il 2013 o EU-28
and Po ugal ( a io o 2000 = 100 emissions) [6].
Figu e 3 - GHG emissions in anspo s, UE-28 and Po ugal [6]
Conside ing he GHG emissions o igina ed by Po ugal, hey we e almos always below EU-28 a e age,
excep du ing he yea s be ween 2000 and 2004 [6].

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
6
2.2. A ac i eness and d awbacks o hyd ogen as a uel o
in e nal combus ion engines
The e a e plen y o op ions on how o p oduce hyd ogen, which ha e been s udied un il now,
some mo e de eloped han o he s. Wha a ac s he mos is he long- e m iabili y o some o hem,
such as enewable ene gy (biomass, wind, sola ) and i ually ze o ha m ul emissions, al hough a he
momen mos o he p oduc ion is made om ossil uels [7].
Using hyd ogen as an ene gy ca ie has s ill many challenges o o e come. I is di icul o keep a
good comp omise o cos and e iciency, conside ing all dis ibu ion, bulk s o age and onboa d ehicle
s o age. Bea ing in mind all aspec s o hyd ogen- ueled ehicles compa ed o hyd oca bon uel, ca e mus
be aken o ensu e ha he well- o-wheel g eenhouse gas emissions a e educed.
Ano he aspec is he possibili y o using an o dina y ICE ha is sui ably adap ed and compa ible
o wo k ei he wi h hyd ogen o o he uels and s ill keeps a good pe o mance. Howe e , he H2ICEs s ill
need much de elopmen , hus i is s ill no possible o combine high e iciency, low emissions, adequa e
speci ic powe ou pu and du abili y all in one concep . Mo eo e , se e al a emp s o op imize engine
uel injec ion s a egies always had he same esul : high injec ion p essu es. This limi s on-boa d
hyd ogen s o age op ions ei he : liquid hyd ogen is s o ed in c yogenic anks, and injec ion p essu es a e
gene a ed onboa d, o comp essed hyd ogen is s o ed bu hen he ull ank capaci y canno be u ilized
[8; 9; 10].
2.3. Combus ion p ope ies o hyd ogen
P e iously, he a ac i eness and d awbacks o hyd ogen we e shown, now i s physical and
chemical p ope ies a e p esen ed. Table 1 p esen s a compa ison o di e en p ope ies o hyd ogen
and mo e con en ional uels.
The hyd ogen molecule is e y small, ligh and mobile and a a mosphe ic condi ions has a e y
low densi y. I s wide ange o lammabili y wi h an ai - o- uel equi alence a io  ex ending om as lean
as  = 10 o as ich as  = 0.14 allows a wide ange o engine powe ou pu h ough changes in he mix u e
equi alence a io. The low lean- lammabili y limi o hyd ogen inc eases wi h p essu e and allows s able
combus ion a highly dilu e condi ions, while he uppe lammabili y limi has a ai ly complex beha io in
e ms o p essu e dependence bu lesse impo ance o engines.
Hyd ogen has a small quenching dis ance o 0.64 mm compa ed o 2.0 mm o gasoline, unde
s oichiome ic condi ions. This is he dis ance om he cylinde wall whe e lame on ex inguishes. I is
minimal o mix u es a ound s oichiome y, and dec eases wi h inc easing p essu e and empe a u e. This
means i is mo e di icul o ex inguish he hyd ogen lame and implies mo e suscep ibili y o he engine
o back i e since he hyd ogen-ai mix u e lame mo e easily passes h ough al es and e y small gaps
han he gasoline-ai mix u e lame [11; 12].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
7
Hyd ogen has high lame speed o combus ion. Fo s oichiome ic mix u es, he lame speed
slows down, imp o ing he uel economy and educing he ni ogen oxides, bu i is s ill a much highe
lame speed when compa ed o gasoline-ai mix u es. Flame speed and maximum combus ion
empe a u e a e o p ime conce n o he mal e iciency and emissions [11].
The low boiling empe a u e o -253 °C makes liquid hyd ogen s o age a a mosphe e p essu e
e y challenging. The ex emely wide igni ion limi s o hyd ogen compa ed o any o he uel makes i
ex emely well sui ed o lean ope a ion wi h i s posi i e e ec on engine e iciency. Al hough i can be
he main cause o abno mal combus ion, see sec ion 2.8.1. The minimum igni ion ene gy o hyd ogen a
s oichiome ic condi ions is app oxima ely 0.02 mJ while o gasoline, Diesel o me hane i is in o de o
0.25 mJ. Only a an ai / uel a io as lean as   4 does he equi ed igni ion ene gy o hyd ogen each he
alue o con en ional uels a s oichiome ic condi ions [13].
The heo e ical he modynamic e iciency o an O o cycle engine, used on H2ICE’s, is based on
he comp ession a io o he engine as shown in equa ion (2.1)

𝑡ℎ =1−(1
𝑟𝑐)𝛾−1 (2.1)
F om he abo e equa ion he highe he comp ession a io c o he speci ic hea a io γ, he
highe he modynamic e iciency o he engine. Hyd ogen has a much simple molecula s uc u e han
gasoline and he e o e i s speci ic-hea a io is highe han ha o gasoline. In his sense, heo e ically,
hyd ogen engine can ha e highe he mal e iciency compa ed o gasoline engine [8; 11].
Table 1 - P ope ies o Hyd ogen Compa ed o Fossil Fuels [8; 14; 15]
Pa ame e
Diesel
Gasoline
Me hane
H2
Densi y [kg/m3]
830 I
730-780 I
0.72 I
0.089 I
71 II,III
S oichiome ic ai demand Ls [kgai /kg uel]
14.5
14.7
17.2
34.3
Lowe hea ing alue [MJ/kg]
42.5
43.5
50
120
Boiling empe a u e III [C]
180-360
25-215
-162
-253
Igni ion limi s IV []
0.5-1.3
0.4-1.4
0.7-2.1
0.14-10
Minimum igni ion ene gy III, IV, V [mJ]
0.24
0.24
0.29
0.02
Sel -igni ion empe a u e [C]
~250
~250
595
585
Speci ic hea a io III, VII [γ]
1.389
1.354
1.401
Lamina lame speed IV, V [cm/s]
40-80
40-80
40
200
Quenching dis ance III, IV, VI [mm]
2
2.03
0.64
Ca bon con en [Mass-%]
86
86
75
0
I a 1.013 ba , 0C II a -253C III a 1.013 ba IV in ai V =1 VI a 20C VII a 300 K
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
8
2.4. P oduc ion
Though hyd ogen is he mos abundan elemen in he uni e se, he e is no na u al hyd ogen gas
esou ce on Ea h e ec i ely. I is combined wi h o he elemen s, which means ha i can be p oduced
om a a ie y o eeds ocks con aining hyd ogen compounds. Hyd ogen gas is no a p ima y uel in he
same sense as na u al gas, oil, and coal. Ra he , hyd ogen is an ene gy ca ie , like elec ici y. I is a
seconda y o m o ene gy, p oduced using o he p ima y ene gy sou ces, such as na u al gas, coal, as well
as enewable esou ces.
Figu e 4 shows some o he eeds ocks and p ocesses o p oduce hyd ogen. The e is a a ie y o
p ocess echnologies ha can be used, each o hem is in a di e en s age o de elopmen , and o e s
unique oppo uni ies, bene i s and challenges. Fac o s such as he local a ailabili y o eeds ock, he
ma u i y o he echnology, ma ke applica ions and demand, policy issues, and cos s will all in luence he
choice o hyd ogen p oduc ion [16; 17].
Figu e 4 - Some eeds ock and p ocess al e na i es [9]
Al hough he e a e many p oduc ion al e na i es mos o hem a e s ill unde de elopmen .
Cu en ly, he mos de eloped and mos used echnology is he e o ming o hyd oca bon uels,
ep esen ing 96% o he p oduc ion by ossil sou ces. Figu e 4 shows he ac ual dis ibu ion o he mos
used eeds ocks [18].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
9
Each yea , 8 EJ (abou 190 M oe) o hyd ogen a e p oduced, 40% a e used in chemical p ocesses
(manu ac u ing o ammonia and syn hesis o me hanol), 40% in e ine ies and 20% in ood, elec onics
and me allu gical p ocessing indus ies. Only a ac ion o his hyd ogen is cu en ly used o ene gy
pu poses. Mos o his hyd ogen is p oduced on-si e in e ine ies and chemical plan s o non-ene gy uses.
The global ma ke o hyd ogen is al eady g ea e han US$40 billion pe yea [19].
In 2007, he hyd ogen p oduc ion amoun in China was abou 12.42 million ons pe yea being
he p oduc ion dis ibu ed by coal, na u al gas and oil in he pe cen age o 57.3%, 23.0% and 19.7%
espec i ely [20].
2.4.1. Hyd ogen p oduced om con en ional sou ces
As seen be o e he majo p oduc ion o hyd ogen, nowadays, come om con en ional sou ces o
ossil uels. In his sec ion a e p esen ed he di e en me hods o ob aining hyd ogen.
2.4.1.1. S eam e o ming o na u al gas
The e a e h ee p ima y echniques used o p oduce hyd ogen om hyd oca bon uels: s eam
e o ming, pa ial oxida ion (POX), and au o he mal e o ming (ATR).
The e o ming p ocess has he mos indus ial expe ience, al hough i is he one wi h highes
pollu an ai emissions. I consis s o p oducing a gas s eam composed p ima ily o hyd ogen, ca bon
monoxide and ca bon dioxide. Endo he mic s eam e o ming o hyd oca bons equi es an ex e nal hea
sou ce, compa ed o POX and ATR has a lowe ope a ing empe a u e. S eam e o ming does no equi e
oxygen and p oduces e o ma e wi h a high H2/CO a io (3:1).
Pa ial oxida ion con e s hyd oca bons o hyd ogen p o iding hea by a con olled combus ion.
The p ocess occu s a high empe a u es wi h he o ma ion o a low H2/CO a io (1:1 o 2:1). POX has
been p oposed o use in hyd ogen p oduc ion o au omobile uel cells and some comme cial
Na u al Gas
48%
Coal
18%
Oil
30%
Elec olysis
4%
Figu e 5 - Feeds ock used in he cu en global p oduc ion o hyd ogen [18].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
16
used o anks can be ca bon ibe - esin composi e-w apped wi h high densi y polye hylene (HDPE) o
aluminum line . The g aphic o igu e 11 shows an example o he weigh and olume dis ibu ion o a 350
ba ank sys em capable o ca ying 5.6 kg H2 [17; 25; 26].
Figu e 11 - Weigh and olume dis ibu ion o comp essed hyd ogen s o age sys ems
[27]
Fo he weigh dis ibu ion ca bon ibe accoun s o 53%, ollowed by he weigh o o he
componen s such as al es, p essu e egula o s, ubes, e c. ha accoun wi h 19%. O he con ibu o s o
he sys em weigh a e he line (11%), glass ibe (6%) and oam (5%). Fo he olume dis ibu ion he
la ges con ibu o is he hyd ogen (81%), wi h less han 5% each o he line , oam, glass ibe and he
o he componen s [27].
2.5.2. C yogenic liquid hyd ogen
The mos common way o s o e hyd ogen in a liquid o m (LH2), and a ambien p essu e, is o
cool i down o c yogenic empe a u es (–253 °C). Liquid hyd ogen is s o ed gene ally in insula ed, passi e
s o age sys ems, meaning ha no ac i e cooling is p o ided. Despi e his, he emaining hea inpu causes
liquid hyd ogen o e apo a e (abou 2-5% o he olume e apo a es), which inc eases he p essu e. Thus
i equi es a sys em wi h con inuous consump ion o a leas ee elease o a oid p essu e inc ease. The
main ad an age wi h liquid hyd ogen is he high s o age densi y ha can be eached a ela i ely low
p essu es. The LH2 o in e nal combus ion engines does no ha e o be injec ed as a liquid. Fo p ac ical
applica ion a LH2 in e nal combus ion engine ueling sys em ypically equi es a acuum-jacke ed uel line,
hea exchange and c yogenic pumps, and injec o s. Fu he de elopmen s a e needed o be done in o de
o inc ease he capaci y, o de elop sys ems ha au oma ically cap u e he boil-o and e-lique y he uel
a compe i i e p ices [17; 25].
H2
6%
O he componen s
19%
Foam
5%
Glass Fibe
6%
Ca bon Fibe
53%
Line
11%
Weigh Dis ibu ion (%)
H2
81%
O he
componen s
2%
Foam
2%
Glass Fibe
1%
Ca bon Fibe
10%
Line
4%
Volume Dis ibu ion (%)

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
17
2.5.3. Me al hyd ide s o age
Me al hyd ides a e he solid phase solu ion o hyd ogen s o age. They go mos a en ion because
o hei capabili y o s o ing la ge quan i ies o hyd ogen wi h highe olume ic densi ies han o he
s o age op ions. The g a ime ic hyd ogen densi y o mos me al hyd ides is less han 3.0 w .%. The main
disad an age, as ep esen ed in igu e 10 by he ed do , is in he weigh o he s o age o alloys. The
p ocess consis s in injec ing hyd ogen in gas o m in a ank con aining me al powde o ming me al
hyd ide. This way a solid phase solu ion is ob ained and hyd ogen is s o ed.
To euse he hyd ogen s o ed he me al hyd ide goes h ough a he mal decomposi ion no mally
p oceeded in a s epwise manne . Each s ep possesses i s own he modynamic and kine ic pa ame e s.
Deso p ion p ocess occu s a equilib ium hyd ogen p essu es Peq and a empe a u e T, bo h pa ame e s
a y wi h hyd ide composi ions. Mos complex hyd ide sys ems encoun e se e e kine ic p oblems in
deso bing hyd ogen. S ill, esea ch needs o be done in o de o inc ease abso p ion a e and ope a ion
empe a u e is s ill p oblema ic [28; 29].
2.6. Deli e y
Deli e y is an essen ial pa o all he hyd ogen ueled ehicles acili ies. I is e y impo an o
gua an ee he anspo hyd ogen om a cen al o semi-cen al p oduc ion acili y o he inal poin o
use. Also, hyd ogen deli e y in as uc u e should p o ide he same le el o sa e y, con enience, and
unc ionali y as exis ing liquid and gaseous ossil uel based in as uc u es. As seen be o e, hyd ogen has
many ways o being p oduced so ha he deli e y in as uc u e will need o in eg a e hese a ious
hyd ogen p oduc ion op ions [30].
Figu e 12 shows a desc ip ion o he wo me hods o anspo ing gaseous H2. T ansmission by
pipeline equi es a geological s o age used o p o ide seasonal and su ge capaci y o he H2 and i is used
o longe dis ance e ueling s a ion. High-p essu e cylinde s and ube aile s a 182 ba a e commonly
used o dis ibu e gaseous hyd ogen wi hin 320 km o he sou ce.
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
18
Figu e 12 - Gaseous deli e y pa hway: a) Pipeline anspo b) Tube aile anspo
[31]
Based on ex ensi e deli e y sys em analyses, gaseous hyd ogen ansmission and dis ibu ion by
pipeline is cu en ly he lowes -cos deli e y op ion o la ge olumes o hyd ogen [31].
Fo he liquid hyd ogen he deli e y pa hway is e y di e en om he gaseous pa hway, igu e
13. Fi s , he hyd ogen changes phase om gaseous o liquid in a lique ie s a ion. The ene gy cos o
con e ing gaseous hyd ogen o liquid is high; an es ima e o cu en lique ac ion is ha he ene gy
equi ed abou 35% o he ene gy con en o he hyd ogen. Then i is s o ed in a c yogenic ank a (-253oC)
a he liquid e minal. A ube aile ha can ca y up o 4000 kg o liquid hyd ogen, wi h a leak o 0.5%
anspo s he hyd ogen o he ueling s a ion. Hyd ogen boil-o o up o 5% also occu s when unloading
he liquid hyd ogen on deli e y [30; 31].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
19
Figu e 13 - Liquid deli e y pa hway [31]
Ano he op ion o deli e y ha migh educe he cos and inc ease he olume ic e iciency o
hyd ogen s o age is he use o solid ca ie s wi hin he s o age ank. This is iden ical o some o he
app oaches being esea ched o onboa d ehicle hyd ogen s o age, igu e 14 [30].
Figu e 14 - Me al hyd ide deli e y pa hway [30]
S a iona y o -boa d s o age does no ha e he same weigh and olume es ic ions o onboa d
ehicle s o age, and sys ems ha do no mee he goals o onboa d s o age migh be e ec i e o
s a iona y o -boa d s o age essels.
Each me hod o anspo has many s eps and many componen s in ol ed. Al e na i e pa hways
could combine elemen s om wo o h ee di e en app oaches. As an example, gaseous hyd ogen could
be anspo ed by pipeline o a e minal whe e i is lique ied o dis ibu ion by c yogenic ank unk. To
minimize cos s, he logis ics should be op imized, howe e i is only possible wi h he g owing o he
ma ke . A ully de eloped sys em o deli e y and in as uc u es will ake ime o be buil [30; 31].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
20
2.7. Mix u e o ma ion concep s
2.7.1. Ex e nal mix u e – Po Fuel Injec ion
The e a e only a ew injec o s specially de eloped o PFI hyd ogen in e nal combus ion engine,
no mally, na u al gas injec o s a e he al e na i e. They equi e minimal change om a con en ional
engine s uc u e, bu esul s in limi ed powe ou pu . They can gua an ee a uni o m dis ibu ion o
hyd ogen be ween he cylinde s p o iding a con olled combus ion. Hyd ogen injec ion sys ems o
ex e nal mix u e o ma ion a e ope a ed a lowe injec ion p essu es (2–8 ba ).
Due o he ela i ely long ime a ailable o mixing o uel and ai , all ex e nal mix u e o ma ion
concep s can be conside ed homogeneous and a domina ing co ela ion be ween NOx emissions and
ai / uel a io can be es ablished, igu e 15 [12; 32].
Figu e 15 - NOx emissions and ai / uel a io co ela ion o PFI [9].
Fo uel o ai a ios anging om 0.2 o 0.5 a hyd ogen engine can ope a e wi hou emi ing NOx
emissions. The excess o ai a ailable in he combus ion chambe does no allow empe a u e ising o
achie e he NOx c i ical alue (~1800 K).
The abili y o he H2ICE o ope a e un h o led is owed o he low lean- lammabili y limi and high
lame- eloci y o hyd ogen. In his sense, hyd ogen is an ideal uel o apply a lean mix u e wi hou using
a h o le o pa load con ol. No using a h o le al e has he ad an age o elimina ing pumping losses
due o he p essu e d op o he low c oss he h o le pla e, and uel e iciency is imp o ed. [9; 33].
Beyond

=0.5 he e is an exponen ial inc ease in NOx emissions due exceeding he NOx c i ical
equi alence a io, and he peak is eached o

~0.75 (

~ 1.3). The con inuous inc easing he engine
load leads o a dec ease in NOx emissions and being a s oichiome ic condi ions, i eaches a ound 1/3 o
he peak alue. This is caused because he combus ion empe a u es and he excess o oxygen dec ease.
Ex e nal mix u e o ma ion is a be e de eloped echnology, he e o e i p esen s highe engine
e iciencies, ex ended lean ope a ion ange, lowe cyclic a ia ion and lowe NOx p oduc ion compa ed o
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
21
di ec injec ion. Howe e , o high ope a ing loads, delaying he injec ion iming o DI can esul in
signi ican ly lowe NOx emissions [34].
The heo e ical powe ou pu o H2PFI is 86% o he co esponding gasoline ou pu powe . This
di e ence is mainly caused by he low densi y o hyd ogen, esul ing in a signi ican dec ease in mix u e
densi y when ex e nal mix u e o ma ion is being employed. An e ec i e way o limi he powe loss is by
unning hyd ogen po -injec ion engines a s oichiome ic ai / uel a ios [8; 12].

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
22
2.7.2. In e nal mix u e - Di ec Injec ion
Injec ing hyd ogen di ec ly in he combus ion chambe equi es iming and du a ion s a egy.
These a e c ucial pa ame e s in luencing he NOx emissions. Adjus ing he injec ion s a egy can esul in
mix u es s a ing om ai ly homogeneous (simila o ex e nal mix u e o ma ion) o s ongly s a i ied.
An ea ly injec ion, sho ly a e in ake al e closing, esul s in mo e homogeneous mix u es compa ed o
la e injec ion sho ly be o e spa k iming. As seen be o e o PFI, he o e all ai / uel a io s ongly
in luences he NOx emissions. Figu e 16 shows in a loga i hm scale, he co ela ion be ween ime o
injec ion and ai / uel a io wi h NOx emissions [13].
Figu e 16 - In luence o injec ion iming and engine load (Ai /Fuel Ra io) on NOx
emissions in DI ope a ion [15]
Lean mix u es wi h

a ying om 0.25 o 0.47 (in he legend

is ep esen ed by F) ollow he
same pa e n, p esen ing highe emissions o la e injec ion imes. On he o he hand, o ich mix u es
he e e se happens. La e injec ion is expec ed o esul in s a i ica ion, wi h zones ha a e e en iche
han s oichiome ic, along wi h lean zones. This s a i ica ion a oids he NOx c i ical ai / uel a io egime
o

〜0.75 and hus educes o e all NOx emissions. DI has he ad an age o wo king wi h highe loads
wi hou occu ing abno mal combus ion (back i e in pa icula ). Howe e , imp o emen s need o be done
o inc ease du abili y and maximum low a e [15].
The op imal use o he DI-H2ICE can be achie ed using a high-p essu e (g ea e han 80 ba ), high
low- a e hyd ogen injec o o ope a ion a high engine speeds and o e coming he in-cylinde p essu e
o la e injec ion in he comp ession s oke [35].
The heo e ical powe ou pu o H2 DI exceeds in 19% he heo e ical powe ou pu o he same
engine ope a ed on gasoline.
Di ec injec ion du ing he comp ession s oke needs high p essu e hyd ogen and hus e ec i ely
equi es liquid hyd ogen s o age (me al hyd ides can only p o ide low p essu e hyd ogen, comp essed
hyd ogen could be used bu his limi s he e ec i e ank con en s as he ank can only be emp ied down
o he uel injec ion p essu e) [13].
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
23
2.8. P oblems o hyd ogen combus ion
Fo many yea s hyd ogen combus ion engines ha e been s udied al hough he majo numbe o
published pape s appea ed du ing and in he yea s ollowing he oil c ises. The main di icul ies on
de eloping H2ICE’s and he consequences o i will be now summa ized in his sec ion [21].
2.8.1. Abno mal combus ion
The same p ope ies ha make hyd ogen an a ac i e uel, wide lammabili y limi s, low equi ed
igni ion ene gy and high lame speeds, a e also he ones who can esul in undesi ed combus ion
phenomena. Con olling abno mal combus ion is e y impo an o he engine design, mix u e o ma ion
and load con ol, al hough i has been a challenge o con ol i .
Back i e can, in he bes scena io, make he engine s op as he uel is consumed be o e i can
en e he cylinde s and deli e wo k, while in he wo s scena io, i can lead o he des uc ion o he
in ake mani old. The e ec s o p e-igni ion and knock can go om inc easing noise and ib a ion o majo
engine damage [8].
2.8.1.1. Back i e
Back i e occu s du ing he opening o he in ake al es while he new ai -hyd ogen mix u e is
aspi ed in o he combus ion chambe . I can be named di e en ly depending on he au ho s: back lash,
lashback and induc ion igni ion. The main di e ence be ween back i ing and p e-igni ion is he iming a
which he anomaly occu s. P e-igni ion akes place du ing he comp ession s oke wi h he in ake al es
al eady closed, whe eas back i ing occu s wi h he in ake al es s ill open [8].
Many a e he causes poin ed o back i e such as:
 Ho spo s in he combus ion chambe (deposi s and pa icula es, he spa k plug, esidual
gas, exhaus al es, e c.);
 The small quenching dis ance o hyd ogen ( oge he wi h he wide lammabili y limi s),
enables he lame o p opaga e in he pis on op, a elling up o inle al e and igni ing
he esh cha ge;
 Remaining ene gy in he igni ion ci cui ha was no o ally discha ged wi hin he lame
can cause a second, unwan ed, igni ion while he in ake o expansion s oke occu
(p essu e is low);
 P e-igni ion ises he empe a u e o he chambe , causing a ho spo ha leads o a i s
p e-igni ion which inc eases empe a u e, esul ing in ano he , ea lie , p e-igni ion in he
nex cycle, leading o a new ho spo , and so on.
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
24
All causes i emized abo e can indeed esul in back i e and he design o a hyd ogen engine should
y o a oid hem. Many esea ches ha e been done showing ha , e en elimina ing o a oiding he main
supposed causes as ho spo s, back i e s ill occu s. E en hough, i is impo an o a oid hem as hey can
lead o p e-igni ion which inc eases he engine’s he mal loading and can ha e de imen al e ec s e en
wi hou leading o back i e [8; 9].
2.8.1.2. P e-igni ion
The ac ual eason o cause why p e-igni ion occu s has ne e been p o en, al hough many
hypo heses ha en been p oposed o explain i . Besides hyd ogen cha ac e is ics, high empe a u es,
esidual cha ge, engine speed and engine load can cause p e-igni ion. Also, due o he dependence o
minimum igni ion ene gy wi h he equi alence a io, p e-igni ion is mo e p onounced when he ai -
hyd ogen mix u es app oach s oichiome ic le els [12; 13].
2.8.1.3. Au o-igni ion / Knock
Engine knock is he e m used in spa k igni ion engines o desc ibe au o-igni ion o he emaining
end-gas du ing he la e pa o he combus ion e en wi h high-p essu e oscilla ions and he ypical
pinging noise. The p opo ions o engine damage depend on he ampli ude o he p essu e wa es and he
subsequen inc eased mechanical and he mal s ess. The engine knock depends on he engine design
and he uel-ai mix u e p ope ies.
A high loads, knock is a mo e signi ican sou ce o e iciency losses han pumping wo k. Knock is
he spon aneous igni ion o pa o he cha ge. This can lead o excessi ely high cylinde empe a u es
and p essu es as well as objec ionable noise. Knock is add essed in a numbe o di e en ways in engines,
including educing he comp ession a io and e a ding spa k iming.
The global e ec s o knock and p e-igni ion a e e y simila , and on occasion he e a e some
li e a u e ex s ha do no di e en ia e hem. Howe e , he way o p e en each is di e en : p e-igni ion
can be a oided h ough p ope engine design, on he o he hand knock is an inhe en limi on he
maximum comp ession a io ha can be used wi h a uel [8].
2.9. Sa e y
Sa e y is one o he mos impo an issues when ying o implemen hyd ogen ehicles o
common use. I is also essen ial o hose who wo k wi h hyd ogen in p oduc ion, anspo a ion and
esea ch. Rega ding he physical p ope ies o hyd ogen, he undamen al sa e y dealing wi h hyd ogen
lies on i s po en ial o igni e o explode, especially in indoo a eas.
The p ocess o de ona ion s a s when he lame on changes om lamina o u bulen
s uc u e. The lame speed accele a es caused by p ehea ing p essu e o he unbu ned gas mix u e and
shock wa es. De ona ion can happen o any o he gaseous uels, al hough hyd ogen p esen s much highe
bu ning eloci y han he o he uels, 200 cm/s and 40-80 cm/s, espec i ely.
In sec ion 2.5. he op ions o s o ing hyd ogen on boa d we e p esen ed. Unde no mal
condi ions, he s o age and uel lines should keep hyd ogen and ai sepa a e so as o a oid lammable o
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
25
de onable mix u es. This equi es main aining an in ac and leak- ee hyd ogen s o age and deli e y
sys em. This can be achie ed by using app op ia e ma e ials and good quali y o cons uc ion. Taking in
conside a ion ha hyd ogen is mo e p opi ious o passing h ough small openings han o he gaseous
uels, a highe quali y o cons uc ion is needed o minimize small c acks and de ec s ha could g ow and
lead o hyd ogen leakage.
Ope a ion wi h hyd ogen should be done ou doo s as much as possible. When hyd ogen
ope a ions a e indoo , he space should be e y well en ila ed o a oid he o ma ion o lammable o
de onable uel-ai mix u es. This pu s a limi a ion o ehicles o be pa ked in ga age o a long pe iod.
Hyd ogen senso s a e seen as de ices o acili a ing he de ec ion o unwan ed hyd ogen leaks
and o p e en e en ual acciden s. In he p esence o hyd ogen, senso s a e ac i a ed sounding an audible
ala m, o ac i a ing he en ila ion sys ems o shu down he hyd ogen sys ems o a sa e s and-by s a e
[36; 37].
2.10. Hyd ogen combus ion engine ehicle
The ea ly his o y o H2ICE ehicles da es back o 1807 when F ancois Isaac de Ri az o Swi ze land
buil he i s wo king model ha used a mix u e o hyd ogen and oxygen as a eac an . Since hen,
ins i u ions, mainly au omo i e companies, ha e been de eloping and imp o ing he echnology,
sea ching o a mo e sus ainable and clean uel sou ce [38].
2.10.1. Cha ac e iza ion
H2ICE’s ehicles can be dis inguished by he pu pose hey a e buil o . I a ehicle is speci ically
designed and buil o hyd ogen ope a ion by an o iginal equipmen manu ac u e , hen is a dedica ed
ehicle. On he o he hand, i he ehicle is adap ed o hyd ogen ope a ion by ei he a manu ac u e o
an a e ma ke supplie is a con e sion ehicle.
The p ope ies o hyd ogen, in pa icula i s wide lammabili y limi s, make i an ideal uel o
combine wi h o he uels and he eby imp o e hei combus ion p ope ies. In his sense, he ehicles can
be buil o mono- uel ope a ion wi h hyd ogen, as he only uel, as well as bi- uel solu ions, wi h hyd ogen
as well as o he uel. Based on he mix u e o ma ion s a egy, one can di e en ia e be ween:
 Blended ope a ion, he combina ions o hyd ogen wi h one o se e al o he gaseous
uels;
 Dual- uel ope a ion desc ibes any combina ion o hyd ogen and liquid uels in which
se e al mix u e p epa a ion de ices a e used. These sys ems use sepa a e s o age and
uel sys ems o he di e en uels.
Conce ning he hyd ogen onboa d s o age sys em, hyd ogen ehicles can be g ouped as
comp essed hyd ogen and c yogenic liquid hyd ogen ehicles.
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
32
1- Hyd ogen bo le
2- Ball al e
3- Elec omagne ic cu -o al e
4- Fi s p essu e educing al e
(13 MPa/0.8 MPa)
5- Fil e
6- Hyd ogen low me e
(CMF010)
7- Hyd ogen low me e
(CMF025)
8- Second p essu e educing al e
(0.2-0.5 MPa)
9- Back- i e elie al e
10- Ai Fil e
11- Ai low me e
12- S eady gas box
13- Hyd ogen injec o s
14- Tu bine low me e
15- Th ee-way ca aly ic
con e e
16- AVL exhaus analyze
sampling channel
17- Compu e analysis
Figu e 19 - Diag am o hyd ogen in e nal combus ion engine ig
The es cell included a CW250 eddy cu en dynamome e , which was used o ene gy abso p ion
and engine speed egula ion. The dynamome e had a capaci y o 250 kW and a maximum a ed speed o
8000 pm and was a ached o an ex e nal blowe , wi h olume low a e o 500 m3/h. The engine speed
could be con olled a he desi ed le el, and he o que was a ied. The speed, engine oil empe a u e,
coolan empe a u e, and in ake ai empe a u e we e eco ded au oma ically om he dynamome e
con ol console. The cylinde p essu e was measu ed using a Kisl e 6117B p essu e senso , and he c ank
angle posi ion was speci ied by he c ank angle encode , which ype is Kisl e 2613B (which can measu e
0-20000 /min and he accu acy can each o 0.1 °CA – c ank angle). The cylinde p essu e and he
co esponding c ank angle we e cap u ed h ough a high-speed da a acquisi ion sys em (Kibox

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
33
combus ion analyze ). The ou pu om hese measu emen s we e diag ams o p essu e e sus c ank
angle. The inle ai low was measu ed by a ToCeiL20N ho - ilm ai mass low me e . The hyd ogen mass
low was measu ed by an EMERSON Co iolis mass low me e , ype CMF025. All he speci ica ions we e
lis ed in able 4.
Table 4 - Speci ica ion o expe imen al a iables
Va iable
De ice
Accu acy
Pa ame e s
2600 pm,
WOTa
E o
A e age o
unce ain y
(%)
Engine speed
FC2000
±1 /min
B ake powe
28.1668
0.0574%
0.20
C ank angle
Kisl e 2613B
±0.02°
ITEb
32%
0. 07%
0.23
In-cylinde p essu e
Kisl e 6117B
±0.4% ARa
ISFCb
93.7450
0.2127
0.23
Ai mass low a e
ToCeiL20N
±1%FSa
Volume ic
e iciency
83.27%
0. 77%
0.92
Hyd ogen mass low
a e
CMF025
±0.1%FSa
Equi alence
a io
0.5170
0.0026
0.51
a FS: Full scale, AR: All ange, WOT: wide open h o le.
b ITE: Indica ed The mal E iciency, ISFC: Indica ed Speci ic Fuel Consump ion.
Be o e conduc ing any es , he engine is wa med up o ensu e ha i eaches he ope a ing
empe a u es and ha i s abilizes. Tes s we e conduc ed a e unning he engine un il i eached a
s eady s a e oil empe a u e o 90 °C and cooling wa e empe a u e o 80 °C. The da a was hen eco ded
a e unning he engine wi h hyd ogen uel. All he es s we e un a he MBT o ob ain compa able da a.
The MBT es s we e done h ough modi ying he igni ion iming a di e en engine speeds and loads. Fo
example, o ge he MBT a 2600 pm and he wide open h o le, he engine speed should be kep a
2600 pm and he h o le was wide open, modi ying he hyd ogen mass low o keep he equi alence
a io a a cons an alue (such as 0.55). A e hese s eps, he igni ion iming was modi ied, h ough he
elec onic sys em. The es da a we e eco ded un il inding he MBT. The abo e s eps we e epea ed in
o de o ge he o he es da a a di e en speeds, equi alence a ios and h o le open angles.
All measu emen s o physical quan i ies ha e some deg ee o unce ain y, due o a ious sou ces.
The e o e, unce ain y analysis was necessa y, o con i m he p ecision o he es s. The unce ain y o
he expe imen al esul s was de e mined acco ding o he p inciple o oo -mean squa e me hod, o ge
he magni ude o he e o gi en by Gaussian dis ibu ion, as ollows:
∆𝑅=⌈(𝜕𝑅
𝜕𝑥1∆𝑥1)2+(𝜕𝑅
𝜕𝑥2∆𝑥2)2+⋯+(𝜕𝑅
𝜕𝑥𝑛∆𝑥𝑛)2⌉1/2 (3.8)
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
34
whe e ∆R is he unce ain y in he compu ed esul , R is a gi en unc ion o he compu ed esul s, x1, x2,
xn a e he independen measu ed a iables, ∆x1, ∆x2, ∆xn a e he co esponding unce ain y alues o he
independen measu ed a iables.
Table 4 summa izes he a e age unce ain ies o he measu ed pa ame e s based on he
speci ica ion o he ins umen s and expe imen al e o analysis. The e o analysis was pe o med by
conside ing e o a es in he measu emen ange o de ices (acco ding o hei calib a ion alues) used
in he expe imen al s udies.
3.4.1. Adap a ions om he gasoline model o he hyd ogen model
The engine used in he expe imen s was adap ed om gasoline. So some adjus men s had o be
made in o de o make i wo k wi h he bes e iciency using hyd ogen as a uel. The in ake, exhaus , spa k,
and hyd ogen supply sys em all su e ed modi ica ions, as well as he con olling sys em. In he same way,
when using he so wa e o design he hyd ogen and gasoline models o he same engine he e a e many
pa ame e s ha need o be changed.
The o m ac o o he Wiebe unc ion m, will be conside ed as 1.5 o he hyd ogen model, while
he no mal alue o a gasoline engine is 2.0. This di e ence is due o he highe bu ning speed o
hyd ogen compa ed o gasoline.
As seen, in he p ope ies o hyd ogen sec ion, he uel/ai a io o hyd ogen is much smalle
han o he o he uels. In he expe imen al pa , luc ua ions in he equi alence a io will be se in o de
o analyze he engine b eak powe .
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
35
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36
4. Measu emen s, esul s and discussion
4.1. Changes in duc in ake dimensions
In his sec ion a e analyzed he bes ela ions o diame e and leng h o he in ake duc , in o de
o ha e he highes MBT esul s. As s a ed be o e, he engine su e ed some adap a ions o wo k wi h
hyd ogen, al hough, he in ake duc was kep as he o iginal o he gasoline se up. The o iginal in ake
duc dimensions a e in able 5. Using WAVE so wa e i was analyzed which should be he ideal diame e
and leng h o he in ake duc using hyd ogen as a uel. The simula ion esul s a e p esen ed below in
igu es 20 and 21.
Table 5 - O iginal in ake duc dimensions
Diame e (mm)
Leng h (mm)
44
100
4.1.1. Diame e
The engine was simula ed o h ee di e en engine speeds, low 2400 pm, medium 3600 pm
and high 4800 pm. The g aphic o he igu e 20 co ela es he duc diame e wi h he engine b eak
o que.
Figu e 20 - Rela ion be ween b ake engine o que and in ake duc diame e o di e en
engine speeds
Figu e 20 shows ha o lowe speeds he diame e o he in ake duc does no a ec much he
engine b ake o que, as his pa ame e is almos cons an . Fo he highe engine speed o 4800 pm he
change o he in ake duc makes he o que dec ease o alues o e 40 mm o diame e . Fo diame e s
be ween 35 and 40 mm he o que alue is sligh ing inc easing eaching i s maximum o 40 mm diame e .
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Engine b ake o que (N.m)
In ake duc diame e (mm)
2400 pm
3600 pm
4800 pm
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
37
Table 6 - Analysis o di e en alues o diame e and espec i e MBT esponse
Diame e
[mm]
MBT 2400 pm
[N.m]
MBT 3600 pm
[N.m]
MBT 4800 pm
[N.m]
A e age
[N.m]
35.4
114.2
127.6
181.7
141.2
38.6
114.0
127.0
182.8
141.3
40
114.3
127.0
184.6
142.0
44
113.5
126.2
172.1
137.3
46
113.2
126.0
172.1
137.1
The o iginal diame e used was 44 mm. The simula ion esul s, speci ied in able 6, show ha he
bes comp omise be ween o que and in ake duc diame e is o alues be ween 35.4 mm o 40 mm.
4.1.2. Leng h
Figu e 21 shows how he in ake duc leng h changes he engine b ake o que.
Figu e 21 - Rela ion be ween b ake engine o que and in ake duc leng h
When he engine is unning a 2400 pm and 3600 pm he engine o que does no su e much change
wi h he a ia ion o he in ake duc . On he o he hand, when unning he engine a 4800 pm, longe
in ake duc s esul in highe engine b ake o ques. In his sense i is impo an o ind he bes ela ion, as
he engine is supposed o un a di e en speed condi ions and should ha e he bes ela ion o
o que/dimensions.
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Engine b ake o que (N.m)
Duc leng h (mm)
2400 pm
3600 pm
4800 pm

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
38
Table 7 - Analysis o di e en alues o in ake duc leng h and espec i e MBT esponse
Leng h
[mm]
MBT 2400 pm
[N.m]
MBT 3600 pm
[N.m]
MBT 4800 pm
[N.m]
A e age
50
114.6
127.5
171.1
137.7
70
113.5
127. 4
172.0
137.6
90
113.5
126.2
171.3
137.0
110
113.6
126.0
191.0
143.5
130
113.5
128.1
180.4
140.7
Analyzing he esul s, able 7, i is possible o no ice ha he b ake engine o que o he 2400 pm
simula ion su e s small changes ( 1.3 N.m) when compa ed o 4800 pm simula ion ( 23 N.m). The 110
mm leng h o e s he bes ela ion.
4.2. Op imized he al e iming o he mean b ake o que
Adjus ing he al e iming o he cha ac e is ics o he uel in use, achie es be e e iciency
esul s. Acco dingly, his sec ion is ocused in e alua ing he in luence o al e iming upon he
co esponding b ake o que. The opening and closing imes o bo h in ake and exhaus al es will be
analyzed.
4.2.1. EVO – Exhaus Val e Opening ime
The engine is se up o open he exhaus al e a 126.36 deg ees o he c ank angle. In his
simula ion i was e i ied he in luence o di e en opening imings on he espec i e b ake o que.
Figu e 22 - EVO iming ela ion wi h b ake o que
95
105
115
125
135
145
155
165
175
185
195
110 120 130 140 150
B ake engine o que (N.m)
Exhaus Val e Opening (deg)
2400 pm
3600 pm
4800 pm
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
39
The 2400 pm simula ion esul s in low o ques o ea ly al e opening, con inuing o g ow un il 130
deg ees o EVO and keeping mo e o less cons an un il 150 deg ees o EVO. Fo he 3600 pm he e is a
con inuous g ow un il eaching he peak a 145 deg ees and dec easing ab up ly a e ha . The highe
engine speed simula ion p esen s a con inuous g ow h o o que wi h he delaying o EVO, al hough wi h
some small peaks o ce ain alues. I p esen s i s maximum also o 145 deg ees o EVO, igu e 22.
In his sense, wi h he da a om he so wa e an a e age iming was de e mined o conclude which
alue was he bes o que comp omise o bo h engine speeds, able 8.
Table 8 - EVO iming esul s and in e pola ion analysis
EVO
[deg]
MBT 2400 pm
[N.m]
MBT 3600 pm
[N.m]
MBT 4800 pm
[N.m]
A e age
[N.m]
110
102.7
126.1
167.8
132.2
115
109.5
122.8
173.7
135.3
120
111. 3
123.7
170.3
135. 1
130
113.9
128.1
172.6
138.2
135
113.7
131.7
177.4
141.0
140
113.2
140.5
176.8
143.5
145
112.8
151.9
182.1
148.9
150
112.6
129.5
175.3
139.1
F om he WAVE so wa e s udy and subsequen in e pola ion om he ob ained o que alues, able
8, he new sugges ed alue o he EVO iming was 145 deg ees. This ep esen s he bes comp omise o
all speed cases.
4.2.2. EVC – Exhaus Val e Closing ime
The engine is se up, o he exhaus al e, o ha e a du a ion o exhaus phase ( ep esen ed as a
unc ion o he c ank angle posi ion) o 1.0. Keeping he EVO se as 126.36 deg ees o he c ank angle and
changing he du a ion o he al e opening is possible o ob ain he exhaus al e closing ime wi h
espec i e b ake engine o que esponse, igu e 23. The new EVC iming is calcula ed by he WAVE
so wa e like, he equa ion:
𝐸𝑉𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑤 =𝐸𝑉𝐶∗ 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (4.1)
Being he EVC calcula ed au oma ically by he so wa e o any engine as,
𝐸𝑉𝐶=𝐸𝑉𝑂+ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (4.2)
This cons an alue is based on he da a o he able 18, annex G.
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
40
Figu e 23 - EVC iming ela ion wi h b ake o que
The g aphics om igu e 23 ha e simila dis ibu ions, p esen ing low o que alues o ea ly
closing al e ime (sho du a ion) and keep inc easing hei alues un il eaching i s maximum a du a ion
o 1.0 o 2400 pm, 0.9 o 3600 pm and 0.95 o 4800 pm. Once again, in able 9, a e p esen ed
a e ages o he o que alues o ge he bes ope a ing comp omise.
Table 9 - EVC iming esul s and in e pola ion analysis
Du a ion
MBT 2400 pm
[N.m]
MBT 3600 pm
[N.m]
MBT 4800 pm
[N.m]
A e age
[N.m]
0.85
75.5
97.5
144.9
106.0
0.9
94.4
138.0
177.2
136.5
0.95
109.3
123.4
179.9
137.5
1
113.5
126.2
172.1
137.3
1.05
112.5
134.8
167.5
138.3
1.1
109.4
133.2
167.8
136.8
The ob ained da a show ha alues o EVC can be e y wide, p esen ing e y simila o que esponses
be ween 136 and 138 N.m. Howe e , 1.05 is he one ha p esen s he highe o que alue and so i should
be conside ed o u u e es ing.
4.2.3. IVO – In ake Val e Opening ime
The engine is se up o open he in ake al e a 336.7 deg ees o he c ank angle. In his simula ion
di e en opening imings we e conside ed and he espec i e b ake o que alues, igu e 24, we e
ob ained.
70
90
110
130
150
170
190
0,85 0,9 0,95 1 1,05 1,1
B ake engine o que (N/m)
Du a ion
2400 pm
3600 pm
4800 pm
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
41
Figu e 24 - IVO iming ela ion wi h b ake o que
The cu e ep esen ing he 2400 pm engine speed simula ion has a con inuous g ow h om 320 ill
350 deg ees. On he o he hand, o he middle engine speed he b ake o que dec eases om 325 ill
350 deg ees, ha ing i s peak a 325 deg ees. Fo he highes engine speed he e a e many a ia ions in
he o que esul s h ough all IVO alues, ha ing wo peaks o IVO a 320 deg ees and 335 deg ees.
Because hese g aphics p esen e y di e en pa e ns, i is di icul o make a p ope analyze o wha
is he bes IVO iming. Once again, using he da a om he so wa e, an analysis was made o ind ou he
bes comp omise o o que o he es ed engine speeds, able 10.
Table 10 - IVO iming esul s and in e pola ion analysis
IVO
[deg]
MBT 2400 pm
[N.m]
MBT 3600 pm
[N.m]
MBT 4800 pm
[N.m]
A e age
[N.m]
320
108.6
138.0
196.1
152.4
325
110.96
145.4
177.4
144.2
330
115.2
132. 3
176.1
145.6
335
113.2
127.6
191.9
152.5
340
115.3
124.1
174.4
144.8
345
115.5
122.9
184. 1
149.8
350
114.1
121.6
180.2
147.2
The esul s show ha he IVO iming ha p esen s he bes o que is a 335 deg ees. As he engine
was es ed wi h an IVO ime e y close (336.7 deg ees) o his alue, analyses wi h sho e inc emen s o
IVO we e made and he esul s a e p esen ed in able 11.
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
320 325 330 335 340 345 350
B ake engine o que (N/m)
In ake Val e Openning (deg)
2400 pm
3600 pm
4800 pm
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
48
5. Conclusions
The p oduc ion o hyd ogen is s ill he majo issue o sol e i his echnology is o become pa o
he ma ke a p ices compe i i e wi h o he uels. Besides ha , he majo sou ce o ob ain hyd ogen is
ca bon based ex ac ion, wi h high ca bon dioxide emissions, and so he hyd ogen canno be conside ed
a clean ene gy ca ie . Clean sys ems o hyd ogen ex ac ion should be de eloped in o de o be mo e
e icien and less pollu ing and maybe making hyd ogen a possible e e ence uel in he nea u u e.
Hyd ogen s o age is s ill in phase o de elopmen in o de o ge he bes olume o weigh a io.
The e a e many new sugges ed echnologies ha need mo e esea ch o make hem in o use. Comp essed
hyd ogen seems o be o now he bes on-boa d solu ion. Rega ding deli e y p ocess, sys ems a e no
ully de eloped because he e is no ma ke ha demands o i . Once demand g ows, di e en solu ions
ha ha e been p esen ed, can e en ually be adop ed.
P oblems ega ding hyd ogen combus ion a e equen al hough he causes a e no ye o ally
de ined. Sa e y p ocedu es a e well s ablished and i ollowed no inciden s o he use s should happen.
The exis en hyd ogen combus ion ueled ehicles a e no ye a ailable o comme cial sale and
only a ew p o o ypes ha e been buil . The e a e many d awbacks, namely wi h he e olu ion o he
elec ic ca . Many companies a e o ge ing he idea o hyd ogen uel o combus ion engines as a possible
u u e echnical solu ion.
Fo he engine used in he p ac ical expe imen s, i was ound ha a longe leng h and smalle
dime e o he in ake duc would gi e highe b ake o que. Also new alues o he opening and closing
al es imings we e sugges ed o achie e highe o que esponse om he engine. As he new pa ame e s
sugges ed o be used o he engine, we e aken based on p e ious pa ame e s, i is an i e a ion p ocess
o leads o he ideal solu ion. New ecommended alues o he combus ion ime and h o le angle we e
also p oposed in o de o ge highe engine o que esponse. The simula ion o he EGR model showed
ha he implemen a ion o his in he eal engine could b ing bene i s in e ms o educing NOx emissions
wi hou comp omising much he b ake engine o que.

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
49
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50
6. Recommenda ions o u u e wo k
In o de o e alua e he new sugges ed in ake duc dimensions, he o iginal one should be
eplaced by a new duc wi h he sugges ed dimensions and new engine ope a ing da a acqui ed.
Fo he op imized opening and closing al e iming, i would be in e es ing o check wha would
be he inal o que esul i o all pa ame e s we e changed o he sugges ed alues. Since each o he new
imings was aken keeping he o he imings cons an , a inal es ing conside ing he combina ion o he
p oposed changes is ecommended.
The p oposed EGR model should be implemen ed and es ed in he engine and new alues o NOx
emissions and b ake engine o que expe imen ally de e mined.
Fo all pa ame e s conside ed in his simula ion, only he engine b ake o que esponse was
e alua ed as a decision ac o . Fo u u e s udies i would be adequa e o conside o he ou pu
pa ame e s such as NOx emissions o engine e iciency. The same analyzes should also be ca ied ou o
a la ge ange o engine speeds.
Finally, i mus be s essed ha his combined expe imen al and nume ical e alua ion is an
i e a ion p ocess, aking alues om he engine, simula ing in so wa e, analyzing he nume ical esul s,
es ing hem in he engine and going h ough his sequence all o e again. I is hen necessa y o epea
he p ocess se e al imes in o de o ge he bes op imiza ion pe o mance o he engine.
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
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Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
55
Annexes
A. Fuel cos es ima es wi h oil a USD 60/bbl, ixed eeds ock p ices
and no oil p ice a ec s o he inpu cos s
Figu e 30 - Nea and long e m compa a i e cos analysis o p oduc ion o di e en uels
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
56
B. Engine Model diag am
B.1. Basic engine diag am
Figu e 31- WAVE so wa e hyd ogen engine model
B.2. Engine Diag am wi h EGR sys em
Figu e 32 - WAVE so wa e hyd ogen engine model wi h EGR sys em
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
57
C. Cylinde block and head empe a u e
Table 14 p esen s he simula ion alues o he cylinde block and head empe a u e in unc ion
o he powe .
Table 14 - Cylinde block and head empe a u e
Head
Pis on
Line
Powe
[kW]
Tempe a u e
[K]
Tempe a u e
[K]
Tempe a u e
[K]
10
413.15
453.15
373.15
20
423.15
463.15
378.15
40
443.15
483.15
383.15
60
455.15
495.15
388.15
80
465.15
505.15
393.15
100
473.15
513.15
398.15
120
481.15
521.15
403.15
140
493.15
533.15
408.15
160
503.15
543.15
413.15
180
513.15
553.15
418.15
Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
64
Table 19 p esen s he cam p o ile o he in ake phase based on he engine es ing alues.
Table 19 - Cam p o ile o he exhaus phase
Exhaus
C ankangle
[°CA]
Li
[mm]
C ankangle
[°CA]
Li
[mm]
C ankangle
[°CA]
Li
[mm]
0.00000
126.36
0.00000
6.62570
268.36
8.14901
0.02688
378.36
0.09521
0.00708
128.36
0.00651
6.57359
270.36
8.09968
0.01814
380.36
0.08129
0.01392
130.36
0.01197
6.51611
272.36
8.04380
0.01228
382.36
0.06887
0.02378
132.36
0.01908
6.45326
274.36
7.98140
0.00849
384.36
0.05787
0.03723
134.36
0.02849
6.38506
276.36
7.91249
0.00577
386.36
0.04821
0.05524
136.36
0.04108
6.31153
278.36
7.83709
0.00000
388.36
0.03982
0.08227
138.36
0.05905
6.23271
280.36
7.75521
390.36
0.03260
0.12461
140.36
0.08733
6.14860
282.36
7.66689
392.36
0.02649
0.18856
142.36
0.13180
6.05925
284.36
7.57214
394.36
0.02141
0.27959
144.36
0.19708
5.96467
286.36
7.47099
396.36
0.01726
0.39895
146.36
0.28592
5.86490
288.36
7.36347
398.36
0.01398
0.54559
148.36
0.39958
5.75997
290.36
7.24962
400.36
0.01147
0.71425
150.36
0.53814
5.64991
292.36
7.12945
402.36
0.00966
0.89861
152.36
0.70057
5.53474
294.36
7.00300
404.36
0.00000
1.09238
154.36
0.88485
5.41452
296.36
6.87032
1.28940
156.36
1.08824
5.28928
298.36
6.73143
1.48654
158.36
1.30749
5.15905
300.36
6.58637
1.68368
160.36
1.53912
5.02388
302.36
6.43519
1.88083
162.36
1.77972
4.88381
304.36
6.27793
2.07797
164.36
2.02608
4.73888
306.36
6.11463
2.27512
166.36
2.27540
4.58914
308.36
5.94534
2.47226
168.36
2.52534
4.43463
310.36
5.77010
2.66940
170.36
2.77404
4.27540
312.36
5.58897
2.86643
172.36
3.02012
4.11150
314.36
5.40199
3.06088
174.36
3.26258
3.94299
316.36
5.20922
3.25105
176.36
3.50077
3.76991
318.36
5.01072
3.43687
178.36
3.73426
3.59232
320.36
4.80655
3.61827
180.36
3.96279
3.41027
322.36
4.59675
3.79522
182.36
4.18622
3.22383
324.36
4.38141
3.96763
184.36
4.40443
3.03303
326.36
4.16061
4.13549
186.36
4.61735
2.83800
328.36
3.93449
4.29871
188.36
4.82490
2.64090
330.36
3.70327
4.45726
190.36
5.02701
2.44376
332.36
3.46729
4.61108
192.36
5.22362
2.24661
334.36
3.22706
4.76013
194.36
5.41466
2.04947
336.36
2.98335
4.90436
196.36
5.60005
1.85232
338.36
2.73718
5.04373
198.36
5.77975
1.65519
340.36
2.48992
5.17819
200.36
5.95369
1.45804
342.36
2.24332
5.30769
202.36
6.12181
1.26090
344.36
1.99949
5.43222
204.36
6.28405
1.06524
346.36
1.76088
5.55171
206.36
6.44037
0.87665
348.36
1.53026
5.66613
208.36
6.59071
0.70143
350.36
1.31055
5.77546
210.36
6.73502
0.54588
352.36
1.10474
5.87964
212.36
6.87325
0.41605
354.36
0.91569
5.97866
214.36
7.00536
0.31451
356.36
0.74599
6.07249
216.36
7.13130
0.24088
358.36
0.59772
6.16109
218.36
7.25104
0.19085
360.36
0.47229
6.24443
220.36
7.36453
0.15816
362.36
0.37037
6.32249
222.36
7.47173
0.13649
364.36
0.29171
6.39525
224.36
7.57262
0.11955
366.36
0.23478
6.46268
226.36
7.66715
0.10306
368.36
0.19569
6.52475
228.36
7.75531
0.08657
370.36
0.16827
6.58147
230.36
7.83705
0.07008
372.36
0.14681
6.63279
232.36
7.91235
0.05392
374.36
0.12789
6.67872
234.36
7.98119
0.03900
376.36
0.11072

Simula ion and Op imiza ion o a Hyd ogen In e nal Combus ion Engine
65