Césa F. Lima
PERCEIVING EMOTIONS IN SPEECH AND MUSIC:
MODULATIONS RELATED TO AGEING, MUSICAL TRAINING,
AND PARKINSON’S DISEASE
TESE DE DOUTORAMENTO
PSICOLOGIA
2011
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PERCEIVING EMOTIONS
IN SPEECH AND MUSIC
Modula ions Rela ed o Ageing, Musical T aining, and Pa kinson’s Disease
CÉSAR F. LIMA
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PERCEIVING EMOTIONS
IN SPEECH AND MUSIC
Modula ions Rela ed o Ageing, Musical T aining, and Pa kinson’s Disease
CÉSAR F. LIMA
Thesis supe ised by P o esso São Luís Cas o and p esen ed a Uni e si y o
Po o o he Ph.D. deg ee in Psychology
Sep embe 2011

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The s udies p esen ed in his hesis we e suppo ed by a doc o al g an om he
Po uguese Founda ion o Science and Technology (SFRH/BD/39306/2007) and by he
Language Resea ch G oup o he Cen e o Psychology a Uni e si y o Po o (R&D
Uni unded by FCT, 160/50; PTDC/PSI/66641/2006). They a e also pa o he p ojec
Emo ional p ocessing om language and music: Compa a i e neu ocogni i e and
unc ional neu oimaging s udies, unded by he Bial Founda ion (N.º 29/08).
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KEYWORDS
Emo ion ecogni ion; speech p osody; music; ageing; musical aining; Pa kinson’s
disease.
Ame ican Psychological Associa ion (PsycINFO! Con en Classi ica ion Code
Sys em):
2300 Human Expe imen al Psychology
2326 Audi o y & Speech Pe cep ion
2343 Lea ning & Memo y
2500 Physiological Psychology & Neu oscience
2520 Neu opsychology & Neu ology
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RESUMO
A ala e a música são dois pode osos meios de comunicação de emoções. A p esen e
ese in es iga como pe cebemos emoções em p osódia da ala – o om de oz – e em
música ins umen al. Ap esen amos uma sé ie de es udos que isam ês objec i os
p incipais: de e mina como o econhecimen o de emoções em música é modulado pela
idade e pela o mação musical (es udos 1 e 2); desen ol e uma base de es ímulos de
ala em Po uguês pa a in es igação em emoções p osódicas (es udo 3); e examina a
hipó ese de que o econhecimen o de emoções em ala e em música depende de
mecanismos neu ocogni i os comuns (es udos 4 e 5). U ilizámos a e as de escolha
o çada e de julgamen o de magni ude. Nos es udos 1 e 2, es ámos adul os que
a ia am quan o à idade e o mação musical no econhecimen o de aleg ia, se enidade,
is eza e medo em exce os musicais. Obse ámos que o aumen o da idade es á
associado a uma diminuição na sensibilidade às emoções nega i as, is eza e medo,
enquan o a sensibilidade às emoções posi i as pe manece es á el. As mudanças na
is eza e medo o am signi ica i as da meia-idade em dian e. O núme o de anos de
o mação musical es e e co elacionado com uma maio sensibilidade às emoções
musicais. Os e ei os de idade e o mação o am independen es de di e enças em
capacidades cogni i as ge ais, o que suge e que aqueles e ei os êm uma o igem
p imá ia. No es udo 3, duas alan es g a a am uma lis a de ases e de pseudo- ases em
Po uguês a iando a p osódia pa a comunica neu alidade e seis emoções: aleg ia,
ú ia, medo, epulsa, su p esa e is eza. Os pe is acús icos das di e en es emoções
o am consis en es com desc ições em ou as línguas. As emoções o am econhecidas
com ele ados ní eis de exa idão, que nas ases (75% co e o), que nas pseudo- ases
(71%). Os es ímulos o am incluídos numa base de dados (190 ases e 178 pseudo-
ases) que disponibilizámos pa a as comunidades de in es igação e clínica. Nos
es udos 4 e 5 de e minámos em que medida o econhecimen o de emoções em ala e em
música ec u a mecanismos pa ilhados. Os esul ados suge em o en ol imen o de uma
combinação de mecanismos pa ilhados e especí icos ao domínio. No es udo 4,
in es igámos se a o mação num dos domínios, música, es á associada a bene ícios no
ou o domínio, ala. Compa ámos músicos com pa icipan es sem o mação musical no
econhecimen o de neu alidade e de seis emoções em ala. Encon ámos um e ei o
obus o de ans e ência en e domínios: os músicos o am mais exa os do que os
pa icipan es sem o mação em odas as emoções. Es e esul ado indica que os
mecanismos são pelo menos pa cialmen e pa ilhados. No es udo 5, implemen ámos um
design compa a i o en e ala e música na doença de Pa kinson (DP). Se á que a DP
p oduz um pe il simila de dé ices em ambos os domínios? Encon ámos uma
dissociação: os doen es i e am dé ices no econhecimen o de emoções posi i as em
música, aleg ia e se enidade, mas o am no mais na ala; i e am dé ices no
econhecimen o de is eza em ala, mas o am no mais na música. Os dé ices na música
não podem se explicados po di iculdades pe ce i as e cogni i as; na ala, o
econhecimen o de emoções es e e o emen e associado à dis unção execu i a dos
doen es. Es a dissociação neu opsicológica é e idência de que ala e música podem
ec u a mecanismos especí icos ao domínio. No seu conjun o, os cinco es udos aqui
ap esen ados con ibuem pa a o a anço da nossa comp eensão sob e di e enças
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and s uc u al analyses o speech and musical s imuli. P o esso s Ande s Flyk and A ne
Öhman kindly made a ailable and ga e pe mission o he u iliza ion o he Ka olinska
Di ec ed Emo ional Faces da abase. D . B uno Ve schue e p o ided no ma i e da a on
his da abase. Uni e sidade Sénio das An as and Uni e sidade Sénio da Foz le us
ec ui hei s uden s as esea ch pa icipan s and gene ously allowed us o collec da a
in hei acili ies. The s udies p esen ed he e bene i ed e y much om he c i ical
commen s and expe knowledge o many e iewe s and jou nal edi o s. I am indeb ed
o all esea ch pa icipan s: s uden s o di e en ages, musicians, and pa ien s wi h
Pa kinson’s disease and hei amilies. Wi hou hem his hesis eally would no ha e
been possible. They made he p ocess o da a collec ion a g ea ly pe sonally ewa ding
expe ience. I am also in deb o he many people who helped in he di icul and ime-
consuming p ocess o inding and ec ui ing pa icipan s. I hank Angélica Rel as,
Gaë an Cousin, Manuela Camei ão and Paulo San iago o hei sugges ions and
commen s on an ea lie e sion o he ex .
My deepes acknowledgmen goes o my amily and o my iends – he old iends and
he ones I was lucky enough o mee du ing his jou ney. They gi e pe sonal meaning o
my wo k. I specially hank my pa en s and my sis e . Wo ds canno desc ibe my
g a i ude o hei uncondi ional lo e and suppo .
Po o, summe 2011

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ABBREVIATIONS
ANCOVA Analysis o co a iance
ANOVA Analysis o a iance
AQ The Au ism-Spec um Quo ien ques ionnai e
dB Decibel
e.g. Exempli g a ia, o example
ERP E en - ela ed po en ial
e al. E alii, and o he s
F0 Fundamen al equency
MRI Func ional Magne ic Resonance Imaging
Hu Unbiased hi a e
i.e. Id es , ha is
MBEA Mon eal Ba e y o E alua ion o Amusia
MMSE Mini-Men al S a e Examina ion
MOCA Mon eal Cogni i e Assessmen
ms Milliseconds
ns Non-signi ican
PD Pa kinson’s disease
PET Posi on Emission Tomog aphy
RT Reac ion ime
s Seconds
SD S anda d de ia ion
TIPI Ten-I em Pe sonali y In en o y
UPDRS Uni ied Pa kinson’s Disease Ra ing Scale
WAIS-III Wechsle Adul In elligence Scale, e sion III
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LIST OF PAPERS
The wo k p esen ed in his hesis is an expanded and upda ed e sion o i e scien i ic
a icles which we e submi ed o publica ion in in e na ional pee - e iewed jou nals
(same o de as in he hesis):
1. Lima, C. F., & Cas o, S. L. (2011). Emo ion ecogni ion in music changes
ac oss he adul li e span. Cogni ion and Emo ion, 25, 585-598.
doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.502449 [Chap e VI, S udy 1]
2. Cas o, S. L., & Lima, C. F. (submi ed). Emo ion ecogni ion in music is obus ,
and ye a iable: The impac o age and musical expe ise. [Chap e VI, S udy 2]
3. Cas o, S. L., & Lima, C. F. (2010). Recognizing emo ions in spoken language:
A alida ed se o Po uguese sen ences and pseudo-sen ences o esea ch on
emo ional p osody. Beha io Resea ch Me hods, 42, 74-81.
doi:10.3758/BRM.42.1.74 [Chap e VII]
4. Lima, C. F., & Cas o, S. L. (2011). Speaking o he ained ea : Musical
expe ise enhances he ecogni ion o emo ions in speech p osody. Emo ion, 11,
1021-1031. doi:10.1037/a002452 [Chap e VIII]
5. Lima, C. F., Ga e , C., & Cas o, S. L. (submi ed). Pe cei ing emo ions in
music and in speech p osody is dissocia ed in Pa kinson’s disease. [Chap e IX]
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Con en s
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CONTENTS
Keywo ds
1
Resumo
3
Résumé
5
Abs ac
7
Acknowledgmen s
9
Abb e ia ions
11
Lis o pape s
13
Con en s
15
Lis o Tables
19
Lis o Figu es
22
Lis o Appendices
23
Gene al in oduc ion
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PART 1
Sounds wi h emo ional meaning: Emo ion heo ies,
emo ional speech p osody, and musical emo ions
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Chap e I
Emo ion heo ies
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1.1. Disc e e emo ion heo ies
36
1.2. Dimensional emo ion heo ies
37
1.3. Emo ion exp ession and ecogni ion
39
Chap e II
Speech p osody and emo ion
41
2.1. Voice as a means o emo ional exp ession
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Con en s
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2.2. Acous ic cues o emo ion in oice
45
2.3. Emo ion communica ion h ough speech p osody
46
2.4. Neu ocogni i e basis o emo ional p osody
52
2.5. Indi idual di e ences
57
2.6. When emo ional p osody ails
58
Chap e III
Music and emo ion
61
3.1. Communica ion o emo ions in music
64
3.2. Musical s uc u e and exp essi e cues in pe o mance
67
3.3. Emo ion pe cep ion and expe ience
69
3.4. Which emo ions a e e oked by music?
71
3.5. Mechanisms unde lying emo ional esponses o music
72
3.6. Neu ocogni i e basis o musical emo ions
74
3.7. Indi idual di e ences
77
3.8. Clinical applica ions
79
Chap e IV
Pe cei ing emo ions in speech p osody and in music: How
close?
81
4.1. Simila codes
84
4.2. Sha ed neu ocogni i e mechanisms?
87
Chap e V
Goals o his hesis
91
PART 2
Empi ical s udies
99
Chap e VI
Ageing and musical expe ise modula e emo ion ecogni ion
in music
101
6.1. In oduc ion
103
6.2. S udy 1
110
6.2.1. Me hod
110
6.2.2. Resul s
113
Con en s
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6.2.3. Discussion
121
6.2. S udy 2
123
6.2.1. Me hod
123
6.2.2. Resul s
126
6.2.3. Discussion
133
6.4. Gene al discussion
135
6.5. Conclusion
141
Chap e VII
De elopmen and alida ion o a se o Po uguese s imuli
o esea ch on emo ional p osody
143
7.1. In oduc ion
145
7.2. Me hod
149
7.2.1. Reco ding
149
7.2.2. Valida ion
151
7.3. Resul s and discussion
153
7.4. Conclusion
159
Chap e VIII
Speaking o he ained ea : Musical expe ise is associa ed
wi h enhanced ecogni ion o emo ions in speech p osody
163
8.1. In oduc ion
165
8.2. Me hod
169
8.3. Resul s
171
8.4. Discussion
179
8.5. Conclusion
185
Chap e IX
A dissocia ion be ween emo ion ecogni ion in music and in
speech p osody in Pa kinson’s disease
187
9.1. In oduc ion
189
9.2. Me hod
193
9.3. Resul s
200
9.4. Discussion
211
Con en s
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9.5. Conclusion
217
Chap e X
Gene al conclusions
219
10.1. Summa izing
222
10.2. Fu u e di ec ions
227
10.3. Concluding
229
Re e ences
231
Appendices
277
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Con en s
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1
Summa y o empi ical da a on pa e ns o acous ic cues o
ange , ea , sadness and joy in ocal exp ession. Adap ed
om Sche e (2003, p. 233).
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TABLE 2
Pa e ns o acous ic cues o disc e e emo ions in ocal
exp ession and in music pe o mance. Rep in ed om Juslin
and Laukka (2003, p. 802).
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TABLE 3
Demog aphic and backg ound cha ac e is ics o he
pa icipan s in each age g oup (S udy 1). SDs a e p esen ed
in pa en heses.
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TABLE 4
Dis ibu ion o esponses (%) o each in ended emo ion as a
unc ion o age (S udy 1). Diagonal cells in bold indica e
accu a e ca ego iza ions, i.e., ma ch be ween he highes
a ing and he in ended emo ion. Ambi alen esponses
ep esen si ua ions in which he highes a ing was assigned
o mo e han one emo ion. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in
pa en heses.
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TABLE 5
Resul s om mul iple eg ession analyses on lis ene s’
u iliza ion o music composi ional cues o subjec i e
a ings, as a unc ion o emo ion and age (S udy 1). Values
co espond o be a weigh s and adjus ed R2.
120
TABLE 6
Demog aphic and backg ound cha ac e is ics o con ols and
musicians o each age g oup (S udy 2). SDs a e p esen ed in
pa en heses.
124
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Gene al In oduc ion
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Humans a e ha d-wi ed o connec wi h he sounds o oice and music. Wo ds, ones o
oice, laugh e , sobs, sc eams, sighs, imb es, musical no es, melodies, hy hms, bea s,
all ha , a e building blocks o ou audi o y en i onmen and men al li e. Ou senses a e
pe pe ually inunda ed by hese sounds. Since ancien imes in ou species e olu ion,
h oughou ou li e span, ac oss all socie ies, we a e adep a making sense ou o oice
and music. We use hem as ways o es ablish meaning ul ela ions wi h he o he s and
wi h ou sel es. They a e mul i ace ed and powe ul communica ion ools, able o
con ey a mul i ude o kinds o in o ma ion. Voice and music ha e also a s a ling
capaci y o mo e us. I you hink o you own expe ience, i will be p obably easy o
emembe o a si ua ion in which you el s ongly a oused by a music ha you
pa icula ly enjoyed, o deeply mo ed while lis ening o someone’s speech. This hesis
is abou a key common ea u e o oice and music – he communica ion o emo ions.
The ocus is on how we pe cei e emo ions communica ed by speech p osody, he one
o oice, and by ins umen al music. I comes na u ally o us o ell whe he someone is
ang y o sca ed by he sound o he o his oice, o whe he a piece o music is happy o
sad. The appa en ease o hese ope a ions, hough, belies he complexi y o he
neu ocogni i e mechanisms ha a e in ol ed in ans o ming s eams o sound –
p essu e wa es p oducing ib a ions o he basila memb ane in he ea – in o
meaning ul subjec i e ep esen a ions o emo ion. Despi e ecen ad ances in cogni i e
and neu oscien i ic esea ch on his opic, many ques ions emain open. He ein, we se
ou in es iga e some o hem in a se ies o s udies using beha iou al and
neu opsychological app oaches.
Gene al In oduc ion
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We pu sue h ee main goals. The i s one is o examine how he ecogni ion o
emo ions in music changes wi h ad ancing age and as a unc ion o musical aining.
The idea ha ageing and musical aining modula e many cogni i e, neu al and socio-
emo ional unc ions is i mly en enched (e.g., Habib & Besson, 2009; Hedden &
Gab ieli, 2004; Sal house, 2009; Samanez-La kin & Ca s ensen, 2011), bu hei impac
on musical emo ions is s ill poo ly unde s ood. The second goal is o de ise and
alida e a da abase o speech s imuli in Po uguese o esea ch on ocal emo ions.
Analogous ma e ials ha e been de eloped o di e en languages (Bu kha d , Paeschke,
Rol es, Sendlmeie , & Weiss, 2005; Maka o a & Pe ushin, 2002; Pell, 2002; Ross,
Thompson, & Yenkosky, 1997; S a oniewicz & Majewski, 2009; Wu, Yang, Wu, & Li,
2006). They may be use ul o s udies wi h na i e speake s o he s imuli’s language,
o c oss-language esea ch, as well as o he assessmen o p agma ic skills in clinical
se ings. The hi d goal is o examine he ex en o which emo ion p ocessing in speech
p osody and in music engages sha ed neu ocogni i e mechanisms. This hypo hesis has
been highly deba ed in he las yea s (e.g., Juslin & Laukka, 2003; Juslin, Liljes öm,
Väs jäll, & Lundq is , 2010; Juslin & Väs jäll, 2008; Nieminen, Is ók, B a ico,
Te aniemi, & Huo ilainen, 2011; Pa el, 2008b; Pe e z, 2010), bu he e is a dea h o
empi ical esea ch on i . We in es iga e his issue in wo ways. One consis s o
examining possible ans e e ec s om one domain o he o he . Speci ically, we
de e mine whe he expe ise in music is associa ed wi h enhanced abili y o ecognize
emo ions in speech p osody. The o he app oach consis s o using a compa a i e design
be ween he wo domains in a neu opsychological s udy. We de e mine whe he
Pa kinson’s disease (PD), a neu odegene a i e diso de in ol ing damage in he basal
ganglia, leads o a simila p o ile o impai men s in emo ion ecogni ion in speech and
music.
The hesis is di ided in wo pa s. Pa 1 comp ises a e iew o he li e a u e. This
e iew co e s emo ion heo ies (Chap e I), he acous ic and neu ocogni i e ounda ions
o ocal and musical emo ions (Chap e s II and III), and a discussion on he pa allels
be ween bo h domains conce ning emo ion exp ession and p ocessing (Chap e IV). In
he end o his pa he goals o he empi ical s udies a e desc ibed (Chap e V). Pa 2
comp ises he empi ical chap e s. The i s one (Chap e VI) p esen s wo s udies in
Gene al In oduc ion
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which lis ene s o di e en ages and a ying in musical aining a e examined in he
ecogni ion o emo ions in sho ins umen al music exce p s. The second empi ical
chap e (Chap e VII) desc ibes he de elopmen and eco ding o a se o Po uguese
speech s imuli exp essing di e en emo ions, as well as he acous ic and pe cep ual
alida ion o hese s imuli. The hi d empi ical chap e (Chap e VIII) p esen s a s udy
in which musicians a e compa ed wi h musically un ained lis ene s in he ecogni ion
o emo ions in speech p osody. The las empi ical chap e (Chap e IX) co esponds o
he neu opsychological s udy. PD pa ien s a e compa ed wi h heal hy ma ched con ols
in he ecogni ion o emo ions in speech p osody and in music. Each empi ical chap e
ollows he ypical s uc u e o a jou nal a icle, including he sec ions in oduc ion,
me hod, esul s, and discussion. A b ie conclusion is also p o ided. In he end o Pa II
(Chap e X), which coincides wi h he end o he hesis, we summa ize he indings and
conclusions o he empi ical s udies and discuss a enues o u u e esea ch.
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PART 1
SOUNDS WITH EMOTIONAL MEANING:
EMOTION THEORIES, EMOTIONAL SPEECH PROSODY, AND MUSICAL EMOTIONS

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CHAPTER I
Emo ion Theo ies
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Chap e I. Emo ion Theo ies
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I is common sense ha emo ions play a pi o al ole in human exis ence. They
accompany almos e e y signi ican e en in ou li es, and shape s ongly he way we
hink, eel and ac . Wha is an emo ion? This ques ion was he i le o one o he mos
amous William James’ (1884) pape s. Ye , mo e han one cen u y a e wa ds a
de ini i e answe is s ill lacking, e en hough he s udy o emo ions is cu en ly highly
popula in cogni i e neu oscience. They a e no o iously ha d o de ine and he e is no
gene al consensus ega ding e en wha should coun o no as an ins ance o emo ion.
Howe e , expe s do ag ee o a signi ican ex en wi h espec o he gene al
cha ac e is ics o emo ions, as well as abou he unc ions hey se e (Iza d, 2009).
Emo ions co espond o ela i ely b ie and in ense eac ions o po en ially impo an
changes in ou ex e nal o in e nal en i onmen (e.g., s imuli o e en s ep esen ing
subjec i e challenges o oppo uni ies). They ypically in ol e a numbe o sub-
componen s – subjec i e eeling, cogni i e changes, physiological a ousal, exp essi e
beha iou , ac ion endencies, and egula ion – ha a e mo e o less synch onized. They
a e coo dina ed eac ions in ended o p omo e adap i e beha iou s in esponse o a
changing en i onmen (e.g., Da idson, Sche e , & Goldsmi h, 2002; Ekman, 1999;
Juslin & Sloboda, 2010; Le enson, 1999; Sche e , 2005; Smi h & Laza us, 1990).
Al hough he mechanisms unde lying emo ional eac ions may be o se e al kinds, in
e e yday li e emo ions a e o en he esul o e alua ing (cogni i e app aisal) an e en
as ele an o subjec i e in en ions, goals, mo i es and conce ns (Sche e , 2005;
Sloboda & Juslin, 2010). The wo heo e ical amewo ks ha ha e mos s ongly
in luenced esea ch on emo ions in he las decades a e disc e e ca ego ies and
dimensional emo ion heo ies, which we ou line below.
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Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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The human oice can be conside ed he mos impo an sound o ou audi o y
en i onmen . Fi s and o emos , i is he ca ie o speech – we can speak and
unde s and linguis ic messages, and his abili y de ines us as humans. In pa allel o
speech, hough, he oice exp esses a weal h o socially ele an in o ma ion. I
communica es in o ma ion abou he speake ’s gende , iden i y, age, size, heal h,
a ac i eness, us wo hiness, dominance, eelings and mood, e en when speech
con en is no a ailable ( o ins ance because i is a unknown language, o because he
ocaliza ion is non e bal, such as a laugh e o a sigh). Thus, he oice is e y much
like an “audi o y ace” (Belin, Bes elmeye , La inus, & Wa son, in p ess).
We a e endowed wi h abili ies o ex ac pa alinguis ic in o ma ion om oices, in wha
e lec s a mo e p imi i e and uni e sal o m o communica ion han language i sel –
ocaliza ions ha e been used by many species o millions o yea s be o e language
eme ged (Belin, Fec eau, & Béda d, 2004; B ucke e al., 2010; La inus & Belin,
2011). The exp ession o emo ions h ough ocal cues has pa icula ele ance o
social in e ac ions. The acous ic, psychological and neu al mechanisms in ol ed in he
p ocessing o ocal emo ions a e ou lined in he ollowing pages. The e iew ocuses
chie ly on he ype o emo ional ocal cue ha we examine in he empi ical pa o his
hesis, speech p osody. B ie ly pu , speech p osody e e s o he musical aspec s o
speech, he one o oice, which o en con ey in o ma ion abou he speake s’ emo ions.
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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44
2.1. VOICE AS A MEANS OF EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION
The ole o oice o emo ional exp ession has long been ecognized, as indica ed by he
ea ises o he opic ound in G eek and Roman manuals on he o ic (Sche e , 2003),
and by Da win’s wo k on e olu iona y biology in he 19 h cen u y (Da win, 1872/2009).
An in e es ing issue is ha ocal exp ession may be he mos phylogene ically
con inuous o all o ms o emo ional communica ion. A la ge numbe o non-human
species use ocaliza ions o communica e mo i a ional and emo ional s a es.
Vocaliza ions a e especially impo an in social mammals, whose li e is based on
complex and coope a i e in e ac ions be ween indi iduals. The e a e simila i ies ac oss
many species o mammals, including humans, in he neu al con ol o oice p oduc ion,
in oice p oduc ion mechanisms, as well as in he acous ic cha ac e is ics o he
exp essions ha signal di e en s a es (Fich el, Hamme schmid , & Jü gens, 2001;
G andjean, Bänzige , & Sche e , 2006; Juslin & Laukka, 2003; Sche e , 1995; Sche e ,
Johns one, & Klasmeye , 2003). Because he exp ession o ocal emo ions se es a
highly adap i e unc ion o su i al in social en i onmen s, i is likely ha is was
shaped by na u al selec ion – ocaliza ions usually co espond o he communica ion o
biologically impo an e en s (e.g., Hause & McDe mo , 2003). Examples o non-
human ocal exp essions a e calls o wa ning, h ea , submissi e o a ilia i e s a es,
ma ing, a en ion-ge ing, desi e o social con ac and companionship (Juslin & Laukka,
2003). The ichness o he exp essi e epe oi e a ies ac oss species depending on he
complexi y and di e en ia ion o he sound-p oducing appa a us, wi h some species
p oducing only a ew inna e ocal beha iou s (e.g., ogs), and o he s exhibi ing a
a ied epe oi e o olun a ily con olled p oduc ions (e.g., non-human p ima es). In
humans, he o malized and abs ac sys ems o language acqui ed special p ominence
as a o m o communica ion, namely o he exp ession o emo ional meanings ( h ough
seman ics). No wi hs anding, mo e ancien pa alinguis ic emo ional exp essions a e also
p esen in ou ocal beha iou s unde di e en o ms. We o en p oduce pu ely emo i e
non e bal ocaliza ions, such as laugh e , sighs, sobs o sc eams. These a e pe cei ed
apidly (Sau e & Eime , 2009), accu a ely (Sau e , Eisne , Calde , e al., 2010) and
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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45
ac oss cul u es (Sau e , Eisne , Ekman, e al., 2010). In addi ion o non e bal
exp essions, we ou inely p oduce sho in e jec ions wi h a ec i e conno a ion, such as
“wow”, “Ah”, “yuck” o “oh” (Belin, Fillion-Bilodeau, & Gosselin, 2008; Sche e ,
1995).
Emo ions a e also exp essed as an in eg an pa o he speech signal p ope ia speech
p osody cues – sup asegmen al ocal modula ions ha occu in he cou se o a spoken
u e ance. I is well es ablished ha emo ional s a es a e associa ed wi h changes in he
way we speak: emo ions in ol e psychophysiological changes, o ins ance in hea
a e, blood low and muscle ension, which a ec espi a ion, ocal old ib a ion and
a icula ion, in such a way ha all hese in luence he acous ic cha ac e is ics o ce ain
oice ea u es while we speak. Fo example, highe emo ional a ousal inc eases
la yngeal ension and subglo al p essu e, he eby inc easing he in ensi y and changing
he imb e o he oice. Thus, he sup asegmen al signals ha ide a op o speech
p o ide diagnos ic in o ma ion conce ning ou s a es (Banse & Sche e , 1996; Sche e ,
1986, 2003; Schi me & Ko z, 2006).
2.2. ACOUSTIC CUES OF EMOTION IN VOICE
Speech p osody comp ises di e en acous ic cues: undamen al equency (F0),
in ensi y, empo, hy hm and oice quali y (e.g., G andjean e al., 2006; Schi me &
Ko z, 2006). F0 e lec s he equency o ib a ion o he ocal olds du ing phona ion
and is subjec i ely pe cei ed as oice pi ch. Va ia ions in he le el, ange and con ou
o F0 du ing he u e ance a e impo an cues o emo ion. In ensi y co esponds o he
ocal ene gy and e lec s he e o equi ed o p oduce speech; i is subjec i ely
pe cei ed as loudness. Tempo co esponds o he numbe o phonemic segmen s pe
ime uni , and hy hm o he s uc u e o F0 accen s, in ensi y peaks and dis ibu ion o
pauses in he u e ance. Finally, oice quali y e lec s he shape o he ocal ac , which
can be modi ied, o ins ance, by he muscle ension in he la ynx. Voice quali y is
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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46
acous ically cha ac e ized by he dis ibu ion o ene gy in he equency spec um, and
is subjec i ely pe cei ed as oice imb e (e.g., oughness and sha pness). The ela i e
amoun o ene gy in he high s. low equency egion o he spec um is highly
in o ma i e o di e en ia e emo ions (as he amoun o high- equency ene gy
inc eases, he oice sounds mo e sha p and less so ). Modula ions in hese p osodic
cues a e associa ed wi h he communica ion o di e en emo ional s a es, as we discuss
below.
An impo an no ion is ha changes in p osody can be spon aneous e lec ions o
psychophysiological emo ion- ela ed s a es, bu hey can also be in luenced by
olun a y modula ions. Wi h ega d o his issue, Sche e and colleagues ha e
dis inguished be ween push e ec s and pull e ec s in ocal exp ession (e.g., Banse &
Sche e , 1996; Sche e , 1986; Sche e , 2003). Push e ec s e e o he di ec impac o
psychophysiological mechanisms in ol ed in emo ional episodes o e he oice
p oduc ion sys em, which would be inna ely de e mined o a la ge ex en . Pull e ec s,
on he o he hand, e lec he ac ha p osody may inco po a e sociocul u al
con en ions and display ules, and can be s a egically sculp ed by ou communica i e
in en ions, independen ly o he p esence o a eal emo ional s a e. Du ing e e yday li e
social in e ac ions, he exp ession o emo ions in p osody is o en a join p oduc o
push and pull e ec s.
2.3. EMOTION COMMUNICATION THROUGH SPEECH PROSODY
As a communica i e phenomenon, emo ional p osody can be heo e ically amed in he
con ex o a modi ied e sion o he B unswik’s unc ional lens model, which combines
he analysis o exp ession and pe cep ion o a ec signals (B unswik, 1956; G andjean
e al., 2006; Juslin & Laukka, 2003; Sche e , 2003; Sche e e al., 2003). The p ocess
s a s wi h he speake exp essing, o encoding, an emo ional s a e h ough se e al
acous ic cues, which can be objec i ely measu ed in he speech wa e o m. These
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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47
objec i e pa ame e s a e called dis al cues, as hey a e dis an om he lis ene . Then
hey a e ansmi ed, as pa o he speech signal, and pe cei ed by he audi o y sys em
o he lis ene , who o ms a p oximal pe cep . The pe cei ed (subjec i e) cues a e called
p oximal cues. The decoding p ocess consis s o combining and in eg a ing he di e en
in e nalized p oximal cues in o de o make a subjec i e in e ence ega ding he
speake s a i udes and emo ions. P oximal cues a e based on he dis al ones, bu hey
migh su e in luences om he ansmission channel (e.g., dis ance; noise) and om
he cha ac e is ics o he pe cep ual sys em as well (e.g., selec i e enhancemen o
speci ic equency bands). Wi hin his amewo k, a unc ionally alid communica ion
p ocess occu s when he subjec i e judgmen s p o ided by he lis ene s co espond o
he c i e ia o he s a e o he speake (e.g., a speci ic emo ional s a e, such as ange )
wi h ag eemen a es abo e chance le el. O e he las decades, a la ge numbe o
empi ical s udies ha e been conduc ed o unde s and bo h exp ession and pe cep ion o
emo ional p osody.
EXPRESSION | S udies ha ocus on exp ession ha e a emp ed o de e mine how
di e en ia ed pa e ns o acous ic oice cues a e eliable indica o s o speci ic
emo ional s a es. To ha end, esea che s collec ocal exp essions co esponding o
di e en emo ional s a es and hen measu e hem o acous ic a ibu es in o de o
examine associa ions be ween cue pa e ning and emo ions. Classically measu ed
acous ic cues a e F0 (mean, a iabili y and ange), in ensi y and speech a e, al hough
some s udies include addi ional measu es, such as ji e , high- equency ene gy, o man
equency and F0 con ou s (e.g., Juslin & Laukka, 2001). An impo an me hodological
ques ion conce ns how o collec exp essions o pos e io analyses. Th ee majo
me hods ha e been used, each o hese wi h ad an ages and d awbacks (e.g., Sche e ,
2003). One in ol es na u al ocal exp essions, ha is, ma e ials eco ded du ing
na u ally occu ing emo ion episodes, o ins ance dange ous ligh si ua ions o
jou nalis s epo ing emo ionally cha ged e en s. This is a highly ecological me hod,
bu i has se ious disad an ages: eco dings a e o en e y b ie and ob ained om a
single speake , hey equen ly su e om bad eco ding quali y, and expe imen al
con ol is e y limi ed. Ano he me hod consis s o inducing emo ional s a es
expe imen ally, o example h ough ilms, and hen eco ding speech samples while he

Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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48
speake s a e unde hese s a es. This app oach acili a es expe imen al con ol o e he
ocal ma e ials p oduced, bu i is di icul o induce s ong and well-di e en ia ed
emo ional s a es, such ha he esul ing eco dings equen ly exp ess weak a ec .
Fu he mo e, one canno assume ha he same emo ion elici o p ocedu e will p oduce
he same emo ional esponses in all speake s. By a he mos equen ly employed
me hod makes use o simula ed ac o po ayals, in which ac o s o un ained speake s
a e asked o pose exp essions on he basis o emo ion labels and/o scena ios. In a
ypical si ua ion, hey ead he same e bal ma e ials (e.g., sen ences wi h neu al
seman ic con en ) while a ying p osody o exp ess di e en emo ions. I has o en been
a gued ha his p ocedu e may yield unna u al and s e eo ypical exp essions, bu
acous ic con e gence has been ound be ween hese exp essions and he so-called
na u al ones (Juslin & Laukka, 2001). Ac ed po ayals con ibu ed g ea ly o wha is
cu en ly known abou emo ion communica ion h ough p osody ( o a e iew o p os
and cons o ac ed po ayals, Bänzige & Sche e , 2007).
Acous ic analyses ha e e ealed ha he e a e di e en acous ic p o iles o some
emo ion ca ego ies, hus con i ming ha oice in lec ions a e in o ma i e abou he
speake ’s s a e (e.g., Banse & Sche e , 1996; Hamme schmid & Jü gens, 2007; Juslin
& Laukka, 2001; Paulmann, Pell, & Ko z, 2008b; Sche e , Banse, Wallbo , &
Goldbeck, 1991). In a e iew o he a ailable e idence, Sche e and colleagues (Banse
& Sche e , 1996; Pi am & Sche e , 1993; Sche e , 2003) obse ed ha ange is
gene ally associa ed wi h inc eased mean F0 and oice in ensi y, al hough o he ea u es
migh also be ound, such as inc eased a iabili y and ange o F0, inc eased high-
equency ene gy, as e a e o a icula ion and downwa d-di ec ed F0 con ou s; ea is
associa ed wi h inc eased mean and ange o F0, inc eased high- equency ene gy and
as e a e o a icula ion; sadness is cha ac e ized by dec eased mean and ange o F0,
dec eased oice in ensi y and high- equency ene gy, slowe a e o a icula ion and
downwa d-di ec ed F0 con ou s; and joy/happiness appea s o be associa ed wi h
inc eased mean, ange and a iabili y o F0, inc eased oice in ensi y, and inc eased
high- equency ene gy and as e a e o a icula ion. These indings a e summa ized in
Table 1.
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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49
Table 1. Summa y o empi ical da a on pa e ns o acous ic cues o ange , ea , sadness
and joy in ocal exp ession. Adap ed om Sche e (2003, p. 233).
Acous ic cue
Ange
Fea
Sadness
Joy
In ensi y
!
!
"
!
F0 loo /mean
!
!
"
!
F0 a iabili y
!
"
!
F0 ange
!
!(")
"
!
Sen ence con ou s
"
"
High- equency ene gy
!
!
"
(!)
Speech and a icula ion a e
!
!
"
(!)
PERCEPTION | Resea ch on he pe cep ion o emo ional p osody, on he o he hand, has
examined he ex en o which lis ene s a e able o accu a ely in e he emo ional s a e o
a speake om speech samples. In mos s udies, p e- eco ded ocal s imuli – usually
posed ac o po ayals – exp essing a numbe o di e en emo ions a e p esen ed o a
g oup o lis ene s. They equen ly pe o m a o ced-choice emo ion ecogni ion ask,
ha is, hey a e asked o selec he emo ion ha bes desc ibes he s imulus om a lis o
emo ion labels. Then he pe cen age o s imuli co ec ly ecognized pe emo ion is
compu ed (pe cen age o ma ches be ween he selec ed emo ion and he c i e ion o he
s imulus’ emo ion). I has been epea edly shown ha lis ene s a e adep a pe cei ing
emo ions in p osody, wi h accu acy a es abou ou o i e imes highe han wha
would be expec ed i esponses we e gi en in a andom manne (e.g., Juslin & Laukka,
2003; Pell, Paulmann, Da a, Alasse i, & Ko z, 2009; Sche e , 2003; Sche e e al.,
2003). Fo example, Banse and Sche e (1996) ound a global iden i ica ion accu acy o
48% o 14 di e en emo ion ca ego ies: ho ange , cold ange , panic ea , anxie y,
despe a ion, sadness, ela ion, happiness, in e es , bo edom, shame, p ide, disgus and
con emp . Speech samples in his s udy consis ed o pseudo-sen ences composed o
phonemes om se e al Indo-Eu opean languages, which we e eco ded by ac o s o
exp ess he in ended emo ions. Juslin and Laukka (2001) ound an accu acy o 56% o
s imuli consis ing o sen ences wi h neu al seman ic con en , which we e eco ded o
exp ess i e emo ions: ange , disgus , ea , happiness and sadness. Adolphs, Damasio
and T anel (2002) ound a ecogni ion accu acy o 81%, also o sen ences wi h neu al
seman ic con en exp essing i e emo ions: ange , ea , happiness, sadness and su p ise.
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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50
Pell (2002) ob ained an accu acy o 78% o pseudo-sen ences ha esembled English,
which exp essed six emo ions: ange , disgus , happiness, pleasan su p ise, sadness and
neu ali y. Al oge he , hese s udies a e s ong e idence ha we can pe cei e speci ic
emo ions om oice cues alone, i.e., e en when concu en seman ic cues a e no
a ailable o a e emo ionally neu al. Albei ecogni ion accu acy is gene ally high,
signi ican di e ences a e o en de ec ed be ween emo ions. Sadness and ange a e
usually bes ecognized, ollowed by ea and happiness (Juslin & Laukka, 2003;
Thompson & Balkwill, 2006). Disgus seems o be pa icula ly di icul o ecognize in
p osody (Banse & Sche e , 1996; Sche e e al., 1991), in spi e o being qui e well
de ec ed in non e bal ocal exp essions (Belin e al., 2008; Sau e , Eisne , Calde , e al.,
2010) and in aces (e.g., Goele en, Raed , Leyman, & Ve schue e, 2008). The
di e en ial ease wi h which emo ions and modali ies a e ecognized migh be ela ed o
di e en ial e olu iona y p essu es (e.g., Sche e , 2003).
An impo an issue is whe he emo ion ecogni ion in p osody is go e ned by uni e sal
p inciples o de e mined by cul u al and language-speci ic ac o s. C oss-cul u al
s udies a e pi o al o app oach his ques ion. Thompson and Balkwill (2006) examined
how English-speaking lis ene s ecognize joy, sadness, ange and ea as exp essed in
English, Ge man, Chinese, Japanese and Tagalog speech samples (sen ences wi h
neu al seman ic con en ). Recogni ion accu acy was highes o English s imuli, hus
e ealing an in-g oup ad an age, bu lis ene s we e able o pe cei e emo ions in he
o he languages well abo e he chance le el, including in highly dissimila non-Wes e n
languages. Consis en ly, Pell, Mone a, Paulmann, and Ko z (2009) ound ha Spanish-
speaking lis ene s can ecognize joy, sadness, ange , ea and disgus as exp essed in
Spanish, English, Ge man and A abic pseudo-sen ences, e en hough hey a e be e in
hei na i e language. Fu he e idence comes om a s udy by Sche e , Banse and
Wallbo (2001), who compa ed how lis ene s om nine coun ies ac oss Eu ope,
Ame ica and Asia pe cei e ange , sadness, ea , joy, and neu ali y as exp essed by
Ge man ac o s (ma e ials we e pseudo-sen ences). All lis ene s ecognized emo ions
abo e he chance le el, bu accu acy a es a ied ac oss coun ies: gene ally,
pe o mance was highe when he na i e language o he lis ene s was close o Ge man
(e.g., Du ch), and lowe when i was highly dissimila (e.g., Malay; see also El enbein
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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51
& Ambady, 2002). Finding ha p osodic emo ions can be ecognized c oss-cul u ally
sugges s ha he acous ic cues and he way in which lis ene s p ocess p osody a e
uni e sal o a signi ican ex en . On he o he hand, he in-g oup ad an age indica es
ha cul u al ac o s also exe a ole. In o he wo ds, he ecogni ion o emo ional
p osody appea s o be de e mined by a combina ion o uni e sal and cul u ally speci ic
p ocesses. The e o e, de ising speech samples o di e en languages and analysing
how speake s wi h di e en linguis ic backg ounds p ocess emo ions is o pa amoun
impo ance o be e unde s anding emo ion communica ion h ough p osody.
FROM EXPRESSION TO PERCEPTION | Some s udies ha e app oached exp ession and
pe cep ion o emo ional p osody in a comp ehensi e manne in o de o h ow ligh on
he na u e o he in e ence ules used by he lis ene s du ing emo ion ecogni ion.
Which acous ic cues (dis al cues) a e a ended o in oice, and how do hey lead o he
ecogni ion o a ce ain emo ion? One s a egy o answe his ques ion consis s o
manipula ing sys ema ically speci ic acous ic cues ( ia syn hesis o esyn hesis) and
examining how hese manipula ions a ec emo ion pe cep ion. Fo example,
B ei ens ein, Lancke and Daum (2001) manipula ed p osodic s imuli o speech a e
and F0 a iabili y. They obse ed ha speech a e was he mos po en cue o subjec i e
esponses, wi h slow a e being eliably associa ed wi h sadness, and as a e wi h
ange , ea and neu ali y; F0 a iabili y was less po en bu s ill de e minan o
esponses, wi h educed a iabili y being associa ed wi h sad o neu ali y, and la ge
a iabili y wi h ea , ange o happiness. Ano he s a egy o explo e he u iliza ion o
acous ic cues in emo ion in e ences in ol es measu ing he acous ic p ope ies o
speech samples, and hen co ela ing hese wi h he subjec i e esponses p o ided by
he lis ene s. In eg ession analyses, Banse and Sche e (1996) showed ha a signi ican
p opo ion o a iance in he lis ene s’ judgmen s was accoun ed o by acous ic
a ibu es o he s imuli, such as mean and a iabili y o F0, mean in ensi y, du a ion o
oiced pe iods, ela i e p opo ion o high- equency ene gy (cu -o 1000Hz) and
ene gy d op-o in he spec um. The p opo ion o explained a iance was highes o
ho ange , 36%, and o he o he emo ions i anged om 7% o 25%. Mo e ecen ly,
Juslin and Laukka (2001) ound ha subjec i e judgmen s o ange , disgus , ea ,
happiness and sadness could be signi ican ly p edic ed by a se o nine acous ic cues in
Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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58
changes associa ed wi h adul de elopmen (e.g., Samanez-La kin & Ca s ensen, 2011).
Pe sonali y cha ac e is ics migh modula e b ain esponses o p osody oo. Indi iduals
highe in social o ien a ion, a ai e lec ing in e es in social exchange and ca e abou
o he s, ha e enhanced ac i i y in he amygdala and in he o bi o on al co ex in
esponse o emo ional ocal s imuli (Schi me e al., 2008). Highe neu o icism is
associa ed wi h enhanced ac i i y in he igh amygdala, le pos cen al gy us and
medial on al s uc u es (B ück, K ei el s, Kaza, Lo ze, & Wildg ube , 2011). T imme
and Cuddy (2008) unco e ed ha indi iduals wi h highe emo ional in elligence a e
mo e sensi i e o emo ions in speech p osody. T aining in music migh be ano he
ac o explaining indi idual di e ences in p osody, bu a ailable e idence is
inconclusi e (Thompson, Schellenbe g, & Husain, 2004; T imme & Cuddy, 2008).
This hypo hesis is empi ically examined in Chap e VIII.
2.6. WHEN EMOTIONAL PROSODY FAILS
Unde s anding he neu ocogni i e ounda ions o emo ional p osody is impo an o he
gene al ad ance o knowledge, and o applied clinical easons as well. Di icul ies in
ecognizing emo ions in p osody a e pa o he pheno ype o se e al de elopmen al,
neu opsychological and neu opsychia ic condi ions. This is he case o au ism spec um
diso de s (Ko pilah i e al., 2007; Lindne & Rosén, 2006), Williams synd ome
(Pinhei o e al., 2011), paedia ic and adul auma ic b ain inju y (Milde s, Fuchs, &
C aw o d, 2003; Schmid , Han en, Li, O s en, & Le in, 2010), acqui ed ocal b ain
damage (Adolphs e al., 2002; Ross & Monno , 2008), PD (G ay & Tickle-Degnen,
2010), Hun ing on’s disease (Speedie e al., 1990), Alzheime ’s disease (Tale , Baum,
Che kow, & Saumie , 2008), p ima y p og essi e aphasias (Roh e , Sau e , Sco ,
Rosso , & Wa en, in p ess), schizoph enia (Bach, Bux o , G andjean, & S ik, 2009;
Lei man e al., 2010), dep ession (Ueke mann, Abdel-Hamid, Lehmkämpe ,
Vollmoelle , & Daum, 2008), alcoholism (Monno , Nixon, Lo allo, & Ross, 2001),
pos auma ic s ess diso de (F eeman, Ha , Kimb ell, & Ross, 2009) and psychopa hy

Chap e II. Speech P osody and Emo ion
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59
(Blai e al., 2002). Gi en ha emo ional p osody plays an impo an ole o
communica ion and social in e ac ions, di icul ies in his abili y should be conside ed
as a a ge in clinical se ings, as hey may comp omise he pa ien s’ psychosocial
unc ioning (e.g., T aune , Ballan yne, F iedland, & Chase, 1996). Highe accu acy in
emo ion ecogni ion in p osody is associa ed wi h mo e posi i e in e pe sonal
ela ionships and wi h less dep ession symp oms (Ca on, Kessle , & Pape, 1999). I is
also a p edic o o social unc ioning, speci ically o occupa ional pe o mance (Hooke
& Pa k, 2002). E en hough ou ocus he e is p ima ily on pe cep ion, i is impo an o
no e ha de ici s in he p oduc ion o emo ional p osody a e also a ea u e o di e en
clinical condi ions, such as PD (e.g., Pell, Cheang, & Leona d, 2006) and au ism
spec um diso de s (Peppé, Cleland, Gibbon, O'Ha e, & Cas illa, 2011), wi h nega i e
consequences o communica ion and social compe ence (e.g., Jaywan & Pell, 2010).
A e discussing how emo ions a e communica ed in he music o speech, in he nex
chap e we u n o emo ions in music i sel .
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Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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Like language, music is a uniquely human ai . Making and app ecia ing music a e
ubiqui ous ea u es o all human socie ies since ancien imes. I is no possible o
de e mine when exac ly musical beha iou s eme ged du ing e olu ion – he e a e no
ossil eco ds o singing –, bu a chaeological indings da e he i s unequi ocal
e idence o musical ins umen s as back as ci ca 36,000 yea s, du ing he Uppe
Palaeoli hic pe iod (d'E ico e al., 2003). Musical beha iou s and abili ies also eme ge
e y ea ly in on ogene ic de elopmen , sugges ing ha hey a e guided by inna e
p edisposi ions (Zen ne & Ee ola, 2010; Zen ne & Kagan, 1996). As ecen ly s a ed by
Koelsch (2011), a ailable e idence suppo he iew ha “musicali y is a na u al abili y
o he human b ain” (p. 16). Indeed, he e can be ew indi iduals o whom music does
no ha e a p o ound appeal, as indica ed by he massi e amoun s o ime ha we spend
on musical ac i i ies. A ecen epo ound ha music lis ening is placed among he
mos impo an and p e alen o leisu e ac i i ies, abo e wa ching TV o eading books,
o ins ance (Ren ow & Gosling, 2003).
Music is gene ally app oached om a socio-cul u al pe spec i e, ha is, as a cul u al
a e ac and an exquisi e o m o a . The conside a ion o music as a biological acul y
whose neu ocogni i e ounda ions can be examined is ela i ely ecen . In he las
yea s, hough, we ha e wi nessed a apid expansion in biological, cogni i e and
neu oscien i ic esea ch on music (e.g., Koelsch & Siebel, 2005; Pa el, 2008a, 2010;
Pe e z, 2006). Rema kable ad ances ha e been made in many domains, such as in he
unde s anding o he gene ic basis o music cogni ion (e.g., Pe e z, 2008), he
de elopmen o musical abili ies (e.g., Hannon & T aino , 2007; T ehub & Hannon,
2006), he neu ocogni i e basis o music pe cep ion (e.g., Koelsch, 2011; Koelsch &

Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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Siebel, 2005; Pe e z & Col hea , 2003), he diso de s o music cogni ion (e.g., Liu,
Pa el, Fou cin, & S ewa , 2010; McDonald & S ewa , 2008; Pe e z, Champod, &
Hyde, 2003), he ela ions be ween music and language (e.g., Juslin & Laukka, 2003;
Pa el, 2008a; Schön & Besson, 2001; Schön e al., 2010), he e ec s o musical aining
on neu ocogni i e plas ici y (e.g., Besson, Chobe , & Ma ie, 2011; Habib & Besson,
2009; Mo eno e al., 2009; Pan e & He holz, in p ess; Pa el, 2011) and he p ocessing
o emo ions in music (e.g., Juslin & Väs jäll, 2008; Koelsch, 2010).
Emo ions a e pe haps he mos impo an componen o music. E e since ancien
G eece, he e is an awa eness o he abili y o music o communica e emo ions ha we
can pe cei e, enjoy and be mo ed by (e.g., Thompson, 2009). We use music o
in luence moods, o elease emo ions, o com o and o enjoy ou sel es, o ma ch ou
emo ional s a es and o alle ia e s ess (e.g., Juslin & Sloboda, 2010). The exp essi e
powe o music is also p esumed in a numbe o applica ions in socie y, o example
when we use i as a sou ce o emo ion in ilms (Cohen, 2010), ma ke ing (No h &
Ha g ea es, 2010) and he apy (Thau , 2005; Thau & Wheele , 2010). How do he
sounds o music exp ess emo ions? How does ou neu ocogni i e sys em deal wi h
emo ions in music? In he ollowing pages we e iew s udies on emo ion
communica ion in music and on he neu ocogni i e ounda ions o musical emo ions.
3.1. COMMUNICATION OF EMOTIONS IN MUSIC
Theo e ical ea ises abou musical emo ions ha e a long his o y (e.g., Budd, 1985;
Ki y, 2002; Meye , 1956), bu only ecen ly ha e hey become sidelined by empi ical
esea ch in a sys ema ic ashion. Musical emo ions we e conside ed oo mys e ious,
elusi e and pe sonal o be examined igo ously in psychology and neu oscience. In he
las wo decades, howe e , his has changed and he opic o emo ion p ocessing in
music is now expanding a a as pace, pa alleling he g owing in e es dedica ed o
emo ion esea ch in gene al (Sloboda & Juslin, 2010). A la ge numbe o s udies ocus
Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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on how lis ene s pe cei e emo ions communica ed by music. In sha p con as wi h he
no ion ha his is a highly di use and a iable expe ience, i has been epea edly
demons a ed ha emo ion ecogni ion in music is ema kably consis en , accu a e,
immedia e, p ecocious in on ogene ic de elopmen , and go e ned by uni e sal
p inciples o a signi ican ex en .
Bigand, Vieilla d, Madu ell, Ma ozeau, and Dacque (2005) showed ha emo ional
esponses o music a e highly consis en bo h wi hin and be ween lis ene s. They
p esen ed 27 ins umen al music exce p s om he Wes e n classic epe oi e o
lis ene s wi h and wi hou musical aining, and asked hem o g oup oge he he
exce p s ha con eyed simila emo ions. The du a ion o he exce p s was manipula ed,
30 s o 1 s, and lis ene s pe o med he ask wice, wi h a leas one week o in e al
( es - e es ). G oupings we e e y s able ac oss ained and un ained pa icipan s
(be ween lis ene s), om he i s o he second es ing session (wi hin lis ene s), and o
bo h longe and sho e exce p s. The e is also ema kable in a iance ac oss lis ene s in
how hey judge he emo ion ca ego y exp essed by a ce ain music exce p . Ag eemen
a es o emo ion ecogni ion in music end o be high (e.g., Laukka & Juslin, 2007;
Mohn, A gs a e , & Wilke , in p ess; Resnicow, Salo ey, & Repp, 2004; Vieilla d e
al., 2008). Fo ins ance, Vieilla d and colleagues (2008) ob ained high accu acy a es
o he ecogni ion o ou emo ions exp essed by sho ins umen al music exce p s:
99% o happiness, 84% o sadness, 82% o ea and 67% o peace ulness.
Acco dingly, in a me a-analy ic e iew o 12 s udies, Juslin and Laukka (2003)
concluded ha he ecogni ion accu acy o i e emo ion ca ego ies in music
pe o mance (ange , ea , happiness, sadness and ende ness) is highe han wha would
be expec ed by chance alone. They ound a global accu acy o 70%, which was as high
as he one hey ound o ocal emo ions. Wi h espec o he empo al dynamics o
emo ion ecogni ion, i has been shown ha eliable judgmen s can be ob ained a e
qui e sho segmen s o musical in o ma ion, a ac ha indica es ha he unde lying
mechanisms a e as -ac ing and immedia e. Pe e z, Gagnon, and Boucha d (1998)
obse ed ha lis ene s need only 250 ms o music o dis inguish happy om sad
exce p s. In a ela ed ein, Filipic, Tillmann, and Bigand (2010) demons a ed, using a
ga ing ask, ha he dis inc ion be ween mo ing and neu al music can be made on he
Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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basis o 250 ms exce p s. Also using a ga ing ask, Vieilla d and colleagues (2008)
de e mined he sho es du a ion ha can igge accu a e emo ion ecogni ion in music:
483 ms o happiness, 1,446 ms o sadness, 1,737 ms o ea and 1,261 ms o
peace ulness. F om a de elopmen al s andpoin , a ailable e idence indica es ha he
abili y o pe cei e emo ions in music eme ges du ing ea ly childhood. Cunningham and
S e ling (1988) ound ha , by he age o ou , child en can al eady ecognize happiness
and ea in classical o ches al composi ions wi h accu acy a es abo e chance, and by
he age o six hey a e able o also iden i y eliably sadness and ange (see also Hun e ,
Schellenbe g, & S alinski, 2011). These ea ly abili ies a e linked wi h sensi i i y o
speci ic musical ea u es. Dalla Bella, Pe e z, Rousseau, and Gosselin (2001) obse ed
ha six o eigh -yea -old child en ely on bo h empo ( as s. low) and mode (majo s.
mino ) di e ences o dis inguish happy om sad music, as adul s do. Ano he a ibu e
o emo ion communica ion in music is ha i is pa ly go e ned by uni e sal p inciples.
Some s udies ha e shown ha lis ene s a e able o ecognize emo ions e en in a non-
amilia music s yle. Balkwill and Thompson (1999) ound ha Wes e n lis ene s a e
sensi i e o joy, sadness and ange in Hindus ani aga exce p s. Mo e ecen ly, F i z and
colleagues (2009) compa ed how Wes e n and Ma a lis ene s ecognize happiness,
sadness and ea in ins umen al music exce p s composed acco ding o he Wes e n
onal adi ion. The Ma a people a e a na i e A ican e hnic g oup who had ne e been
exposed o Wes e n music. Wes e n lis ene s had highe ecogni ion accu acy ha he
Ma a, deno ing a same-cul u e ad an age, bu he Ma a we e able o ecognize he h ee
emo ions wi h accu acy a es abo e chance le el. Addi ionally, as Wes e n lis ene s,
hey pe cei ed consonan music as mo e pleasan han dissonan music.
The ac ha he ecogni ion o musical emo ions is accu a e, as , p ecocious and
uni e sal is e idence ha he unde lying mechanisms show some o he same p ope ies
o emo ion s imuli impo an o social unc ioning, such as acial exp essions and
speech p osody (e.g., Dohe y, Fi zsimons, Asenbaue , & S aun on, 1999; El enbein &
Ambady, 2002; G andjean e al., 2005; Pell, 2005; Pons, Ha is, & Rosnay, 2004; T acy
& Robins, 2008).
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3.2. MUSICAL STRUCTURE AND EXPRESSIVE CUES IN PERFORMANCE
Which musical ea u es con ibu e o he communica ion o a ce ain emo ion? An
impo an dis inc ion is be ween ea u es ela ed o he music composi ional s uc u e,
and hose ela ed o exp essi eness in pe o mance. Bo h a e de e minan s o he
pe cei ed musical emo ions (e.g., Thompson, 2009). Musical s uc u e ea u es
co espond o hose ha a e ep esen ed in con en ional musical no a ion, such as empo
and dynamic ma kings, pi ch, in e als, mode, melody, hy hm, ha mony and o mal
p ope ies (e.g., epe i ion; a ia ion). These a e manipula ed by he compose s o
con ey he in ended emo ional exp essions (Gab ielsson & Linds öm, 2010). Empi ical
esea ch has shown ha lis ene s a e adep a pe cei ing emo ions communica ed by
s uc u al cues (Cu is & Bha ucha, 2010; Gagnon & Pe e z, 2003; Vieilla d e al.,
2008) since ea ly childhood (Dalla Bella e al., 2001). Balkwill and Thompson (1999)
obse ed ha he s uc u al p ope ies empo, hy hmic complexi y, melodic complexi y
and pi ch ange a e signi ican p edic o s o he lis ene s’ subjec i e emo ion a ings.
Se e al associa ions be ween speci ic s uc u al cues and pe cei ed emo ion a e well
es ablished. This is he case o empo, which is one o he mos impo an emo ional
cues. Fas empo migh lead o he pe cep ion o ac i i y/exci emen ,
happiness/joy/pleasan ness, po ency, su p ise, ange , uneasiness and ea . Slow empo,
on he o he hand, migh lead o he pe cep ion o peace ulness, calmness/se eni y,
sadness, digni y/solemni y, ende ness, bo edom and longing. Mode is also an impo an
de e minan o emo ions, wi h majo mode being usually associa ed wi h happiness/joy,
se eni y, g ace ulness and solemni y, and mino mode wi h sadness, ange , ension,
digni y and disgus . High pi ch migh be associa ed wi h exp essions o happiness,
se eni y, exci emen , po ency, ange , ea and ac i i y, and low pi ch migh be
associa ed wi h sadness, digni y/solemni y and igou . As o melody, a wide melodic
ange may sugges joy and ea , and a na ow melodic ange may sugges sadness,
digni y, delicacy, se eni y and iumph. A simple and consonan ha mony migh con ey
happiness, digni y and se eni y, whe eas a complex and dissonan ha mony migh
con ey ension, ange , exci emen , sadness and unpleasan ness. A egula /smoo h
Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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migh come o ou mind while we lis en o a ce ain melodic mo emen . The emo ion
expe ienced would esul om he in e ac ion be ween he image and he music.
Episodic memo y co esponds o a mechanism whe eby we eac emo ionally o a piece
o music because i e okes a memo y o a speci ic e en in ou li e. These emo ions
may be in ense, possibly because he physiological esponses and he expe ien ial
con en s o he o iginal e en s a e s o ed along wi h each o he in memo y. Indeed, we
o en use music o emind ou sel es o pas alued e en s, a ac ha indica es ha
music may play an impo an nos algic unc ion in e e yday li e. Finally, musical
expec ancy co esponds o a mechanism by which an emo ion is induced because a
ea u e o he music s uc u e delays, iola es o con i ms ou expec a ions conce ning
he con inua ion o he music. The expec a ions a e buil upon he p e ious expe ience
wi h he music s yle. Fo ins ance, in he Wes e n onal sys em, he p og ession o E-F#
p omp s he expec a ion ha he music will con inue wi h G#, such ha when his does
no happen he lis ene may become su p ised.
These mechanisms would ope a e singula ly o in a combined ashion while we lis en o
music. Acco ding o he au ho s (Juslin e al., 2010; Juslin & Väs jäll, 2008), each o
hem would co espond o dis inc b ain unc ions. This heo e ical amewo k is
p elimina y, and so he p ecise cha ac e is ics o he mechanisms a e o be examined.
Howe e , i is use ul o de i e speci ic hypo heses and o guide empi ical esea ch on
musical emo ions.
3.6. NEUROCOGNITIVE BASIS OF MUSICAL EMOTIONS
In he las yea s, an inc easing numbe o s udies ha e examined he neu al ounda ions
o musical emo ions ( o e iews, Koelsch, 2010; Pe e z, 2010). The e is e idence ha
p ocessing emo ions in music in ol es subco ical b ain sys ems, namely limbic
s uc u es and he s ia um, as well as co ical sys ems, namely he empo al lobe,

Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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o bi o on al co ex, en omedial p e on al co ex, an e io cingula e co ex and he
insula.
Seminal e idence o he in ol emen o subco ical sys ems comes om a s udy by
Blood and Za o e (2001). They used posi on emission omog aphy (PET) o measu e
egional ce eb al blood low changes while pa icipan s lis ened o 90 s o hei own
a ou i e music, o which hey usually had highly pleasu able expe iences o “shi e s-
down- he-spine” o “chills”. Mo e in ense chills co ela ed wi h ce eb al blood low
dec ease in he amygdala and le hippocampus, and wi h inc ease in he en al
s ia um, do somedial midb ain and halamus (chills also modula ed co ical ac i i y,
wi h ce eb al blood low dec easing in he en omedial p e on al co ex, and
inc easing in he insula, o bi o on al co ex and cingula e co ex; he unc ional ole o
hese co ical egions is discussed below). The subco ical s uc u es ec ui ed by music
a e also ec ui ed o ewa d esponses o biologically ele an s imuli, which a e
impo an o su i al, such as ood and sex. Thus, as highligh ed by he au ho s (ibd.),
he esul s o his s udy indica e ha he highly abs ac sounds o music can engage
ancien emo ion and ewa d sys ems in he b ain. Recen ly, Salimpoo , Beno oy,
La che , Daghe , and Za o e (2011) showed ha he ec ui men o he s ia um by
music-e oked chills e lec s he modula ion o dopamine gic ac i i y. They ound
endogenous dopamine elease in he s ia um du ing music-induced peak emo ional
a ousal, by using he neu ochemical speci ici y o [11C] aclop ide PET scanning,
combined wi h psychophysiological measu es o au onomic ne ous sys em ac i i y.
The au ho s u he obse ed, in a MRI s udy wi h he same s imuli and lis ene s, a
unc ional dissocia ion wi hin he s ia al sys em: he cauda e was chie ly in ol ed in
he an icipa ion o ewa d, and he nucleus accumbens in he ac ual expe ience o
in ense emo ional esponses o music. Musical emo ions ec ui subco ical b ain
sys ems e en when pa icipan s do no expe ience in ense chills. Fo ins ance, Koelsch,
F i z, C amon, Mülle , and F iede ici (2006) compa ed neu al esponses o consonan
joy ul ins umen al dance- unes (pleasan music) and o elec onically manipula ed
dissonan music (unpleasan music) in an MRI s udy. They de ec ed subco ical
ac i a ions o bo h ypes o music: pleasan consonan music ac i a ed he en al
s ia um, and unpleasan dissonan music ac i a ed he amygdala, hippocampus and
Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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pa ahippocampal gy us. Simila ly, Mi e schi hale , Fu, Dal on, And ew, and
Williams (2007) ound ha happy music ac i a es he en al and do sal s ia um,
whe eas sad music ac i a es he hippocampus and amygdala. Thus, posi i ely alenced
esponses o music appea o engage he s ia um, h ough he modula ion o
dopamine gic ac i i y, and ela i ely mo e nega i e emo ional esponses appea o
engage medial empo al s uc u es.
Neu opsychological s udies indica e ha co e subco ical neu oa ec i e sys ems a e
also c i ical o emo ion ecogni ion in music, no only o emo ional expe ience. In
h ee s udies, Gosselin and colleagues (2005, 2007, 2011) ound ha pa ien s wi h
damage in he amygdala had impai ed ecogni ion o ea and sadness in ins umen al
music exce p s, while he ecogni ion o posi i e emo ions, happiness and peace ulness,
was ela i ely p ese ed. This pa e n could no be explained by de ec s in low-le el
music pe cep ion abili ies. In ano he s udy, i was ound ha damage in he
pa ahippocampal co ex co ela ed wi h abno mal pe cep ion o dissonance in music,
such ha pa ien s a ed dissonan music as sligh ly pleasan , whe eas heal hy con ols
a ed i as unpleasan (Gosselin e al., 2006). The mo e ex ensi e he pa ien s’ damage
was, he mo e indi e en hey we e o dissonance (see also Khal a e al., 2008).
Recen ly, Oma and colleagues (2011) examined emo ion ecogni ion in music
(happiness, sadness, ange and ea ) in pa ien s wi h on o empo al loba degene a ion,
and explo ed associa ions be ween beha iou al pe o mance and g ey ma e losses.
Pa ien s’ pe o mance was impai ed and co ela ed wi h g ey ma e olumes in an
ex ensi e bila e al ce eb al ne wo k ha included subco ical s uc u es, mo e p ecisely
he pa ahippocampal gy us, hippocampus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens and en al
egmen um ( he ne wo k included co ical s uc u es as well, no ably he insula, an e io
cingula e, o bi o on al co ex, medial p e on al co ex, do sal p e on al, in e io
on al, an e io and supe io empo al co ices, usi o m gy us and pos e io pa ie al
co ices).
Co ical sys ems comp ise neu al s uc u es ha a e e olu iona ily mo e ecen . I has
been shown ha hey play di e en unc ional oles in musical emo ions. Audi o y
egions in he supe io empo al co ex, pa icula ly in he igh hemisphe e, suppo he
Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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p ocessing o low-le el pe cep ual aspec s o music, hus se ing he s age o emo ional
esponses and in e p e a i e p ocesses (Mi e schi hale e al., 2007; Pe e z, Blood,
Penhune, & Za o e, 2001; Za o e, Belin, & Penhune, 2002). The e is solid e idence
ha he o bi o on al co ex is a key egion o he p ocessing o emo ions in music. I is
ec ui ed when pa icipan s expe ience in ense chills (Blood & Za o e, 2001), when
hey lis en o music wi hou eeling in ense esponses (Blood, Za o e, Be mudez, &
E ans, 1999; Menon & Le i in, 2005), and when hey pe o m o e emo ion
ecogni ion asks (Oma e al., 2011). This egion, which is connec ed wi h he
amygdala and he s ia um, appea s o play a ole in he analysis and in eg a ion o he
ewa d alue o emo ional s imuli ac oss senso y modali ies, he eby guiding
beha iou al judgmen s (Blood & Za o e, 2001; Menon & Le i in, 2005; Pe e z, 2010).
The en omedial p e on al co ex is also an impo an s uc u e o musical emo ions.
I is ac i e du ing chill expe iences (Blood & Za o e, 2001), du ing emo ion
ecogni ion (Oma e al., 2011), and migh be in ol ed in igge ing au onomic
emo ional esponses o music. Johnsen, T anel, Lu gendo , and Adolphs (2009) ound
ha pa ien s wi h damage o he en omedial p e on al co ex a e impai ed in he
gene a ion o skin-conduc ance esponses o music. Damasio’s soma ic ma ke
hypo hesis ocuses on his egion (ibd.). Finally, he an e io cingula e and he insula
co ex we e also shown o be in ol ed in music-e oked chills (Blood & Za o e, 2001),
music lis ening (Koelsch e al., 2006; Mi e schi hale e al., 2007) and emo ion
ecogni ion (Oma e al., 2011). These s uc u es seem o be implica ed in coupling
au onomic esponses and subjec i e eeling s a es, as well as in mo o - ela ed unc ions
and in he synch oniza ion o biological subsys ems du ing emo ion episodes (such as
physiological a ousal, mo o exp ession, mo i a ion, moni o ing p ocesses and
cogni i e app aisal; Koelsch, 2010).
3.7. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Which ac o s explain di e ences ac oss indi iduals in emo ional esponses o music?
Pe sonali y ai s migh be impo an . Fo ins ance, Juslin and colleagues (2008)
Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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obse ed ha he p e alence o music-e oked emo ions co ela es wi h pe sonali y
ai s. Speci ically, hey ound ha highe le els o neu o icism a e associa ed wi h
mo e equen occu ence o pleasu e-enjoymen in esponse o music. They also
obse ed ha highe le els o ex a e sion a e associa ed wi h highe o e all p e alence
o musical emo ions, sugges ing he ex a e s and in o e s use music di e en ly.
Ba e and colleagues (2010) ound ha indi iduals’ p oneness o nos algia p edic s he
in ensi y o music-e oked nos algia, such ha indi iduals wi h highe nos algic
endencies a e mo e likely o expe ience highe le els o nos algia in esponse o music.
Nos algia p oneness, in u n, co ela ed wi h neu o icism. Recen ly, Mon ag, Reu e ,
and Axmache (in p ess) showed ha pe sons who conside hemsel es as easily ge ing
abso bed by a s and music (subscale “sel - o ge ulness” o he cha ac e dimension
“sel - anscendence”) ha e dec eased ac i i y in he s ia um while lis ening o hei
a ou i e songs.
Indi idual ac o s migh also modula e he abili y o ecognize emo ional exp essions in
music. Mohn, A gs a e , and Wilke (in p ess) ailed o de ec signi ican associa ions
wi h pe sonali y ai s, bu Vuoskoski and Ee ola (2011) obse ed ha he pe cep ion o
sadness in ilm music exce p s co ela es wi h highe neu o icism and wi h lowe
ex a e sion. Resnicow and colleagues (2004) ound ha indi iduals highe in
emo ional in elligence, as assessed by he Maye -Salo ey-Ca uso Emo ional
In elligence Tes , a e be e in he ecogni ion o emo ions in music pe o mance. We
poin ed ou ha ageing modula es emo ion ecogni ion in emo ional p osody and in
o he emo ional s imuli (e.g., acial exp essions; body pos u es). Whe he his is also he
case o musical emo ions emains poo ly s udied. In he only s udy ha app oached his
ques ion so a , Laukka and Juslin (2007) ound ha olde adul s a e less accu a e han
younge ones in he ecogni ion o nega i e emo ions in music pe o mance. Musical
aining migh be ano he sou ce o indi idual a iabili y, bu a ailable e idence is
inconclusi e: while some s udies epo ed sugges i e e idence ha musical aining is
associa ed wi h enhanced sensi i i y o musical emo ions (Bha a a e al., 2011;
Li ings one, Muhlbe ge , B own, & Thompson, 2010), o he s udies ound no e ec s
(Bigand e al., 2005; Resnicow e al., 2004). The impac o ageing and musical aining
Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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in emo ion ecogni ion in music is examined in he empi ical pa o his hesis (Chap e
VI).
3.8. CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
The he apeu ic alue o music in clinical se ings has long been ecognized. The
scien i ic amewo k and a ionales o music in e en ions ha e been al e ed on he
basis o ecen de elopmen s in he cogni i e neu oscience o music. Acco ding o he
model de eloped by he Cen e o Music The apy Resea ch in Heidelbe g (Vik o
Dulge Ins i u e), he e a e i e ac o s o ing edien s by which music can imp o e he
psychological and physiological heal h o child en and adul s: a en ion modula ion,
emo ion modula ion, cogni ion modula ion, beha iou modula ion and communica ion
modula ion (Hillecke, Nickel, & Bolay, 2005). These ing edien s e lec he idea ha
music lis ening and music making engage a mul i ude o beha iou s and b ain s uc u es
ela ed o cogni i e, senso imo o and emo ional p ocessing (e.g., Koelsch & Siebel,
2005). Thus, music could be used he apeu ically o modula e ac i i y a di e en le els
and in di e en domains. Fo ins ance, i was shown ha lis ening o elaxing music, as
compa ed o silence, acili a es eco e y om a psychologically s ess ul ask; i leads
o he educ ion o sali a y co isol le els (Khal a, Dalla Bella, Roy, Pe e z, & Lupien,
2003). Recen ly, Sä kämö and colleagues (2008) conduc ed a single-blind, andomized
and con olled ial o de e mine he e ec s o e e yday music lis ening in he eco e y
o cogni i e and emo ional unc ions a e middle ce eb al a e y s oke. I was obse ed
ha wo mon hs o daily music lis ening (music was sel -selec ed), as compa ed wi h
lis ening o audio books o no lis ening ma e ial, led o signi ican imp o emen s in
e bal memo y, ocused a en ion, dep ession and con used mood. These e ec s a e a
leas pa ly media ed by he emo ional componen o music.
As no ed by Koelsch (2010), because music modula es he ac i i y o co e emo ion
sys ems, such as he amygdala, hippocampus and s ia um, i can in p inciple be used o

Chap e III. Music and Emo ion
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s imula e and egula e hese sys ems when hey a e impai ed (e.g., dep ession; PD;
pos auma ic s ess diso de ). In an explo a o y s udy, Koelsch, O e manns, and
F anzke (2010) obse ed ha a music- he apeu ic me hod in ol ing music making in
g oups can p oduce posi i e changes in mood, as indexed by dec eased
dep ession/anxie y, dec eased a igue and inc eased igou . These changes we e
accompanied by an inc ease in he expe ience o posi i e emo ions (highe a ings o
happiness) and by a dec ease in nega i e emo ions (lowe a ings o ange , sadness and
anxie y). O he s udies sugges ha musical- hy hmic s imuli can be used o egula e
mo o unc ions, namely gai and a m con ol, in pa ien s wi h s oke and PD. The
mechanisms behind hese e ec s appea o be a ousal and p iming o he mo o sys em,
as well as iming and en ainmen o he mo o sys em (Thau e al., 2009). Music
he apeu ic exe cises can also be used e ec i ely o imp o e he “ eeling” expe ience o
emo ion, he iden i ica ion o emo ion, he exp ession o emo ion, he unde s anding o
emo ional communica ion o o he s, and he syn hesis, con ol and modula ion o
emo ional beha iou s (Thau & Wheele , 2010).
Despi e ecen ad ances, he knowledge on he speci ic mechanisms ha media e he
he apeu ic e ec s o music is s ill limi ed. Resea ch on he neu ocogni i e basis o
music and on how music modula es b ain plas ici y will be essen ial o in o m concep s
and p ac ices in music he apy. A mo e comple e unde s anding o how music ela es o
o he cogni i e unc ions, namely speech and language, will also be illumina ing o
po en ial he apeu ic applica ions. In he nex chap e we discuss he ela ions be ween
emo ions in speech p osody and in music.
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CHAPTER IV
Pe cei ing Emo ions in Speech P osody and in Music: How Close?
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Chap e IV. Pe cei ing Emo ions in Speech P osody and in Music: How Close?
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The eason why music con eys speci ic emo ions, induces mood changes and e okes
emo ional eac ions emains puzzling. On one hand, i does no se e any ob ious
su i al o ep oduc ion unc ions. Possible adap i e oles o musical beha iou s ha e
been sugges ed, no ably sexual selec ion, social cohesion and socio-cogni i e
de elopmen , bu hese a e con o e sial ( o e iews, Koelsch, 2011; Pa el, 2008a). On
he o he hand, in e e yday li e, emo ions a e ypically a esponse o e en s ha a e
app aised as ha ing he po en ial o in e e e wi h ou goal-di ec ed ac ions, and music
a ely ei he se es o blocks goals (Konecni, 2008; Sche e , 2004). In o he wo ds,
while in mos cases emo ions a e u ili a ian ( hey ha e unc ions in he adap a ion and
adjus men o indi iduals), in music emo ions a e aes he ic ( hey a e no igge ed by
app aisals conce ning goal e elance, ins ead hey de i e om he in insic quali ies o
music; Sche e , 2004).
One hypo hesis is ha musical emo ions a e an acciden al by-p oduc o capaci ies
o iginally dedica ed o o he pu poses. Music could ha e co-op ed he neu ocogni i e
machine y shaped by e olu ion o sounds o g ea e biological ele ance, namely ocal
emo ions – speech p osody and non e bal ocal exp essions (Hause & McDe mo ,
2003; Juslin & Laukka, 2003; Juslin e al., 2010; Nieminen e al., 2011; Pa el, 2008b;
Pe e z, 2010; Pinke , 1997). O he heo ies sugges ha music and language e ol ed as
wo di e en specializa ions o a common p edecesso , which consis ed o a
ocaliza ion sys em ha subse ed udimen a y e e en ial-emo i e communica i e
unc ions. This p imi i e sys em would ha e been highly adap i e o ou ances o s and
some o i s ea u es would s ill be p esen in he cu en o ms o bo h music and
Chap e IV. Pe cei ing Emo ions in Speech P osody and in Music: How Close?
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hypo hesis awai s cla i ica ion. Ano he kind o s udy consis s o ocusing on
indi iduals wi h a neu opa hological condi ion ha impai s he ecogni ion o emo ions
in speech p osody, such as ecep i e ap osodia caused by s oke (e.g., Ross & Monno ,
2008) o PD (e.g., Pell & Leona d, 2003). I hese indi iduals ha e a simila p o ile o
impai men s o emo ion ecogni ion in p osody and music, his would sugges ha he
damaged neu al s uc u es a e sha ed by bo h domains. A di e en ial p o ile o
impai men s, on he o he hand, would be e idence ha bo h domains a e pa ly
independen . Up o now, such a compa a i e design has ne e been implemen ed.
Acco ding o Pa el (2008b), his app oach would be a powe ul es o he esou ce-
sha ing hypo hesis, p o ided ha some me hodological aspec s a e me : pa ien s should
be es ed in o he modali ies, like acial exp essions, o gua an ee ha he impai men is
speci ic o he audi o y domain; possible low-le el de ec s in audi o y p ocessing
should be excluded; and cogni i e abili ies (e.g., memo y) should be con olled o .
These s udies will con ibu e o a be e unde s anding o he neu ocogni i e
ela ionship be ween emo ions in speech and music. They can also be in o ma i e o
applied psychological science. I bo h domains se in o ac ion common mechanisms,
music he apy migh be a use ul de ice in language ehabili a ion p og ams.

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CHAPTER V
Goals o his Thesis
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Chap e V. Goals o his Thesis
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In he p eceding chap e s, we ha e e iewed esea ch ocusing on emo ion heo ies,
emo ional speech p osody, musical emo ions, and on he pa allels be ween emo ion
p ocessing in speech p osody and in music. Se e al issues ha we ha e e e ed o
emain poo ly unde s ood, and hey lie a he basis o he empi ical pa o his hesis.
We highligh ed ha musical emo ions show some o he same p ope ies o emo ion
modali ies o unequi ocal biological and social impo ance, namely acial exp essions
and speech p osody. Fo ins ance, as o hese modali ies, he ecogni ion o disc e e
emo ions in music is accu a e, quick, consis en , p ecocious in on ogene ic de elopmen
and go e ned by uni e sal p inciples o a signi ican ex en . I is well es ablished ha
ageing ope a es changes in emo ion p ocessing ac oss di e en modali ies (e.g.,
Ru man e al., 2008), bu so a i is unclea whe he and how ageing a ec s also
musical emo ions. In o he wo ds, we do no know whe he emo ion p ocessing in
music unde goes de elopmen al changes du ing he adul li e, as emo ion p ocessing in
o he domains. I is also unclea whe he aining in music impac s on he p ocessing o
musical emo ions, as i appea s o impac on se e al aspec s o b ain and cogni i e
unc ioning (e.g., Besson e al., 2011; Habib & Besson, 2009). Conce ning emo ional
speech p osody, we desc ibed s udies showing ha pe cei ing emo ions in his modali y
is de e mined by a combina ion o uni e sal and language-speci ic p ocesses. Thus, i is
o pa amoun impo ance o p o ide p osodic ma e ials and pe cep ual s udies in
di e en languages. To he bes o ou knowledge, his has no been done o Eu opean
Po uguese. Finally, we e iewed compa a i e esea ch on emo ional p osody and
musical emo ions, and concluded ha he e a e s iking c oss-domain commonali ies
ega ding he acous ic encoding o emo ional quali ies. We also poin ed ou ha a
cu en ly deba ed hypo hesis in cogni i e neu oscience is ha emo ion p ocessing in
Chap e V. Goals o his Thesis
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speech p osody and in music ec ui s sha ed neu ocogni i e mechanisms. Howe e ,
empi ical esea ch on his hypo hesis is sca ce. We se ou o in es iga e hese open
ques ions in a se ies o empi ical s udies using beha iou al and neu opsychological
app oaches.
As we unde lined in he e iew o he li e a u e, emo ion p ocessing in ol es mul iple
componen s. I is he e o e impo an o de ine a he ou se wha exac ly we will assess.
In all s udies we ocus in he o e ecogni ion o disc e e emo ions, ha is, in how
indi iduals a e able o iden i y and e alua e explici ly emo ional quali ies exp essed by
music exce p s and by speech samples. We eso o beha iou al asks ha a e widely
used in emo ion ecogni ion li e a u e, namely o ced-choice and a ing asks. In
con en ional o ced-choice asks, pa icipan s a e gi en a p ede ined lis o emo ions
and selec he one ha bes ma ches he emo ion exp essed by he s imulus. This ask
has been s ongly de ended by some au ho s (Ekman, 1994), hough i may p esen
some di icul ies. When he numbe o op ions is small, esul s may e lec
disc imina ion be ween al e na i es a he han ue emo ion ecogni ion (Banse &
Sche e , 1996; Sche e , 2003; Sche e e al., 2003). Ano he c i icism is ha his ask
migh in la e ag eemen a es because he esponse op ions a e gi en be o ehand o he
pa icipan (Sau e , 2006). This po en ial p oblem is somewha mi iga ed in he s udies
p esen ed he e because we a e chie ly in e es ed in di e ences be ween g oups, no so
much in ag eemen a es pe se. In a ing asks, pa icipan s use quan i a i e in ensi y
scales o e alua e he deg ee o which di e en emo ions a e exp essed by he s imulus.
In a ypical si ua ion, pa icipan s a e asked o a e how much each s imulus exp esses
e e y emo ion included in he s udy (e.g., Adolphs & T anel, 1999; Adolphs, T anel,
Damasio, & Damasio, 1995; Gosselin e al., 2005; Pell & Leona d, 2003; T imme &
Cuddy, 2008). In he ollowing pa ag aphs we b ie ly ou line he empi ical s udies ha
we e conduc ed.
Chap e V. Goals o his Thesis
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Do ageing and musical expe ise modula e emo ion ecogni ion in music?
Li le is known abou indi idual di e ences in how we espond o music. One o he
goals o his hesis is o examine he oles o ageing and musical aining in emo ion
ecogni ion in music. Fo modali ies like acial exp essions, oice and body pos u es, i
has been demons a ed ha ad ancing age is associa ed wi h dec eased accu acy in he
ecogni ion o some emo ions, pa icula ly nega i e ones (e.g., Mill e al., 2009;
Ru man e al., 2008). S udies on acial exp essions ha e also indica ed ha aining
may imp o e he abili y o ecognize emo ions (El enbein, 2006; Ma sumo o & Hwang,
2011; Sil e , Goodman, Knoll, & Isako , 2004). Wha abou musical emo ions? In wo
s udies, p esen ed in Chap e VI, we de e mined how emo ion ecogni ion in
ins umen al music exce p s changes along he adul li e span, and whe he indi iduals
wi h musical aining espond di e en ly han hose wi hou aining. We used an
emo ion a ing ask in bo h s udies, and employed s imuli om he da abase de eloped
and alida ed by Vieilla d and colleagues (2008) o esea ch on musical emo ions.
How a e emo ions ecognized in emo ional p osody in Po uguese?
In he s udy p esen ed in Chap e VII, we de eloped and alida ed a da abase o
p osodic s imuli in Po uguese. The a ailabili y o his kind o esou ces is aluable o
esea ch wi h Po uguese-speaking pa icipan s and o c oss-language s udies.
Analogous da abases ha e been de ised o di e en languages (e.g., Pell, 2002;
S a oniewicz & Majewski, 2009; Wu e al., 2006). The e bal ma e ials consis ed o
sho sen ences wi h emo ionally neu al seman ic con en and o pseudo-sen ences
(u e ances ha include pseudo-wo ds). Two speake s eco ded hese ma e ials a ying
p osody in o de o exp ess neu ali y and six emo ion ca ego ies: ange , disgus , ea ,
happiness, sadness and su p ise. In o de o alida e he s imuli, we pe o med acous ic
analyses and conduc ed a pe cep ual expe imen using a o ced-choice emo ion

Chap e V. Goals o his Thesis
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ecogni ion ask. Reac ion imes and in ensi y judgmen s we e also collec ed and
analysed.
Does emo ion ecogni ion in speech p osody and in music ec ui sha ed
neu ocogni i e mechanisms?
As we emphasized in he e iew o he li e a u e, we can use di e en esea ch
s a egies o examine he ex en o which emo ion p ocessing in speech and music
engages common mechanisms. One consis s o de e mining c oss-domain ans e
e ec s om musical aining o emo ional p osody. A ailable e idence on his issue is
inconclusi e (Thompson e al., 2004; T imme & Cuddy, 2008). In he s udy p esen ed
in Chap e VIII, we hypo hesized ha i neu ocogni i e mechanisms a e sha ed ac oss
domains, hen musicians should show enhanced emo ion ecogni ion in speech p osody.
To in es iga e his hypo hesis, we compa ed highly ained musicians wi h un ained
pa icipan s in a o ced-choice emo ion ecogni ion ask using he p osodic s imuli
p e iously alida ed.
Ano he esea ch s a egy consis s o de e mining whe he a neu opa hological
condi ion ha a ec s speech p osody also a ec s musical emo ions in a simila manne .
In he las empi ical s udy, Chap e IX, we adop ed his app oach in a
neu opsychological s udy on pa ien s wi h PD. The ecogni ion o emo ions in speech
p osody may be impai ed in hese pa ien s, due o hei dys unc ion in he basal ganglia
(G ay & Tickle-Degnen, 2010; Pell & Leona d, 2003). Whe he he ecogni ion o
emo ions in music also depends c i ically on he basal ganglia is s ill poo ly unde s ood
(Oma e al., 2011), as is whe he PD pa ien s ha e di icul ies in dealing wi h musical
emo ions (T ich , Smeding, Speelman, & Schmand, 2010). We es ed pa ien s and
ma ched heal hy con ols in an emo ion a ing ask o music and speech p osody, and
compa ed he e ec o PD ac oss domains. Pa icipan s we e also assessed o emo ion
ecogni ion in acial exp essions, aken as a con ol measu e o exclude gene al de ici s
in emo ion ecogni ion. Fu he mo e, pa ien s and con ols unde wen an ex ensi e
Chap e V. Goals o his Thesis
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neu opsychological e alua ion o asce ain ha gene al cogni i e o low-le el
pe cep ual p oblems would no accoun o pu a i e impai men s in emo ion
ecogni ion.
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PART 2
EMPIRICAL STUDIES
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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inhibi ion o e he p ocessing o nega i e emo ional inpu (due o egula o y s a egies),
and uninhibi ed p ocessing o posi i e inpu . The g ea e ec ui men o on al co ex
by olde adul s in esponse o emo ional s imuli is a consis en inding in he li e a u e
(S . Jacques, Besse e-Symons, & Cabeza, 2009; S . Jacques e al., 2008). I has also
been shown ha amygdala ac i a ions dec ease wi h age o nega i e bu no o
posi i e in o ma ion (Gunning-Dixon e al., 2003; see also, Kisley, Wood, & Bu ows,
2007). An al e na i e explana ion o ageing e ec s on emo ion ecogni ion s esses he
ole o neu opsychological de e io a ion in b ain s uc u es implica ed in emo ion
p ocessing. The ecogni ion o some emo ions would unde go changes and o he s would
emain s able because a es o de e io a ion di e ac oss neu al sys ems o emo ion
(e.g., Raz e al., 2005). Fo ins ance, decline in he cingula e co ex and in he amygdala
migh con ibu e o explain changes in he ecogni ion o ea and sadness in aces, and
he ela i e p ese a ion o basal ganglia s uc u es migh explain he s abili y obse ed
o disgus (Calde e al., 2003; Ru man e al., 2008). Acco ding o Cacioppo,
Be n son, Becha a, T anel, and Hawkley (2011), b ain decline could also accoun o
he posi i i y e ec : age- ela ed de e io a ion o he amygdala, which is impo an o
moni o nega i e in o ma ion, would lead o he educ ion o nega i e a ec . Mo eo e ,
i is possible ha he inc eased on al ac i a ions in olde adul s e lec compensa ion
o b ain decline, ins ead o mo i a ion- ela ed egula o y s a egies (S . Jacques e al.,
2009). O e all, he ela i e con ibu ion o gene al cogni i e decline, mo i a ional
changes, and b ain de e io a ion, o age- ela ed di e ences in emo ion ecogni ion is
s ill a con en ious issue. Because mos esea ch was conduc ed wi h isual s imuli,
s udies on o he modali ies a e c ucial o examine he gene ali y o he e ec s and o
p o ide insigh s in o hei causes.
Does emo ion ecogni ion in music change wi h ad ancing age, unde going simila
de elopmen al modi ica ions as hose o o he emo ional s imuli ele an o social
unc ioning and communica ion? I so, a e changes owa ds posi i i y, wi h
esponsi eness o nega i e emo ions declining mo e han esponsi eness o posi i e
ones? A e he e ec s a consequence o gene al cogni i e decline, o p ima y in o igin?
He e we a e in e es ed in hese ques ions. I has been shown ha musical emo ions may
exhibi some o he p ope ies o o he emo ion domains (see Chap e III), bu he

Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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modula ions ela ed o ageing emain la gely unexplo ed. In a i s sys ema ic app oach
o he opic, Laukka and Juslin (2007) compa ed younge and olde adul s, o e 65
yea s o age, in he ecogni ion o emo ions in music and in speech p osody. Musical
emo ions we e communica ed only h ough exp essi e cues in pe o mance: he same
exce p ( he heme om W. A. Moza ’s Piano Sona a in A Majo , K331) was played
wi h di e ences in ea u es like loudness, a icula ion, ib a o and ph asing, o exp ess
ange , ea , happiness, sadness and neu ali y. Olde adul s had lowe ecogni ion a es
han younge ones o he nega i e emo ions o sadness and ea , bo h in music and in
speech. No di e ences we e obse ed o happiness, neu ali y and ange . These esul s
indica e ha ageing may p oduce simila e ec s in emo ion ecogni ion in music and in
speech p osody. The emo ions which we e ha des o ecognize we e no hose ha
unde wen age- ela ed changes. Thus, gene al cogni i e decline migh no be he
p ima y cause o he e ec s. Howe e , se e al ques ions a e o be examined. Fi s , i is
unknown how ageing impac s emo ions exp essed h ough music composi ional
s uc u e, i.e., emo ions encoded in he musical no a ion by he compose . Va ia ions in
s uc u al ea u es such as mode, empo, pi ch ange and dissonance, de e mine he
exp essed emo ion (e.g., Dalla Bella e al., 2001; Gab ielsson & Linds öm, 2010;
Hun e , Schellenbe g, & Schimmack, 2008) and p edic he lis ene ’s subjec i e
judgmen s (e.g., Balkwill & Thompson, 1999). Second, i emains o be de e mined
whe he e ec s o music a e obse ed al eady in middle-aged, as desc ibed o o he
emo ion modali ies (e.g., Calde e al., 2003; Isaacowi z e al., 2007; Paulmann e al.,
2008b). Thi d, possible associa ions be ween emo ion ecogni ion in music and gene al
cogni i e abili ies need o be inspec ed o de e mine di ec ly whe he age di e ences a e
media ed by gene al, emo ion-unspeci ic, ac o s. Fu he mo e, he s udy by Laukka and
Juslin (2007), as mos s udies, included an unbalanced numbe o posi i e and nega i e
emo ions (only one posi i e emo ion, as compa ed wi h h ee nega i e ones). This
unde mines conclusions ega ding e ec s o alence.
MUSICAL EXPERTISE AND EMOTION RECOGNITION IN MUSIC | Musical expe ise
migh also be a sou ce o indi idual di e ences in emo ion ecogni ion in music.
Longi udinal and c oss-sec ional s udies indica e ha lea ning music changes b ain
mo phology and cogni i e p ocessing ( o a e iew, Habib & Besson, 2009). Fo
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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ins ance, Hyde and colleagues (2009) showed ha 15 mon hs o lessons in ea ly
childhood (mean age a s a o s udy = 6.32 yea s) leads o beha iou al imp o emen s
in melodic and hy hmic disc imina ion asks, and o s uc u al changes in audi o y and
mo o b ain a eas. Adul p o essional musicians, as compa ed o ama eu musicians and
non-musicians, ha e inc eased g ey ma e olume in he p ima y mo o and
soma osenso y a eas, p emo o a eas, an e io supe io pa ie al a eas, in e io empo al
gy us, ce ebellum, Heschl’s gy us and in e io on al gy us (Gase & Schlaug, 2003).
T aining impac s on non-musical cogni i e abili ies, such as disc imina ion o F0 in
speech (e.g., Mo eno e al., 2009), non e bal easoning (Fo gea d, Winne , No on, &
Schlaug, 2008) and execu i e con ol (Bialys ok & DePape, 2009). I is plausible ha i
also ine- unes mechanisms unde lying he p ocessing o musical emo ions because
musical p ac ice ocuses ex ensi ely on he abili y o deal wi h ine-g ained modula ions
o acous ic ea u es o exp essi e pu poses, as well as on he ela ions be ween musical
s uc u e and he ins an ia ion o emo ions. This hypo hesis appea s in ui i e, bu
delinea ing which speci ic musical abili ies a e enhanced in musicians is no a i ial
endea o , pa icula ly in ligh o indings showing ha un ained lis ene s pe o m like
expe s in some music p ocessing asks (e.g., lea ning new musical idioms) – hey
acqui e sophis ica ed musical knowledge jus h ough exposu e ( o a e iew, see
Bigand & Poulin-Cha onna , 2006). Indeed, he s udy by Bigand and colleagues (2005)
sugges s ha emo ional esponses o music migh be la gely simila in musically ained
and un ained lis ene s. They asked pa icipan s o g oup music exce p s acco ding o
he emo ion hey e oked, and he numbe o g oups p oduced was independen o
aining. The only e ec o musical expe ise was in enhancing he consis ency o
esponses ac oss es ing sessions in a es - e es si ua ion. Howe e , his s udy assessed
musical emo ions a an implici le el, and explici ask condi ions migh be mo e
sensi i e o expe ise e ec s (Bigand & Poulin-Cha onna , 2006). Howe e , esul s o
explici asks a e sca ce. In an explo a o y analysis ( ained pa icipan s, n = 9),
Li ings one, Muhlbe ge , B own, and Thompson (2010) ound a signi ican co ela ion
be ween he numbe o yea s o aining and ecogni ion accu acy o music exce p s
ha con eyed emo ions h ough bo h s uc u al and exp essi e cues. These esul s
sugges ha aining does play a ole, hough i is di icul o asce ain whe he he
e ec is d i en by a be e abili y o musicians o p ocess he exp essi e and/o he
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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s uc u al emo ion cues. Bha a a and colleagues (2011) ound ha musical aining is
associa ed wi h enhanced sensi i i y o di e ences in exp essi e musical cues, namely
iming and ampli ude (n = 10 in one expe imen + n = 10 in ano he expe imen ).
Resnicow, Salo ey, and Repp (2004), on he o he hand, ailed o ind such an e ec
(numbe o ained pa icipan s unspeci ied). Hence, a ailable esul s a e mixed. To he
bes o ou knowledge, no s udies ha e add essed he impac o expe ise o emo ions
exp essed by s uc u al ea u es alone. Fu he mo e, p io esea ch was no able o
disen angle pu a i e speci ic e ec s on musical emo ions om domain-gene al
cogni i e bene i s o aining (e.g., Bialys ok & DePape, 2009; Schellenbe g, 2006)
THE CURRENT STUDIES | The goal o he wo ollowing s udies is o de e mine how
ageing and musical expe ise modula e emo ion ecogni ion in ins umen al music. We
also aim o es ablish whe he hese e ec s a e independen o gene al cogni i e
di e ences. S imuli we e music exce p s p e iously alida ed o exp ess wo posi i e
emo ions, happiness and peace ulness, and wo nega i e ones, sadness and ea / h ea
(Vieilla d e al., 2008). These exce p s we e un amilia o he pa icipan s – hey we e
composed o expe imen al pu poses. Emo ions we e communica ed h ough
composi ional s uc u al cues only. Pa icipan s a ed how much each exce p exp essed
each o he ou emo ions on in ensi y scales. This ask does no in ol e a selec ion o a
single ca ego y, and so i is less p one o he esponse biases ha can a ec
con en ional o ced-choice asks (e.g., Isaacowi z e al., 2007). Addi ionally, i
mi iga es he high decisional demands posed by o ced choices, which migh augmen
he impac o olde adul s’ gene al cogni i e di icul ies. Such a ask was p e iously
used in s udies on emo ion ecogni ion in acial exp essions (e.g., Adolphs, Schul, &
T anel, 1998), speech p osody (e.g., Pé on e al., 2010), non e bal ocal exp essions
(Sau e , Eisne , Calde , e al., 2010) and music (Gosselin e al., 2005, 2007). In S udy 1,
we ocused p ima ily on age- ela ed changes. We co e ed he ull ange o he adul li e
span, including younge , middle-aged and olde pa icipan s. Based on he e iewed
li e a u e, we p edic ed ha ad ancing age would p oduce dec eased esponsi eness o
musical emo ions, pa icula ly o he nega i e ones (sadness and ea / h ea ). These
changes would be signi ican al eady in middle-age, as p e iously obse ed o o he
modali ies. Because a subse o pa icipan s had some deg ee o musical aining, we
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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also unde ook a p elimina y examina ion o whe he ha aining is associa ed wi h
enhanced sensi i i y o musical emo ions. In S udy 2, musical expe ise and age we e
manipula ed o hogonally. We compa ed expe musicians and musically un ained
lis ene s (he ea e , con ols) om wo age coho s, young and middle adul hood. In
addi ion o emo ion ecogni ion, hey we e assessed o domain-gene al cogni i e
abili ies, and comple ed b ie con ol measu es o pe sonali y and socio-communica i e
ai s, because hese may in luence emo ion p ocesses (e.g., Hamann & Canli, 2004;
Mill e al., 2009). We expec ed an ad an age o musicians o e con ols o emo ion
ecogni ion. I ageing and expe ise e ec s on musical emo ions a e p ima y in o igin,
hey should be independen o gene al cogni i e and pe sonali y measu es. In bo h
S udy 1 and S udy 2, mul iple eg ession analyses we e conduc ed o explo e how
s uc u al cues o music exce p s p edic pa icipan s’ subjec i e emo ion a ings, and
whe he age and expe ise e ec s a e linked wi h di e ences in weigh ing hese cues.
6.2. STUDY 1
6.2.1. Me hod
PARTICIPANTS | A o al o 114 heal hy adul s (67 emale) olun ee ed o ake pa in
his s udy. They we e aged be ween 17 and 84 yea s, and we e ca ego ized in o h ee
g oups wi h 38 pa icipan s each: younge , middle-aged and olde adul s. Table 3
p esen s hei demog aphic and backg ound cha ac e is ics. The younge adul s we e
unde g adua e and g adua e s uden s om Uni e si y o Po o; middle-age and olde
ones came om se e al local communi ies, including senio uni e si ies. The h ee
g oups we e ma ched o educa ion le el, as assessed by he numbe o yea s a ending
school (p > .05). All pa icipan s had no mal o co ec ed- o-no mal ision, and none
epo ed head auma, subs ance abuse, cogni i e o hea ing di icul ies, no majo
psychia ic o neu ological illnesses. Fo olde adul s, possible cogni i e decline was
e alua ed by using he cogni i e sc eening es Mini-Men al S a e Examina ion, MMSE
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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(Fols ein, Fols ein, & McHugh, 1975; Po uguese e sion, Gue ei o, Sil a, Bo elho,
Lei ão, & Ga cia, 1994); hey pe o med nea ceiling, 29.3 on a e age (maximum 30),
and none sco ed below 27. Olde pa icipan s also comple ed a pu e- one audiome ic
sc eening o gua an ee ha hey had accep able hea ing h esholds (a leas 30 dB HL
o equencies o 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz and 4000 Hz a le and igh ea s). Thi y-
h ee pa icipan s epo ed ha ing had some kind o o mal musical aining, including
lea ning how o play an ins umen ; mean o 5.1 yea s o aining (SD = 3.9; ange = 1 –
14; age when aining began, M = 11 yea s).
Table 3. Demog aphic and backg ound cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s in each age
g oup (S udy 1). SDs a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Age g oup
Younge
Middle-aged
Olde
Age (yea s)
21.8 (3.5)
44.5 (6.2)
67.2 (6.2)
Age ange (yea s)
17 - 29
35 - 56
60 - 84
Gende
17F / 21M
21F / 17M
29F / 9M
Educa ion (yea s)
15.5 (2.2)
17.0 (3.7)
15.6 (3.1)
Mini-Men al S a e Examina ion (/30)
-
-
29.3 (1.0)
Musical aining (yea s)
5 (4.1)
4.8 (4.2)
5.8 (2.8)
Pa icipan s wi h musical aining (n)
18
10
5
MUSIC STIMULI | The s imuli we e 56 music exce p s alida ed o esea ch on
emo ions by Vieilla d and colleagues (2008). These exce p s we e composed o exp ess
ou emo ions: happiness, peace ulness, sadness and ea / h ea , 14 s imuli pe ca ego y.
They consis o a melody wi h accompanimen , ollow he ules o he Wes e n onal
sys em, and we e p oduced in piano imb e by a digi al syn hesize . The emo ional
in o ma ion is exp essed exclusi ely by music composi ional s uc u e, h ough
a ia ions in ea u es such as mode, dissonance, pi ch ange, one densi y, hy hmic
egula i y and empo. Exce p s do no a y in pe o mance- ela ed exp essi e ea u es
like dynamics, ib a o, ph asing o a icula ion. The mean du a ion o he exce p s is
12.4 s. They we e downloaded a he In e ne si e om he Isabelle Pe e z Resea ch
Labo a o y (www.b ams.umon eal.ca/plab/publica ions/a icle/96). Pe cep ual

Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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alida ion p ocedu es including ca ego iza ion, ga ing and dissimila i y judgmen s,
con i med ha he in ended emo ions a e pe cei ed apidly and wi h high ag eemen
a es be ween lis ene s, high accu acy (Vieilla d e al., 2008). Emo ions can be
ecognized in hese exce p s uni e sally, ha is, in he absence o p io exposi ion o he
Wes e n music (F i z e al., 2009). The ha e also been used success ully in
neu opsychological s udies wi h pa ien s wi h ocal b ain damage (Gosselin e al., 2005,
2007, 2011), neu odegene a i e diso de s (D apeau, Gosselin, Gagnon, Pe e z, &
Lo ain, 2009), as well as wi h neu o ypical child en in de elopmen al s udies (Hun e
e al., 2011).
The s imuli we e pseudo- andomized and di ided in o wo blocks o 28 ials each; he
p esen a ion o de o he blocks was coun e balanced ac oss pa icipan s. Two
addi ional s imuli we e used as p ac ice ials: 15 s om Debussy’s Golliwog’s
Cakewalk, o happiness, and 18 s om Rachmanino ’s 18 h Va ia ion om he
Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini, o peace ulness.
PROCEDURE | Pa icipan s we e es ed indi idually in a single expe imen al session
las ing abou 30 minu es; excep ionally, some unde g adua e s uden s we e es ed in
g oups o wo o h ee. They we e old ha hey would lis en o sho exce p s o music
exp essing di e en emo ional s a es, namely happy (aleg e), peace ul (se eno), sad
( is e), and/o ea ul/ h ea ening (assus ado ). All pa icipan s we e well amilia ized
wi h he ou emo ion labels. They a ed how much each s imulus exp essed each o he
ou emo ions on 10-poin scales, om 0 (absen , ausen e) o 9 (p esen , p esen e). I
was s essed ha pa icipan s should always espond o he ou emo ion scales, as hey
could pe cei e di e en emo ions simul aneously, wi h simila o di e en deg ees o
in ensi y. Fo ins ance, e en i hey pe cei ed a s imulus as happy, hey should a e i
no only wi h espec o happiness, bu also wi h espec o he possible exp ession o
sadness, ea and peace ulness. Each s imulus was p esen ed only once and no eedback
was gi en. The ask s a ed wi h p ac ice ials, ollowed by he wo blocks o s imuli.
S imulus p esen a ion was con olled by Supe Lab e sion 4.0 so wa e (Abboud,
Schul z, & Zei lin, 2006), unning on an Apple MacBook P o compu e . Exce p s we e
p esen ed ia high-quali y loudspeake s, adjus ed o a com o able olume le el o
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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each pa icipan . Responses we e collec ed ia a pencil-and-pape ques ionnai e.
Pa icipan s we e encou aged o espond as and spon aneously ( hey did no need o
wai un il he end o he exce p o espond). The in e -s imulus in e al was ixed o
younge and middle-aged pa icipan s, 6 s, and con ingen upon esponse o olde ones,
because some o hem needed mo e han 6 s o p o ide he ou a ings.
In he same expe imen al session, pa icipan s comple ed a b ie ques ionnai e explo ing
hei demog aphic, backg ound, and musical p o ile. Olde adul s also pe o med he
audiome ic sc eening and he MMSE be o e he expe imen al ask.
6.2.2. Resul s
To compa e emo ion ecogni ion ac oss age g oups we de i ed a measu e o accu acy
om he aw a ings, based on he emo ion ha ecei ed he highes a ing. Fo each
subjec and exce p , when he highes o he ou a ings ma ched he in ended emo ion,
he esponse was coded as an accu a e ca ego iza ion. When he highes a ing
co esponded o a non-in ended emo ion, he esponse was conside ed inaccu a e.
When he highes a ing co esponded o mo e han one emo ion (e.g., gi ing 8 o
sadness and also o peace ulness, and lowe a ings o he o he wo ca ego ies), he
esponse was conside ed ambi alen . Ambi alen esponses indica e ha , in a gi en
exce p , pa icipan s pe cei ed mo e han one emo ion wi h he same s eng h. This
de i ed measu e o accu acy was used p e iously in s udies on emo ion pe cep ion in
music (Gosselin e al., 2005, 2007; Vieilla d e al., 2008) and in p osody (e.g., Adolphs
e al., 2002). I con ols o he possibili y ha pa icipan s o di e en ages used he
scales di e en ly, and akes in o accoun judgmen s bo h o he in ended and non-
in ended emo ions: a esponse is accu a e only i he a ing o he in ended emo ion is
highe han he a ings o all he non-in ended emo ions.
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Table 4 p esen s he pe cen age o accu a e ca ego iza ions o each emo ion, and he
dis ibu ion o inaccu a e and ambi alen esponses, sepa a ely o younge , middle-
aged and olde pa icipan s. Accu acy a es we e always highe o he in ended han o
he non-in ended ca ego ies, indica ing ha he highes a ings we e assigned
consis en ly o he in ended emo ions. Ag eemen a es anged be ween 33% ( ea in
olde pa icipan s) and 97% (happiness in younge ones), as can be seen in he diagonal
lines o he Table 4 (bold cells). This con i ms ha he s imuli e ec i ely
communica ed he ou emo ions.
Table 4. Dis ibu ion o esponses (%) o each in ended emo ion as a unc ion o age
(S udy 1). Diagonal cells in bold indica e accu a e ca ego iza ions, i.e., ma ch be ween
he highes a ing and he in ended emo ion. Ambi alen esponses ep esen si ua ions
in which he highes a ing was assigned o mo e han one emo ion. S anda d e o s a e
p esen ed in pa en heses.
Age g oup /
exce p ype
Dis ibu ion o esponses (%)
Happy
Peace ul
Sad
Sca y
Ambi alen
Younge
Happy
97 (1.1)
1
0
0
2
Peace ul
12
44 (4.9)
33
0
11
Sad
1
9
79 (3.6)
3
8
Sca y
6
1
8
76 (2.9)
8
Middle-aged
Happy
94 (1.9)
2
1
0
4
Peace ul
9
65 (4.6)
11
0
14
Sad
2
24
58 (4.8)
2
14
Sca y
13
5
22
45 (5.5)
14
Olde
Happy
88 (3.1)
5
1
0
5
Peace ul
13
57 (4)
15
0
15
Sad
2
33
45 (4.3)
2
18
Sca y
18
10
23
33 (4.1)
15
EFFECTS OF AGE ON ACCURACY | To examine how age modula es accu acy, co ec
ca ego iza ions pe emo ion we e a csine ans o med and submi ed o an ANCOVA,
wi h emo ion as epea ed-measu es ac o (happy, peace ul, sad and sca y), age as
be ween subjec s- ac o (younge , middle-aged and olde ), and yea s o musical aining
as co a ia e. Musical aining was pa ialled ou he e and in all he analyses on age
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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e ec s because he numbe o ained pa icipan s was unbalanced ac oss age g oups
(see Table 3). Main e ec s and in e ac ions we e ollowed-up wi h pos hoc Tukey HSD
es s. E ec sizes a e exp essed as pa ial e a squa ed (!p2). The ou emo ions elici ed
signi ican ly di e en accu acy a es: happiness eached he highes accu acy (93%, ps
< .01), ollowed by sadness (61%) and peace ulness (55%), wi h simila a es (p > .1);
ea had lowe accu acy han happiness and sadness (52%, ps < .01), bu no
peace ulness [p > .5; main e ec o emo ion, F(3,330) = 90.16, p < .0001, !p2 = .45]. As
p edic ed, age g oups di e ed in emo ion ecogni ion, bu no uni o mly ac oss
ca ego ies [main e ec o age, F(2,110) = 11.78, p < .0001, !p2 = .17; in e ac ion Age x
Emo ion, F(6,330) = 12.71, p < .0001, !p2 = .19]. Fo he nega i e emo ions, sadness
and ea , middle-aged and olde pa icipan s we e less accu a e han younge ones (ps <
.001); middle-aged and olde pa icipan s did no di e signi ican ly (ps > .3). Fo he
posi i e emo ions, happiness and peace ulness, accu acy a es emained in a ian ac oss
age g oups (ps > .9), wi h he excep ion ha o peace ulness middle-aged pa icipan s
achie ed be e accu acy han younge ones (p < .01). We epea ed his analysis wi h
pa icipan s’ aw a ings on he in ended emo ion scales ( aw a ings a e displayed in
Appendix 1). The pa e n o age e ec s was globally eplica ed: olde pa icipan s
p o ided lowe a ings han younge ones o sad and sca y exce p s (ps < .01), and
a ings o happy and peace ul ones did no change (ps > 1); o sca y exce p s,
di e ences we e signi ican al eady in middle-age (p < .0001), bu o sad ones hey
we e no [p > .1; main e ec o age, F(2,110) = 10.91, p < .0001, !p2 = .17; in e ac ion
Age x Emo ion, F(6,330) = 15.28, p < .0001, !p2 = .22]. The age di e ences we e also
eplica ed wi h accu acy a es co ec ed o possible esponse bias (unbiased accu acy
a es a e displayed in Appendix 2)3: olde pa icipan s had lowe accu acy han younge
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3 In o ced-choice asks, aw p opo ions o co ec esponses a e no always he bes measu e o accu acy
because hey a e ulne able o esponse bias. Pa icipan s migh be disp opo iona ely likely o espond
using some esponse ca ego ies a he han o he s. As a consequence, di e ences be ween g oups migh
e lec his bias ins ead o ue di e ences in he in ended abili y ( o a e iew, see Isaacowi z e al.,
2007). Ou accu acy da a a e less p one o bias because hey a e de i ed om a ings on in ensi y scales
and pa icipan s did no pe o m any choice be ween ca ego ies. Howe e , o con i m ha he pa e n o
age- ela ed changes is no a by-p oduc o possible esponse ends, we eanalyzed accu acy using
unbiased hi a es, Hu (Wagne , 1993). Hu is a measu e o accu acy which is insensi i e o bias in
esponses. I ep esen s he join p obabili y ha a s imulus ca ego y is co ec ly ecognized when i has
been p esen ed, and ha a esponse is co ec gi en ha i has been used. I was calcula ed o each
emo ion and pa icipan using he o mula Hu = A2 / (B X C), whe e A co esponds o he numbe o
s imuli co ec ly iden i ied, B o he numbe o p esen ed s imuli (14 pe ca ego y), and C o he o al
numbe o esponses p o ided o ha ca ego y (i.e., including misclassi ica ions). Values we e a csine
ans o med be o e being analyzed.
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Because ca ego iza ion accu acy o happiness was e y high, 93% co ec on a e age,
i migh be a gued ha he in a iance obse ed ac oss age g oups e lec s a ceiling
e ec . No wi hs anding, he obse ed a es s ill lie below he maximum sco e, and hus
hey would allow o a iabili y in pe o mance. Addi ionally, aw a ings o happiness
we e also highly s able ac oss age g oups (younge , 7.8; middle-aged, 7.7; olde , 7.6;
maximum 9), and his sugges s ue in a iance, no lack o s imulus sensi i i y o
di e ences ac oss lis ene s.
Can decline in gene al cogni i e unc ioning unde lie he age- ela ed di e ences in
emo ion ecogni ion? This would p edic changes o he emo ions which a e ha des o
ecognize, and we did no ind ha : he e we e changes o a ela i ely easy emo ion,
sadness, and s abili y o a ela i ely di icul one, peace ulness. Fu he mo e, olde
pa icipan s had a nea ceiling pe o mance on he MMSE, which indica es ha hey did
no ha e p ominen global impai men s. Changes o emo ion ecogni ion migh hus be
p ima y in o igin. S ill, we canno ule ou he possible ole o sub le cogni i e changes,
namely in he case o middle-aged pa icipan s, who we e no inspec ed o domain-
gene al abili ies. In S udy 2 we examine di ec ly whe he he e a e associa ions be ween
emo ion ecogni ion and gene al cogni i e pe o mance. We also compa e expe
musicians wi h un ained lis ene s o ollow-up he e ec o musical aining un eiled in
S udy 1. In S udy 2 we include wo age g oups, younge and middle-aged adul s; we
selec ed middle-aged ins ead o olde pa icipan s because de elopmen al changes in he
middle-yea s a e equen ly neglec ed in he li e a u e. Addi ionally, we obse ed
ela i e s abili y in he pa e n o changes om middle-age onwa d ( o simila esul s in
o he modali ies, see Isaacowi z e al., 2007).

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6.3. STUDY 2
6.3.1. Me hod
PARTICIPANTS | Eigh y pa icipan s ook pa in his s udy (none o hem pa icipa ed in
S udy 1). They we e dis ibu ed in o ou g oups acco ding o musical expe ise
(musicians and con ols) and age (younge and middle-aged), 20 pe g oup (10 emale).
Table 6 p esen s hei demog aphic and backg ound cha ac e is ics. Younge
pa icipan s we e 23 yea s old on a e age (SD = 3.2), and middle-aged ones we e 47.7
yea s old (SD = 4.4). Musicians we e ins umen alis s who played piano (n = 18), lu e
(n = 5), iolin (n = 5), gui a (n = 3), double bass (n = 2), cla ine (n = 1), d ums (n = 1),
cello (n = 1), oboe (n = 1), iola (n = 1), ombone (n = 1) o acco dion (n = 1); in
addi ion o ins umen al aining, wo o hem had ocal aining in classical singing.
They had a leas 8 yea s o o mal musical aining s a ed in childhood, and p ac iced
egula ly hei ins umen s a he momen o es ing. Younge ones we e ad anced
music s uden s o p o essional musicians, and olde ones we e music eache s and/o
o ches al pe o me s. They we e ec ui ed om local music schools and o ches as,
including Conse a ó io de Música do Po o, Escola Supe io de Música e A es do
Espec áculo do Ins i u o Poli écnico do Po o and O ques a Sin ónica do Po o Casa da
Música. Younge and olde musicians we e ma ched o he numbe o yea s o aining,
age o commencemen and ins umen al p ac ice pe week (Fs < 1; see Table 6).
Con ols ha e ne e had o mal music lessons no played any ins umen s. They we e
ec ui ed om se e al local communi ies. The ou g oups we e ma ched o educa ion
le el, as assessed by he numbe o yea s a ending school (Fs < 1). All pa icipan s had
no mal o co ec ed- o-no mal ision and epo ed no head auma, subs ance abuse no
majo psychia ic o neu ological illnesses. The g oups a ed hemsel es simila ly o
hea ing acui y in a scale om 1, e y good, o 6, e y bad (M = 2.1; SD = .9; ps > .1).
Pa icipan s we e asked o sel - a e hei in e es in music in a scale om 1, e y high, o
6, e y low; all epo ed ha music is impo an o hem, bu musicians e ealed
s onge in e es (1.03) han con ols [2.18, F(1,76) = 51.94, p < .001, !p2 = .4].
Pa icipan s we e inancially compensa ed o hei pa icipa ion.
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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Table 6. Demog aphic and backg ound cha ac e is ics o con ols and musicians o
each age g oup (S udy 2). SDs a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Con ols
Musicians
Cha ac e is ics
Younge
Middle-aged
Younge
Middle-aged
Age (yea s)
22.7 (2.8)
47 (4)
23.4 (3.6)
48.4 (4.8)
Educa ion (yea s)
15.7 (1.5)
17.1 (4)
15.4 (1.8)
16.5 (3.6)
Musical aining (yea s)
-
-
11.3 (3.1)
12.6 (3.2)
Age o commencemen (yea s)
-
-
9.2 (2.5)
8.4 (4.5)
Ins umen al p ac ice (hou s/week)
-
-
12.7 (11.6)
12.3 (11)
Mon eal Cogni i e Assessmen (/30)
28.2 (1.3)
26.8 (1.9)
28.1 (1.6)
27.8 (1.2)
Ra en’s APM (p oblems sol ed, /36)
20.5 (4.7)
13.9 (5.1)
19.7 (4.9)
16.8 (4.5)
S oop es 1
Baseline (wo ds/s)
2.09 (0.3)
2.14 (0.3)
2.37 (0.3)
2.39 (0.3)
Con lic (colo s/s)
1.04 (0.2)
0.87 (0.1)
1.08 (0.2)
1.04 (0.2)
Ten-I em Pe sonali y In en o y
Ex a e sion (/7)
4.8 (1.5)
4.6 (1.7)
4.8 (1)
4.9 (1.9)
Ag eeableness (/7)
5.3 (0.8)
5.5 (1)
5.2 (0.9)
5.5 (0.9)
Conscien iousness (/7)
5 (1.3)
5.5 (1.3)
4.2 (1.4)
5.1 (1.5)
Emo ional s abili y (/7)
4.2 (1.4)
4.4 (2)
3.6 (1.2)
4.5 (1.5)
Openness o expe ience (/7)
5.6 (0.8)
5.6 (1)
5.6 (1)
6.1 (0.9)
Au ism Spec um Quo ien 2 (/50)
17.5 (5.4)
18 (4.8)
17.5 (5.7)
17.5 (5.5)
1 We compu ed he numbe o i ems named pe s: numbe o co ec esponses/ ime aken o pe o m he
ask
2 Highe alues indica e highe au is ic-like socio-communica i e ai s (cu -o o clinically signi ican
le els o au is ic ai s, 32)
COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT | The esul s o cogni i e es s and
pe sonali y scales a e summa ized in Table 6. Pa icipan s we e sc eened o global
cogni i e dys unc ion wi h he Mon eal Cogni i e Assessmen (MOCA;
www.moca es .o g; Po uguese e sion, Simões, Fi mino, Vila , & Ma ins, 2007), a
b ie ins umen which inspec s a en ion and concen a ion, execu i e unc ions,
memo y, language, isuocons uc ional skills, concep ual hinking, calcula ions and
o ien a ion. Non e bal gene al in elligence was assessed wi h a 20-minu e imed e sion
o he Ra en’s Ad anced P og essi e Ma ices; his e sion co ela es s ongly wi h he
un imed one (Hamel & Schmi mann, 2006). To examine execu i e con ol, we used a
S oop ask (T ene y, C osson, Deboe, & Lebe , 1995). In he e sion used he e
pa icipan s pe o med speeded naming in wo condi ions: baseline, consis ing o
eading wo ds deno ing colou names (blue, azul; pink, osa; g ey, cinza; g een, e de);
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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and an incong uous condi ion, consis ing o naming he ink o w i en wo ds ha
deno ed an incong uen colo name (e.g., he wo d "blue" p in ed in g een ink;
Po uguese e sion, Cas o, Ma ins, & Cunha, 2003). Musicians and con ols did no
di e in he MOCA and Ra en’s ma ices (see Table 6; ps > .19). This indica es ha
hey we e simila o he gene al abili ies assessed by hese es s. In he S oop ask,
musicians we e as e han con ols in bo h baseline [F(1,76) = 16.2, p < .001, !p2 = .18]
and incong uous condi ions [F(1,76) = 6.7, p < .05, !p2 = .08]. Thei ad an age in he
incong uous condi ion only app oached signi icance when baseline di e ences we e
con olled o [ANCOVA, F(1,75) = 3.7, p = .06, !p2 = .05]. This sugges s ha
musicians’ enhanced execu i e con ol was pa ially due o an ad an age in p ocessing
speed; e ec s o musical expe ise on execu i e con ol ha e been ound by Bialys ok
and DePape (2009). Middle-aged pa icipan s sco ed lowe han younge ones in he
MOCA [F(1,76) = 5.47, p < .05, !p2 = .07], Ra en’s ma ices [F(1,76) = 19.5, p < .01,
!p2 = .2] and in he con lic condi ion o S oop [F(1,76) = 7.7, p < .01, !p2 = .09]. These
ageing e ec s we e obse ed simila ly o con ols and o musicians (in e ac ions Age
x Expe ise ns, ps > .05). The only measu e ha did no show age- ela ed decline was
he baseline condi ion o he S oop es (F < 1; in e ac ion Age x Expe ise ns, F < 1).
Because pe sonali y cha ac e is ics can in luence emo ion p ocessing (e.g., Hamann &
Canli, 2004; Ma sumo o e al., 2000; Mill e al., 2009), pa icipan s comple ed he Ten-
I em Pe sonali y In en o y (TIPI), a b ie ques ionnai e ha inspec s he Big-5
pe sonali y domains: ex a e sion, ag eeableness, conscien iousness, emo ional s abili y
and openness o expe ience (Gosling, Ren ow, & Swann J ., 2003; Po uguese e sion,
Lima & Cas o, 2009). They also comple ed The Au ism-Spec um Quo ien (AQ), a
ques ionnai e ha assesses socio-communica i e ai s associa ed wi h he au is ic
spec um in neu o ypical adul s (Ba on-Cohen, Wheelw igh , Skinne , Ma in, &
Clubley, 2001; Po uguese e sion, Cas o & Lima, 2009). Au is ic ai s co ela e wi h
s uc u al and unc ional di e ences in b ain egions in ol ed in emo ion p ocessing,
e en in neu o ypicals (Hagen e al., 2011; Ma ino e al., 2009). Bo h age and expe ise
g oups had simila pe sonali y and socio-communica i e cha ac e is ics, as assessed by
hese measu es (Fs < 1; see Table 6).
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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MUSIC STIMULI | As in S udy 1, s imuli we e aken om he se alida ed by Vieilla d
and colleagues (2008). He e we e used 10 exce p s pe emo ion ca ego y, 40 in o al.
They we e pseudo- andomized and di ided in o wo blocks o 20 ials each.
PROCEDURE | Pa icipan s we e es ed in an indi idual session las ing abou 90
minu es. The ins uc ions and s uc u e o he expe imen al ask we e he same as in
S udy 1.
Besides he expe imen al ask and he cogni i e and pe sonali y es s, pa icipan s also
pe o med a o ced-choice iden i ica ion o se en emo ional ones in speech p osody
( hese esul s a e p esen ed in Chap e VIII).
6.3.2. Resul s
Compa isons ac oss g oups we e based on de i ed accu acy a es, as in S udy 1. Table 7
p esen s he pe cen age o accu a e ca ego iza ions o each emo ion, and he
dis ibu ion o inaccu a e and ambi alen esponses, sepa a ely o age and expe ise
g oups. Ag eemen a es anged be ween 42% (peace ulness in younge con ols) and
96% (happiness in younge con ols).
EFFECTS OF AGE AND MUSICAL EXPERTISE ON ACCURACY | Co ec iden i ica ions
pe emo ion we e a csine ans o med and submi ed o an ANOVA, wi h emo ion as
epea ed-measu es ac o (happy, peace ul, sad and sca y), and age (young and middle-
age) and expe ise (con ols and musicians) as be ween-subjec ac o s. Happiness
eached he highes accu acy, 94%, and peace ulness he lowes , 50%; sadness and ea
elici ed in e media e and simila accu acies, 67% [ps < .001; main e ec o emo ion,
F(3,228) = 63.62, p < .001, !p2 = .46].
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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Table 7. Dis ibu ion o esponses (%) o each in ended emo ion, as unc ion o age and expe ise (S udy 2). Diagonal cells in bold
indica e accu a e ca ego iza ions. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Dis ibu ion o esponses (%)
Con ols
Musicians
Age g oup/
exce p ype
Happy
Peace ul
Sad
Sca y
Ambi alen
Happy
Peace ul
Sad
Sca y
Ambi alen
Younge
Happy
96 (1.3)
1
1
0
2
95 (2.8)
2
0
0
4
Peace ul
14
42 (7.3)
27
0
18
22
46 (7.5)
11
0
22
Sad
0
6
83 (3)
3
9
0
12
70 (6.6)
1
18
Sca y
6
0
8
77 (4.4)
10
2
2
15
70 (7)
11
Middle-aged
Happy
91 (3.8)
0
3
2
4
95 (2.3)
1
0
1
5
Peace ul
13
51 (5.4)
11
3
23
12
64 (5.7)
12
0
13
Sad
6
20
52 (7.1)
1
22
1
18
64 (5.6)
1
17
Sca y
17
2
14
49 (5.8)
18
8
0
11
72 (5.5)
10

Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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Conce ning he impac o ageing, he pa e n ob ained in S udy 1 was eplica ed:
planned compa isons con i med ha middle-aged pa icipan s we e less accu a e han
younge ones a ca ego izing he nega i e emo ions, sadness (76% o younge s. 58%
o middle-aged, p < .01) and ea (73% o younge s. 60% o middle-aged, p < .05).
By con as , he ecogni ion o happiness emained s able (p > .4), and accu acy a es
o peace ulness inc eased [44% o younge s. 57% o middle-aged, p < .05; main
e ec o age ns, p > .1; in e ac ion Age x Emo ion, F(3,228) = 7.3, p < .001, !p2 = .09].
No e ha he age- ela ed changes o sadness and ea we e obse ed in con ols (ps <
.01), bu no in musicians [ps > .9; in e ac ion Age x Expe ise, F(1,76) = 5.79, p < .05,
!p2 = .07]: younge and middle-aged musicians had simila accu acy a es. Ou
p edic ion ha musical expe ise would be associa ed wi h enhanced accu acy was
con i med, hough o olde musicians only: middle-aged musicians had highe
accu acy (73%) han age-ma ched con ols (61%, p < .05), bu younge musicians
(70%) and con ols (73%) pe o med simila ly [p > .3; main e ec o expe ise ns, p >
.1; see abo e he in e ac ion Age x Expe ise]. This e ec was independen o emo ion
ca ego y (in e ac ions Expe ise x Emo ion, and Age x Expe ise x Emo ion ns, ps >
.3)4. The pa e n o age and expe ise e ec s was globally eplica ed in ANOVAS on
aw a ings (see aw a ings in Appendix 4) and on unbiased accu acy a es (see
unbiased a e in Appendix 5), excep ha he age- ela ed inc ease in esponsi eness o
peace ulness was no signi ican [ aw a ings: middle-aged pa icipan s p o ided lowe
a ings han younge ones o sadness and ea , ps < .05, bu o happiness and
peace ulness a ings emained in a ian , ps > .4, in e ac ion Age x Emo ion, F(3,228) =
7.55, p < .001, !p2 = .09; middle-aged musicians p o ided highe a ings on he in ended
emo ions han con ols, p < .05, in e ac ion Age x Expe ise, F(1,76) = 7.01, p < .01, !p2
= .08; unbiased a es: middle-aged pa icipan s we e less accu a e han younge ones o
sadness and ea , ps < .05, bu simila o happiness and peace ulness, ps > .05,
in e ac ion Age x Emo ion, F(3,228) = 6.65, p < .001, !p2 = .08; middle-aged musicians
pe o med be e han age-ma ched con ols, p < .05, in e ac ion Age x Expe ise,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4 We explo ed whe he musicians’ pe o mance a ied acco ding o he played ins umen . Because hey
we e widely dis ibu ed ac oss many di e en ins umen s (see Me hods), we i s ca ego ized hem by
ype o ins umen s [keyboa d, n = 18; s ings, n = 12; woodwinds, n = 7; o he s, n = 3 (d ums, acco dion,
and ombone)] and hen compu ed an ANOVA wi h accu acy a es as dependen measu e. Pe o mance
was simila ac oss ins umen ypes (p > .1).
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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129
F(1,76) = 4.35, p < .05, !p2 = .05]. Gende did no impac esul s (main e ec o gende
ns, F < 1; in e ac ions wi h age, expe ise and emo ion ns, ps > .05).
We also compu ed Pea son co ela ions be ween yea s o age and ca ego iza ion
accu acy o each emo ion. These analyses we e pe o med sepa a ely o con ols and
musicians because age a ec ed di e en ly bo h g oups. Fo con ols, ecogni ion
accu acy dec eased wi h age o sadness ( = -.56, p < .0001) and ea ( = -.52, p <
.001), bu no o happiness ( = -.2, p > .1) and peace ulness ( = .09, p > .5). Fo
musicians, ecogni ion accu acy was no linked wi h age (ps > .05).
The co ela ion be ween he numbe o yea s o musical aining and ecogni ion a es
ob ained in S udy 1 was eplica ed in his sample o expe musicians. The longe hey
we e ained, he mo e accu a e hey we e a ca ego izing he exce p s ( = .33, p < .05),
as illus a ed in Figu e 2. The co ela ion was ma ginally signi ican when i was
conduc ed on all pa icipan s, musicians and con ols, = .21, p = .07.
Figu e 2. Sca e plo o emo ion ecogni ion accu acy (%) o musicians by yea s o
aining (S udy 2).
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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DISTRIBUTION OF INACCURATE RESPONSES | An ANOVA was ca ied ou o each
emo ion, wi h he non-in ended esponse ca ego ies as epea ed-measu es ac o ( h ee
non-in ended emo ions and ambi alen esponses), and age and expe ise as be ween-
subjec ac o s. The pa e n o esponses b oadly mi o ed he one epo ed in S udy 1.
Fo happy music, misclassi ica ions we e a e and included chie ly ambi alen
esponses, 4% [0.75% o each o he o he ca ego ies, ps < .001; main e ec o
ca ego y, F(3,228) = 8.74, p < .001, !p2 = .1]. Fo peace ul music, non-in ended
esponses we e simila ly equen o ambi alence (19%), sadness (15%) and happiness
[15%, p > .3; 1% o ea , ps < .001; main e ec o ca ego y, F(3,228) = 32.3, p < .001,
!p2 = .3]. Fo sad music, non-in ended esponses we e common o ambi alence (16%)
and peace ulness [14%, p > .3; 2% o happiness and 1% o ea , ps < .01; main e ec
o ca ego y, F(3,228) = 54.98, p < .001, !p2 = .45]. Sca y music was misclassi ied
mainly as sad and ambi alen (bo h 12%), and less as happy [8%, p < .05; 1% o
peace ulness, ps < .05; main e ec o ca ego y, F(3,228) = 19.78, p < .001, !p2 = .2].
The pa e n o non-in ended esponses o happy and sca y music was simila ac oss age
and expe ise g oups (in e ac ions Age x Ca ego y, Expe ise x Ca ego y, and Age x
Expe ise x Ca ego y ns, ps > .05). Rega ding peace ul music, younge pa icipan s ga e
mo e sad esponses han middle-aged ones, and con ols (younge and olde ) ga e mo e
ambi alen han happy esponses; hese di e ences we e no obse ed in musicians
[in e ac ion Age x Expe ise x Ca ego y, F(3,228) = 3.78, p < .05, !p2 = .05; in e ac ions
Emo ion x Age and Emo ion x Expe ise ns, ps > .2]. As o sad music, younge
pa icipan s ga e less esponses o peace ulness han middle-aged ones [in e ac ion
Age x Ca ego y, F(3,228) = 5.16, p < .001, !p2 = .06; he o he in e ac ions we e ns, ps
> .05].
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN GENERAL COGNITIVE ABILITIES, PERSONALITY AND
EMOTION RECOGNITION | The ou g oups we e ma ched o backg ound a iables
such as educa ion and sex. Howe e , hey di e ed o cogni i e abili ies (see Me hods):
middle-aged pa icipan s we e wo se han younge ones o global cogni i e unc ioning
(MOCA), non e bal in elligence (Ra en’s ma ices) and execu i e con ol (S oop es ,
con lic condi ion); and musicians had as e p ocessing speed han con ols and a end
o supe io execu i e con ol (S oop es , bo h condi ions). Do hese di e ences
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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131
accoun o pe o mance in emo ion ecogni ion? We compu ed co ela ion analyses
be ween global ca ego iza ion accu acy (sco e a e aged ac oss he ou emo ions) and
sco es on he cogni i e measu es. Co ela ion coe icien s and p alues a e displayed in
Table 8. No signi ican associa ions we e ound. This sugges s ha domain-gene al
cogni i e abili ies did no in luence emo ion ecogni ion in music5. Ano he po en ial
con ound was musicians’ s onge in e es in music, bu his a iable was also no
ela ed wi h ecogni ion accu acy.
The ou g oups had simila pe sonali y cha ac e is ics, as assessed by he TIPI, and
socio-communica i e ai s, as assessed by he AQ. We explo ed possible associa ions
be ween hese measu es and emo ion ecogni ion, bu all analyses yielded non-
signi ican esul s (see Table 8).
Table 8. Co ela ions be ween cogni i e and pe sonali y measu es and global accu acy
in emo ion ecogni ion in music.
Emo ion ecogni ion accu acy
Cogni i e/pe sonali y measu e
p
Mon eal Cogni i e Assessmen
.1
.37
Ra en’s Ad anced P og essi e Ma ices
.19
.1
S oop es
Baseline condi ion
.15
.18
Con lic condi ion
.07
.52
Ten-I em Pe sonali y In en o y
Ex a e sion
.03
.8
Ag eeableness
-.13
.27
Conscien iousness
-.05
.67
Emo ional s abili y
-.17
.12
Openness o expe ience
.06
.62
Au ism Spec um Quo ien
.1
.38
In e es in music
-.16
.17
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5 We u he con i med ha age and expe ise e ec s in emo ion ecogni ion we e no explained by
gene al cogni i e abili ies by compu ing ANCOVAs on ca ego iza ion accu acy wi h MOCA, Ra en’s
Ma ices and S oop es as co a ia es.
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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138
mo i a ion o heigh en a en ion owa ds posi i e in o ma ion, and dec ease a en ion
owa ds nega i e in o ma ion – posi i i y e ec (Ca s ensen & Mikels, 2005; Cha les &
Ca s ensen, 2010; Ma he & Ca s ensen, 2005; Samanez-La kin & Ca s ensen, 2011).
Consis en ly, we epo ed a pa e n o dec eased esponsi eness o nega i e musical
emo ions, and s abili y o posi i e ones. This pa e n i s cohe en ly wi h s udies
showing ha , wi h ad ancing age, b ain esponses dec eases selec i ely o nega i e
emo ional s imuli (Gunning-Dixon e al., 2003; Kisley e al., 2007), and he e is
inc eased engagemen o p e on al sys ems which may implemen egula o y e ec s
o e emo ion p ocessing (S . Jacques e al., 2009; S . Jacques e al., 2008; Williams e
al., 2006). In a di e en ein, i has been hypo hesized ha age- ela ed deg ada ion in
b ain egions such as he amygdala and cingula e co ex con ibu e o explain he
decline obse ed in he ecogni ion o acial exp essions o sadness and ea (Calde e
al., 2003; Ru man e al., 2008). Indeed, he olume o he amygdala was shown o
dec ease wi h ad ancing age (Cu ia i e al., 2009; Mu, Xie, Wen, Weng, & Shuyun,
1999; Walho d e al., 2005). Neu opsychological esea ch using he same s imuli and
ask as he p esen s udies indica e ha his s uc u e is c i ical o he pe cep ion o ea
and sadness in music (Gosselin e al., 2005, 2007). Thus, i is plausible ha age- ela ed
changes o hese emo ions a e linked wi h decline in he amygdala (see also, Cacioppo
e al., 2011). On he o he hand, he s abili y obse ed o he posi i e emo ions migh
be ela ed o he ela i e p ese a ion o basal ganglia s uc u es (e.g., Williams e al.,
2006). Neu oimaging e idence showed ha pleasan music ec ui s he s ia um (e.g.,
Koelsch e al., 2006; Mi e schi hale e al., 2007). No e ha some s udies obse ed
age- ela ed sh inkage in he s ia um, howe e (Raz e al., 2003). The p esen
expe imen s a e no ideally sui ed o speci y he ela i e con ibu ion o op-down
egula o y mechanisms and neu opsychological de e io a ion o ageing e ec s in
emo ion ecogni ion in music. Fu u e s udies combining beha iou al measu es wi h
unc ional and s uc u al b ain imaging echniques will be c i ical o app oach his
ques ion. These s udies will also h ow ligh on he di e ences ha we obse ed in how
younge and olde pa icipan s elied on music s uc u al cues o espond. Fo happy and
peace ul esponses, he u iliza ion o he cues emained in a ian wi h ad ancing age,
bu o sadness and ea olde pa icipan s we e less consis en han younge ones and
weigh ed some cues di e en ly. This migh e lec de e io a ion o he neu ocogni i e

Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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mechanisms ha suppo he p ocessing o hese emo ions, bu can also be accoun ed
o by op-down egula o y and mo i a ional p ocesses: olde pa icipan s migh
implemen an ac i e and con olled disengagemen o music cues when hey signal
nega i e emo ional meanings.
MUSICAL EXPERTISE AND EMOTION RECOGNITION IN MUSIC | Two indings
indica e ha musical aining bols e s emo ion ecogni ion in music. Fi s , in bo h
s udies, he leng h o musicians’ aining co ela ed signi ican ly wi h enhanced
ecogni ion accu acy. This sugges s ha lea ning music ope a es g adual ine- uning on
mechanisms unde lying musical emo ions. Second, in S udy 2, middle-aged musicians
we e mo e accu a e han age-ma ched con ols a ca ego izing he ou emo ions. As
obse ed o age, we showed o he i s ime ha he e ec s o expe ise canno be
explained by di e ences in socio-educa ional backg ound, gene al cogni i e abili ies
and pe sonali y cha ac e is ics. The co ela ion be ween aining and accu acy ex ends
p e ious esul s by Li ings one and colleagues (2010), who epo ed a simila
co ela ion o musical emo ions po ayed by bo h s uc u al and exp essi e cues, and
by Bha a a and colleagues (2011), who ocused on he exp essi e ea u es iming and
ampli ude. He e we es ablished ha he e ec also occu s o emo ions embodied solely
on music s uc u e. Fu he suppo o he no ion ha musical aining in luences
emo ion p ocessing in music comes om a s udy by Dellache ie, Roy, Hugue ille,
Pe e z, and Samson (2011). These au ho s ound ha musical expe ience a ec s bo h
beha iou al and psychophysiological esponses o dissonance in music. Musical
aining was associa ed wi h mo e unpleasan eelings and s onge physiological
esponses o dissonance, as assessed by skin conduc ance and elec omyog aphic
signals. Resnicow and colleagues (2004) ailed o ind e ec s o aining, possibly
because hei design had no powe enough o a ain s a is ical signi icance – hey
included only h ee s imuli pe emo ion; u he mo e, i was no epo ed how many
ained pa icipan s we e included.
I migh be he case ha he e ec o expe ise is small, a ac ha would explain why i
is no de ec ed in some condi ions (e.g., o younge musicians s. con ols in S udy 2).
Indeed, Bigand and colleagues (2005) obse ed ha emo ional esponses o music in an
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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implici ask a e highly consis en and simila ac oss ained and un ained pa icipan s.
T aining only inc eased he consis ency o esponses ac oss es ing sessions. Mo eo e ,
in a e iew o s udies on he e ec s o musical expe ise, Bigand and Poulin-Cha onna
(2006) concluded ha he e ec s o expe ise on music p ocessing a e usually small,
pa icula ly in ligh o he huge di e ences in aining ha ypically exis be ween
g oups. Acco ding o he au ho s, his is e idence ha musical abili ies, namely emo ion
p ocessing, a e acqui ed h ough exposu e, no equi ing explici aining. Ou da a is
also e idence ha aining is no a p e equisi e o be adep a pe cei ing musical
emo ions: all pa icipan s, including musically un ained ones, iden i ied he ou
in ended emo ions wi h high ag eemen a es. This consis ency was ob ained wi h
s imuli ha we e sho , un amilia , all played in he same gen e and imb e, and
exp essing emo ions exclusi ely h ough music s uc u e cues. Addi ionally,
pa icipan s we e able o e ec i ely use hese cues o make emo ion di e en ia ions, as
indica ed by he mul iple eg ession analyses. By claiming ha lea ning music impac s
emo ion ecogni ion, we in end o highligh he plas ici y o he sys em, and no o a gue
ha i needs aining o ope a e obus ly.
How can musical aining enhance he ca ego iza ion o emo ional quali ies in music?
Musicians, because o hei ex ensi e implici and explici p ac ice wi h musical
emo ions, migh de elop mo e ine-g ained, sha ply de ined and eadily accessible
ca ego ies o espond o emo ion cues in music. Finding ha hey we e mo e consis en
han con ols in using music s uc u e cues o espond is in ag eemen wi h his
hypo hesis. Ba e and colleagues (Ba e , 2006b, 2009; Lindquis & Ba e , 2010)
ha e sugges ed ha indi idual di e ences in emo ional esponses and expe ience migh
e lec di e ences in he g anula i y o emo ion concep s, which could be ained.
Acco ding o his heo e ical p oposal, indi iduals highe in emo ional g anula i y a e
mo e p ecise, speci ic and di e en ia ed a ca ego izing a ec i e s a es, while hose
wi h low g anula i y expe ience and desc ibe emo ions in a mo e global and
undi e en ia ed ashion. Highe emo ional g anula i y could be achie ed h ough
aining and p ac ice, jus like wine and X- ay expe s lea n o pe cei e sub le
di e ences ha no ices a e unawa e o . I is plausible ha musical aining con ibu es
o inc ease he g anula i y o emo ion concep s o music.
Chap e VI. Ageing and Musical Expe ise Modula e Emo ion Recogni ion in Music
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6.5. CONCLUSION
In wo s udies, we sough o de e mine he e ec s o ageing and musical expe ise on
emo ion ecogni ion in music. To ou knowledge, his is he i s examina ion o hese
e ec s ha co e s he ull ange o he adul li e span, and ha ocus on emo ions
exp essed h ough musical s uc u e. We ound ha ageing modula es he ecogni ion o
musical emo ions, wi h de elopmen al shi s being obse ed ea ly on in middle-age.
Speci ically, ad ancing age was associa ed wi h a g adual dec ease in esponsi eness o
he nega i e emo ions o sadness and ea in music, while he posi i e ones, happiness
and peace ulness, emained in a ian . This is e idence ha emo ion p ocessing in music
can ollow he same de elopmen al ends as s imuli impo an o biological su i al
and social unc ioning, such as acial exp essions and speech p osody. We also showed
ha musical expe ise is associa ed wi h mo e accu a e ca ego iza ion o musical
emo ions, hus con ibu ing o he li e a u e on he ela ion be ween musical expe ience
and music pe cep ion. Bo h ageing and expe ise e ec s we e independen o domain-
gene al cogni i e o pe sonali y di e ences, and his sugges s ha hey ha e a p ima y
o igin. Mechanisms suppo ing emo ion ecogni ion in music a e obus , bu also
dynamic and a iable: hey espond plas ically o he in luence o expe ience.
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CHAPTER VII
De elopmen and Valida ion o a Se o Po uguese S imuli o Resea ch on Emo ional
P osody

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Chap e VII. Se o Po uguese S imuli o Resea ch on Emo ional P osody
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7.1. INTRODUCTION
Well-de ised and alida ed s imuli a e impo an o esea ch on emo ional speech
p osody (e.g., Bu kha d e al., 2005; Pell, 2002; Ross e al., 1997). Because p osodic
in o ma ion is o e laid on he speech signal, se s o s imuli need o be de eloped o
di e en languages. The a ailabili y o ma e ials in di e en languages is also c ucial o
shed ligh on he ole o language-speci ic and uni e sal ac o s in he p ocessing o
p osody (e.g., Pell, Mone a, e al., 2009; Thompson & Balkwill, 2006). In his s udy we
de elop and alida e a da abase o p osodic s imuli in Po uguese6.
In he li e a u e on emo ional speech p osody, ypically esea che s ask ained ac o s o
un ained speake s o ead some e bal ma e ials aloud while po aying di e en
emo ional s a es, such as ange , disgus , ea , happiness, sadness and su p ise (e.g.,
Adolphs e al., 2002; Banse & Sche e , 1996; Da a e al., 2008; Juslin & Laukka, 2001;
Sche e e al., 1991). Dis inc ypes o e bal ma e ials ha e been used, including
comple e sen ences (e.g., Adolphs & T anel, 1999; de Gelde & V oomen, 2000; Ko z
e al., 2003; Mi chell, 2007), single wo ds (e.g., Wie ho e al., 2008) o monosyllabic
u e ances (e.g., Mi chell & Ross, 2008). I has o en been a gued ha hese posed
po ayals may esul in in ense, p o o ypical exp essions, which e lec
con en ionalized s e eo ypical no ms, mo e han he na u al psychophysiological
changes on oice ha occu in au hen ic emo ion episodes. As s a ed by Sche e (2003),
hough, he so-called na u al public exp essions a e also ac ed o some deg ee, since we
sel - egula e ocal exp essions du ing e e yday li e, and sociocul u al no ms impose
p oduc ion cons ains o a signi ican ex en (pull e ec s). I is also well documen ed
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
6 Published in Cas o, S. L., & Lima, C. F. (2010). Recognizing emo ions in spoken language: A alida ed
se o Po uguese sen ences and pseudo-sen ences o esea ch on emo ional p osody. Beha io Resea ch
Me hods, 42, 74-81. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.1.74
Chap e VII. Se o Po uguese S imuli o Resea ch on Emo ional P osody
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ha lis ene s can iden i y eliably emo ions in ac ed s imuli, indica ing ha hey a e a
leas pa ially modelled on he basis o na u al exp essions. Fu he mo e, al hough
sca ce, a ailable e idence sugges s ha he acous ic pa e ns associa ed wi h speci ic
emo ions a e quali a i ely simila in po ayals and in na u al exp essions (Juslin &
Laukka, 2001; Laukka e al., 2008). Ano he app oach o de ise p osodic s imuli
in ol es inducing emo ional s a es in he speake s (e.g., h ough ilms o pic u es), and
eco d exp essions unde hese s a es. While his app oach would be be e sui ed o
ob ain spon aneous samples, i is di icul o e oke s ong and di e en ia ed emo ional
eac ions in labo a o y se ings, so ha he esul ing oice s imuli a e usually low
in ense and wi h ela i ely undi e en ia ed a ec (Juslin & Laukka, 2001). He e we use
ac ed po ayals and endo se he assump ion ha hey a e sui able o esea ch on
emo ion communica ion h ough p osody (Bänzige & Sche e , 2007).
A undamen al issue ha has o be deal wi h when c ea ing p osodic ma e ials is he
in e play o p osody – he a iable o in e es – wi h he lexico-seman ic con en o he
u e ance. One s a egy consis s o emo ing seman ic in o ma ion h ough acous ic
il e ing p ocedu es ha supp ess he segmen al con en . Howe e , emo ions a e mo e
di icul o ecognize in hese acous ically manipula ed s imuli han in unal e ed ones
(Ko z e al., 2003). Al e na i ely, he in luence o seman ics can be con olled o by
using s anda dized e bal ma e ials, a p ocedu e o en called s anda d con en pa adigm
(e.g., Juslin & Laukka, 2001, 2003). Tha is, he same e bal ma e ial is used o po ay
all emo ions, and because con en is simila ac oss emo ions, i is assumed ha he
e ec s obse ed in he lis ene ’s judgmen s e lec solely he impac o p osodic cues
(Sche e , 2003). This app oach is used in mos s udies. The cha ac e is ics o he
s anda dized con en i sel dese e also o be conside ed because hey may modula e he
neu ocogni i e p ocesses ha a e se in o ac ion. Fo ins ance, neu opsychological and
MRI s udies using he Ap osodia Ba e y show ha s imuli wi h di e en deg ees o
e bal complexi y ec ui di e en neu ocogni i e p ocesses (Mi chell & Ross, 2008;
Ross & Monno , 2008). The Ap osodia Ba e y (Ross e al., 1997) employs six
in ona ions (ang y, disin e es ed, happy, sad, su p ised and neu al) in h ee ypes o
ma e ials: sho sen ences wi h emo ionally neu al seman ic con en (“I am going o he
o he mo ies”), a ype o s imuli used equen ly in he li e a u e (e.g., Adolphs, T anel,
Chap e VII. Se o Po uguese S imuli o Resea ch on Emo ional P osody
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& Damasio, 2001; Mi chell, 2007; Wildg ube e al., 2005); monosyllabic u e ances
( epea ed ba); and asyllabic s imuli (p olonged aaaaahhhhh). I was obse ed ha
heal hy lis ene s ecognize emo ions simila ly well ac oss condi ions, abou 70% co ec
on a e age, con i ming ha he p ocessing o p osody can p oceed independen ly o
seman ics. Howe e , he ela i e con ibu ion o he le and igh hemisphe es
depended on he ype o s imulus: la e al empo al lobes in bo h hemisphe es we e
engaged by emo ional p osody, bu he con ibu ion o he le hemisphe e go smalle
as linguis ic complexi y dec eased (Mi chell & Ross, 2008; Ross & Monno , 2008). The
au ho s concluded ha emo ional p osody is igh -la e alized o a signi ican ex en , and
ha he con ibu ion o he le hemisphe e is ela ed o he p ocessing o e bal
in o ma ion. Acco dingly, he dynamic dual-pa hway model o language unc ions
pos ula es a dissocia ion be ween seman ic/syn ac ic p ocesses e sus p osodic ones: a
le -la e alized empo o- on al ne wo k suppo s syn ac ic and seman ic p ocesses,
being he igh hemisphe e dominan o p osodic p ocesses, depending on he linguis ic
demands o he s imuli o ask – he highe hese a e, he g ea e is he co-in ol emen
o he le hemisphe e (F iede ici & Al e , 2004). Hence, s imuli wi h di e en deg ees
o linguis ic in o ma ion can be use ul o explo e he p ocesses ha unde lie emo ional
p osody. One can o example eso o meaningless speech and pseudo-sen ences o
c ea e s imuli wi h educed seman ic con en (e.g., Banse & Sche e , 1996; Pell, 2002;
Pé on e al., 2010). Pseudo-sen ences a e u e ances ha include pseudo-wo ds. Thei
lexico-seman ic con en is subs an ially educed, because pseudo-wo ds ha e no
meaning, ye hey ha e he ad an age o a o ding a good language-like quali y because
bo h phone ic-segmen al and sup asegmen al ea u es o no mal speech a e p esen .
Emo ions can be ecognized in pseudo-sen ences wi h high accu acy (e.g., 78% co ec
in Pell, 2002), and his ype o s imuli has been success ully used in neu opsychological
(e.g., Da a e al., 2008; Pé on e al., 2010), elec ophysiological (e.g., Paulmann & Ko z,
2008b) and neu oimaging s udies (Bach e al., 2008).
Emo ional s imuli like acial exp essions (e.g., Ekman & F iesen, 1978), pic u es (e.g.,
Lang, B adley, & Cu hbe , 2008), music (Vieilla d e al., 2008) and non e bal ocal
exp essions (Belin e al., 2008; Sau e , Eisne , Calde e al., 2010; Sau e , Eisne ,
Ekman e al., 2010; Sau e & Sco , 2007) can be used independen ly o he linguis ic
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Appendices
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282

Appendices
!
283
3. S uc u al cha ac e is ics o he musical exce p s used in S udy 1 and S udy 2,
Chap e VI
S uc u al cha ac e is ics o he exce p s used in he S udy 1 (all, n = 56) and S udy 2
(colou ed in g ey, n = 40). No e: Tempo co esponds o c oche bea s pe minu e; Mode,
1 = majo , 2 = mino , 3 = inde ini e; Pedal, 0 = wi hou , 1 = wi h; Tone Dens. = Tone
densi y (numbe o melodic e en s / o al du a ion); M.P. Range = Melodic pi ch ange
(numbe o semi ones be ween he highes and he lowes one o he melody); Diss. =
Dissonance (minimum 1, maximum 5); Un. = Unexpec ed e en s (minimum 1,
maximum 5); Rhy. I . = Rhy hmic I egula i ies (minimum 1, maximum 5).
#
Emo ion
S imulus
Tempo
Mode
Pedal
Tone
Dens.
M.P.
Range
Diss.
Un.
Rhy.
I .
1
Happy
G01
112
1
0
3.4
17
1
1
1
2
Happy
G02
143
1
0
4.4
21
1
1
1
3
Happy
G03
91
1
0
3.7
18
1
1
1
4
Happy
G04
180
1
0
5.0
20
1
1
1
5
Happy
G05
100
1
0
5.5
22
1
1
1
6
Happy
G06
195
1
0
5.2
17
1
1
1
7
Happy
G07
180
1
0
3.2
14
1
1
1
8
Happy
G08
143
1
0
3.7
21
1
1
1
9
Happy
G09
143
1
0
2.5
10
1
1
1
10
Happy
G10
160
1
0
3.8
12
1
1
1
11
Happy
G11
140
1
0
4.5
19
1
1
1
12
Happy
G12
107
1
0
2.6
12
1
1
1
13
Happy
G13
120
1
0
3.3
19
1
1
1
14
Happy
G14
112
1
0
5.7
19
1
1
1
16
Sad
T01
40
2
1
0.8
5
1
1
1
17
Sad
T02
40
2
1
0.7
14
1
1
1
18
Sad
T03
40
2
1
0.4
12
1
1
1
19
Sad
T04
54
2
1
0.5
9
1
1
1
20
Sad
T05
60
2
1
0.9
5
1
1
1
21
Sad
T06
54
2
1
0.6
8
1
1
1
22
Sad
T07
42
2
1
0.8
10
1
1
1
Appendices
!
284
15
Sad
T08
40
2
1
0.6
7
1
1
1
23
Sad
T09
54
2
1
1.3
8
1
1
1
24
Sad
T10
40
2
1
0.58
3
1
1
1
25
Sad
T11
48
2
1
0.8
10
1
1
1
26
Sad
T12
60
2
1
0.5
9
1
1
1
27
Sad
T13
48
2
1
0.7
7
1
1
1
28
Sad
T14
48
2
1
1.0
10
1
1
1
29
Sca y
P01
100
2
0
3.6
4
2
3
3
30
Sca y
P02
140
2
0
2.2
7
2
2
1
31
Sca y
P03
100
2
0
1.4
18
2
4
3
32
Sca y
P04
100
2
0
0.9
2
4
5
4
33
Sca y
P05
100
2
0
3.4
33
2
1
2
34
Sca y
P06
96
2
0
0.9
43
5
2
2
35
Sca y
P07
100
2
0
1.6
13
2
3
4
36
Sca y
P08
96
2
0
4.3
19
2
3
4
37
Sca y
P09
44
2
0
0.7
7
1
1
1
38
Sca y
P10
120
2
0
1.1
12
2
4
3
39
Sca y
P11
44
3
0
1.4
4
2
5
4
40
Sca y
P12
75
2
0
1.9
28
2
5
2
41
Sca y
P13
72
2
0
2.4
8
2
4
1
42
Sca y
P14
172
2
0
3.1
36
1
3
4
43
Peace ul
A01
60
1
1
0.4
12
1
1
1
44
Peace ul
A02
72
1
1
0.9
20
1
1
1
45
Peace ul
A03
72
1
1
0.7
9
1
1
1
46
Peace ul
A04
54
1
1
0.8
13
1
1
1
47
Peace ul
A05
69
1
1
0.7
10
1
1
1
48
Peace ul
A06
33
1
1
1.4
13
1
1
1
49
Peace ul
A07
69
1
1
0.9
5
1
1
1
50
Peace ul
A08
80
1
1
1.2
15
1
1
1
51
Peace ul
A09
72
1
1
1.1
12
1
1
1
52
Peace ul
A10
80
1
1
2.0
24
1
1
1
53
Peace ul
A11
88
1
1
1.6
14
1
1
1
54
Peace ul
A12
75
1
1
0.9
12
1
1
1
55
Peace ul
A13
75
1
1
1.1
6
1
1
1
56
Peace ul
A14
72
1
1
1.6
17
1
1
1
Appendices
!
285
4. Raw a ings o each musical emo ion in S udy 2, Chap e VI
Raw a ings (minimum 0, maximum 9) o he in ended and non-in ended emo ions, as
a unc ion o age and expe ise g oups. Diagonal cells in bold indica e a ings on he
exce p s’ in ended emo ion. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Age g oup/
exce p ype
Ra ings ac oss esponse ca ego ies
Con ols
Musicians
Happy
Peace ul
Sad
Sca y
Happy
Peace ul
Sad
Sca y
Younge
Happy
7.6 (0.2)
1.6
0.2
0.2
7.2 (0.4)
1.7
0.2
0.2
Peace ul
2.8
5.5 (0.4)
4.6
0.2
4.3
4.9 (0.5)
3
0
Sad
0.4
3.3
7.4 (0.2)
2.1
0.4
4.6
7 (0.3)
0.9
Sca y
1
0.4
3.7
7.1 (0.3)
0.8
1.2
3.5
5.2 (0.5)
Middle-aged
Happy
6.7 (0.5)
2.1
0.6
0.4
7.4 (0.3)
1.6
0.6
0.6
Peace ul
3.9
5 (0.5)
2.7
0.4
2.9
5.2 (0.4)
3.2
0.4
Sad
1.5
3.9
5.5 (0.5)
0.5
0.7
4.4
6 (0.3)
1.3
Sca y
1.8
0.6
2.9
3.7 (0.4)
1.5
0.8
2.8
5.3 (0.4)
!
Appendices
!
286
Appendices
!
287
5. Unbiased accu acy a es o each musical emo ion in S udy 2, Chap e VI
Hu o each musical emo ion, as a unc ion o age and expe ise g oups. Values a y
be ween 0 and 1. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Age g oup / exce p ype
Hu sco es
Con ols
Musicians
Younge
Happy
.8 (0.03)
.8 (0.04)
Peace ul
.4 (0.07)
.4 (0.07)
Sad
.6 (0.05)
.5 (0.06)
Sca y
.7 (0.04)
.7 (0.07)
Middle-aged
Happy
.7 (0.05)
.8 (0.03)
Peace ul
.4 (0.05)
.5 (0.05)
Sad
.4 (0.06)
.5 (0.05)
Sca y
.5 (0.06)
.7 (0.05)

Appendices
!
288
Appendices
!
289
6. Acous ic and pe cep ual cha ac e is ics o he p osodic s imuli p esen ed in
Chap e VII
Acous ic (du a ion, F0 mean, F0 SD) and pe cep ual ( ecogni ion accu acy, in ensi y)
cha ac e is ics o each sen ence and pseudo-sen ence included in he da abase o
p osodic s imuli.
Sen ences
In S imulus, s e e s o sen ence, p o pseudo-sen ence, A o one speake , and B o he
o he speake .
#
S imulus
Con en
Du a ion
(ms)
F0
(Hz)
F0 a iabili y
(SD, Hz)
Accu acy
(%)
In ensi y
(1-7)
1
1sA_ang y1
es aMesa
1278
339
99
75
4.5
2
2sA_ang y2
oRadio
1245
323
81
80
5
3
3sA_ang y3
aqueleLi o
1367
347
85
95
5.8
4
4sA_ang y4
aTe a
1306
355
68
70
4.9
5
5sA_ang y5
oCao
1166
299
99
80
3.6
6
6sA_ang y6
eleChega
1066
370
95
75
5.3
7
7sA_ang y7
es aRoupa
1224
349
85
80
4.4
8
8sA_ang y8
osJa dins
1415
333
75
70
3.5
9
9sA_ang y9
asPessoas
1712
358
86
70
4.9
10
10sA_ang y10
haA o es
1426
368
65
75
5.3
11
11sA_ang y11
osTig es
1572
279
76
75
4.8
12
12sA_ang y12
oQuad o
1301
371
78
80
5.9
13
13sA_ang y13
alguemFechou
1455
336
93
95
5.7
14
14sA_ang y14
osJo ens
1477
338
80
95
5.7
15
15sA_ang y15
oFu ebol
1487
377
82
70
4.9
16
16sA_ang y16
elaViajou
1323
329
93
85
5.2
17
17sB_ang y17
es aMesa
1116
266
53
75
5.3
18
18sB_ang y18
oRadio
1079
289
56
95
5.9
19
19sB_ang y19
aqueleLi o
1186
284
51
55
4.6
20
20sB_ang y20
aTe a
1068
288
53
80
5.6
21
21sB_ang y21
oCao
1059
278
65
75
4.8
22
22sB_ang y22
eleChega
897
252
41
70
5.2
Appendices
!
290
23
23sB_ang y23
es aRoupa
1127
305
54
55
5.5
24
24sB_ang y24
osJa dins
1160
283
47
90
6.1
25
25sB_ang y25
asPessoas
1378
324
47
70
5.5
26
26sB_ang y26
haA o es
1202
293
61
85
6.1
27
27sB_ang y27
osTig es
1387
281
56
55
5.2
28
28sB_ang y28
oQuad o
1200
262
60
95
4.7
29
29sB_ang y29
alguemFechou
1296
305
52
85
6.1
30
30sB_ang y30
osJo ens
1198
302
48
75
6.3
31
31sB_ang y31
oFu ebol
1215
264
24
65
4.6
32
32sB_ang y32
elaViajou
1137
264
42
80
5.9
33
33sA_disgus 1
oRadio
1661
270
76
60
5.3
34
34sA_disgus 2
oCao
1538
263
69
45
4.2
35
35sA_disgus 3
haA o es
1596
289
76
55
4.5
36
36sA_disgus 4
osTig es
1908
279
77
45
5.2
37
37sA_disgus 5
oQuad o
1800
286
78
60
4.3
38
38sA_disgus 6
alguemFechou
1852
281
67
45
5.4
39
39sB_disgus 7
oCao
1376
272
62
50
5.6
40
40sB_disgus 8
es aRoupa
1317
266
64
45
4.9
41
41sB_disgus 9
asPessoas
1875
289
75
60
5
42
42sB_disgus 10
haA o es
1545
294
54
45
5.8
43
43sB_disgus 11
oQuad o
1530
287
57
50
5.1
44
44sB_disgus 12
oFu ebol
1608
278
51
45
5
45
45sA_ ea 1
es aMesa
1687
276
28
55
5.4
46
46sA_ ea 2
oRadio
1501
336
45
75
4.5
47
47sA_ ea 3
aqueleLi o
1488
310
43
55
3.9
48
48sA_ ea 4
eleChega
1803
290
15
55
4.5
49
49sA_ ea 5
osJa dins
2104
313
33
50
5.1
50
50sA_ ea 6
asPessoas
1772
310
45
65
4.4
51
51sA_ ea 7
haA o es
1954
291
38
80
5.2
52
52sA_ ea 8
osTig es
1659
290
35
55
4
53
53sA_ ea 9
oQuad o
2009
309
34
65
4.7
54
54sA_ ea 10
alguemFechou
1759
290
58
75
5.6
55
55sA_ ea 11
oFu ebol
1645
255
60
50
3.4
56
56sA_ ea 12
elaViajou
1173
287
21
55
4.7
57
57sB_ ea 13
es aMesa
1086
300
28
85
5.6
58
58sB_ ea 14
oRadio
1129
281
34
80
5.2
59
59sB_ ea 15
aqueleLi o
1125
308
33
75
5.2
60
60sB_ ea 16
oCao
1063
323
54
55
5.7
61
61sB_ ea 17
eleChega
913
326
27
60
5.1
62
62sB_ ea 18
es aRoupa
1173
311
40
45
4.1
63
63sB_ ea 19
osJa dins
1212
325
45
60
4.4
64
64sB_ ea 20
haA o es
1245
290
30
75
5.2
65
65sB_ ea 21
osTig es
1400
305
41
80
5.3
66
66sB_ ea 22
oQuad o
1200
302
27
60
4.6
67
67sB_ ea 23
alguemFechou
1320
311
37
65
5.2
68
68sB_ ea 24
oFu ebol
1300
314
41
70
5.1
69
69sA_happy1
es aMesa
1451
360
83
85
4.8
70
70sA_happy2
oRadio
1436
386
94
75
4.3
71
71sA_happy3
aqueleLi o
1588
379
102
90
4.7
72
72sA_happy4
oCao
1368
377
98
75
5.5
73
73sA_happy5
eleChega
1207
385
68
100
6.1
Appendices
!
291
74
74sA_happy6
es aRoupa
1321
373
93
90
4.7
75
75sA_happy7
osJa dins
1628
376
84
90
5.9
76
76sA_happy8
asPessoas
1772
391
85
90
5.7
77
77sA_happy9
haA o es
1574
360
76
75
4.9
78
78sA_happy10
osTig es
1700
385
102
55
4.3
79
79sA_happy11
oQuad o
1461
373
85
95
4.7
80
80sA_happy12
alguemFechou
1702
351
75
90
5.9
81
81sA_happy13
osJo ens
1623
355
77
75
4.7
82
82sA_happy14
oFu ebol
1647
371
83
90
5.7
83
83sA_happy15
elaViajou
1592
375
83
90
4.6
84
84sB_happy16
oRadio
1348
338
59
50
5.3
85
85sB_happy17
aqueleLi o
1370
311
69
60
5.3
86
86sB_happy18
aTe a
1271
356
81
65
5.6
87
87sB_happy19
oCao
1286
341
79
60
6.1
88
88sB_happy20
eleChega
1178
376
94
65
6.3
89
89sB_happy21
es aRoupa
1402
348
83
60
5.5
90
90sB_happy22
osJa dins
1611
346
87
75
5.9
91
91sB_happy23
asPessoas
1660
320
79
75
5.2
92
92sB_happy24
haA o es
1470
345
93
70
5.8
93
93sB_happy25
oQuad o
1451
353
87
45
4.8
94
94sB_happy26
alguemFechou
1551
348
82
90
5.9
95
95sB_happy27
osJo ens
1547
335
76
70
5.4
96
96sB_happy28
oFu ebol
1368
332
80
60
5.2
97
97sB_happy29
elaViajou
1296
321
70
60
5.4
98
98sA_neu al1
es aMesa
1459
210
33
100
4.9
99
99sA_neu al2
oRadio
1280
213
54
95
4.7
100
100sA_neu al3
aqueleLi o
1536
208
51
100
4.4
101
101sA_neu al4
aTe a
1555
204
29
90
5.5
102
102sA_neu al5
oCao
1433
196
32
95
5.2
103
103sA_neu al6
eleChega
1088
203
25
90
4.9
104
104sA_neu al7
es aRoupa
1483
205
33
95
4.8
105
105sA_neu al8
osJa dins
1575
239
79
80
4.6
106
106sA_neu al9
asPessoas
1792
217
56
95
5.3
107
107sA_neu al10
haA o es
1481
205
33
90
4.3
108
108sA_neu al11
osTig es
1842
196
28
100
4.6
109
109sA_neu al12
oQuad o
1438
194
26
95
4.7
110
110sA_neu al13
alguemFechou
1576
217
71
75
4.4
111
111sA_neu al14
osJo ens
1795
208
70
100
5.5
112
112sA_neu al15
oFu ebol
1838
223
84
90
5
113
113sA_neu al16
elaViajou
1358
191
21
95
5.2
114
114sB_neu al17
es aMesa
1609
215
24
100
5
115
115sB_neu al18
aqueleLi o
1282
221
40
85
4.5
116
116sB_neu al19
aTe a
1379
205
19
85
5.1
117
117sB_neu al20
oCao
1190
200
20
80
4.5
118
118sB_neu al21
eleChega
952
209
20
100
4.6
119
119sB_neu al22
es aRoupa
1294
218
23
90
4.7
120
120sB_neu al23
asPessoas
1671
215
20
70
5
121
121sB_neu al24
haA o es
1400
208
16
80
4.6
122
122sB_neu al25
osTig es
1682
209
54
80
4.1
123
123sB_neu al26
oQuad o
1361
221
53
70
3.3
124
124sB_neu al27
alguemFechou
1631
205
17
80
4.9
Appendices
!
298

Appendices
!
299
7. Unbiased accu acy a es o each p osodic emo ion in Chap e VIII
Hu o each p osodic emo ion, as a unc ion o age and expe ise g oups. Values a y
be ween 0 and 1. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Age g oup / emo ion
Hu sco es
Con ols
Musicians
Younge
Ange
.6 (0.06)
.8 (0.04)
Disgus
.5 (0.07)
.6 (0.06)
Fea
.7 (0.06)
.8 (0.04)
Happy
.5 (0.06)
.6 (0.05)
Sadness
.7 (0.04)
.8 (0.03)
Su p ise
.6 (0.05)
.6 (0.03)
Neu ali y
.6 (0.05)
.7 (0.04)
Middle-aged
Ange
.4 (0.05)
.6 (0.06)
Disgus
.2 (0.04)
.3 (0.05)
Fea
.4 (0.06)
.6 (0.07)
Happy
.3 (0.03)
.4 (0.04)
Sadness
.7 (0.04)
.6 (0.05)
Su p ise
.4 (0.04)
.5 (0.03)
Neu ali y
.5 (0.05)
.6 (0.04)
Appendices
!
300
Appendices
!
301
8. In ensi y a ings o each p osodic emo ion in Chap e VIII
In ensi y a ings (minimum 1, maximum 7) o each p osodic emo ion, as a unc ion o
age and expe ise g oups. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Age g oup / emo ion
In ensi y a ings
Con ols
Musicians
Younge
Ange
5.6 (0.2)
5.1 (0.2)
Disgus
5.6 (0.2)
4.4 (0.3)
Fea
5.8 (0.2)
4.9 (0.3)
Happy
5.4 (0.3)
5.4 (0.2)
Sadness
5.7 (0.3)
4.8 (0.4)
Su p ise
5.8 (0.3)
5.3 (0.2)
Neu ali y
5.6 (0.4)
5.2 (0.3)
Middle-aged
Ange
5.2 (0.3)
5.1 (0.3)
Disgus
5.1 (0.3)
4.6 (0.3)
Fea
5.2 (0.3)
5.1 (0.4)
Happy
5.3 (0.2)
5.5 (0.2)
Sadness
5.4 (0.3)
5.2 (0.3)
Su p ise
5.6 (0.2)
5.4 (0.2)
Neu ali y
5.2 (0.4)
4.9 (0.3)
Appendices
!
302
Appendices
!
303
9. RTs o each p osodic emo ion in Chap e VIII
RTs o each p osodic emo ion, as a unc ion o age and expe ise g oups. S anda d
e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Age g oup / emo ion
RTs
Con ols
Musicians
Younge
Ange
3,074 (106)
3,419 (185)
Disgus
3,131 (117)
3,764 (189)
Fea
3,111 (122)
4,509 (173)
Happy
3,078 (74)
3,411 (187)
Sadness
2,936 (100)
3,512 (229)
Su p ise
3,006 (107)
3,247 (171)
Neu ali y
2,960 (111)
3,390 (195)
Middle-aged
Ange
4,141 (218)
4,171 (251)
Disgus
4,243 (273)
4,498 (328)
Fea
4,171 (185)
4,197 (211)
Happy
3,956 (277)
4,194 (262)
Sadness
3,758 (280)
4,201 (221)
Su p ise
3,768 (182)
3,991 (147)
Neu ali y
3,963 (182)
3,861 (239)

Appendices
!
304
Appendices
!
305
10. Acous ic cha ac e is ics o he p osodic s imuli used in Chap e VIII
De ailed acous ic cha ac e is ics o he p osodic s imuli. No e: Du = Du a ion (ms); F0
mean = undamen al equency mean (Hz); F0 a . = undamen al equency a iabili y
(SD, Hz); In . = mean in ensi y (dB); In . a . = in ensi y a iabili y (SD, dB); F0 min. =
undamen al equency minimum (Hz); F0 max. = undamen al equency maximum
(Hz); Ji . = Ji e (%); P.p. = Pause p opo ion ( a io be ween po ions o silence and
o al du a ion); HFE = high- equency ene gy ( ela i e ene gy abo e s. below 500 Hz).
#
S imulus
Du
F0
mean
F0
a .
In .
In .
a .
F0
min.
F0
max.
Ji .
P.p.
HFE
1
4sA_ang y4
1306
355
68
78
16
210
447
1.55
.31
4.50
2
5sA_ang y5
1166
299
99
76
11
176
469
1.55
.28
2.17
3
7sA_ang y7
1224
349
85
80
9
169
473
1.28
.11
0.47
4
14sA_ang y14
1477
338
80
76
12
174
524
1.30
.35
1.33
5
16sA_ang y16
1323
329
93
77
11
163
525
0.87
.21
2.43
6
18sB_ang y18
1079
289
56
79
13
188
381
1.62
.21
4.33
7
24sB_ang y24
1160
283
47
80
8
204
382
2.40
.10
1.24
8
26sB_ang y26
1202
293
61
79
9
178
448
2.24
.30
3.38
9
28sB_ang y28
1200
262
60
77
14
115
332
2.03
.37
4.00
10
29sB_ang y29
1296
305
52
77
8
190
379
2.06
.05
4.00
11
33sA_disgus 1
1661
270
76
76
8
171
469
2.10
.13
1.18
12
35sA_disgus 3
1596
289
76
79
10
182
523
1.86
.10
3.20
13
36sA_disgus 4
1908
279
77
76
8
191
507
1.83
.22
1.63
14
37sA_disgus 5
1800
286
78
78
13
203
494
1.42
.26
4.13
15
38sA_disgus 6
1852
281
67
78
9
195
495
0.92
.17
2.00
16
39sB_disgus 7
1376
272
62
79
8
150
373
2.44
.14
0.92
17
40sB_disgus 8
1317
266
64
78
11
90
333
2.12
.33
0.08
18
41sB_disgus 9
1875
289
75
78
12
80
410
1.99
.20
0.26
19
43sB_disgus 11
1530
287
57
76
11
151
399
3.46
.34
0.47
20
44sB_disgus 12
1608
278
51
74
12
197
395
2.25
.61
0.25
21
46sA_ ea 2
1501
336
45
80
9
224
403
2.84
.13
0.22
22
50sA_ ea 6
1772
310
45
78
9
218
433
3.24
.12
0.06
23
51sA_ ea 7
1954
291
38
78
8
212
371
2.21
.10
0.17
24
53sA_ ea 9
2009
309
34
78
11
213
452
1.84
.20
0.12
Appendices
!
306
25
54sA_ ea 10
1759
290
58
79
7
77
491
2.34
.07
0.09
26
57sB_ ea 13
1086
300
28
78
10
224
328
1.38
.22
0.08
27
59sB_ ea 15
1125
308
33
77
12
201
325
3.21
.35
0.13
28
63sB_ ea 19
1212
325
45
79
10
234
387
1.79
.16
0.09
29
65sB_ ea 21
1400
305
41
79
9
213
359
1.94
.10
0.70
30
68sB_ ea 24
1300
314
41
77
11
269
482
4.28
.33
0.13
31
69sA_happy1
1451
360
83
80
7
189
435
1.08
.06
0.53
32
71sA_happy3
1588
379
102
77
9
188
491
0.92
.15
0.50
33
72sA_happy4
1368
377
98
80
8
187
499
0.96
.18
1.53
34
75sA_happy7
1628
376
84
79
8
192
495
1.55
.18
0.19
35
82sA_happy14
1647
371
83
76
13
199
508
1.41
.38
1.50
36
91sB_happy23
1660
320
79
78
13
181
481
1.74
.20
0.72
37
92sB_happy24
1470
345
93
79
10
81
525
1.92
.07
2.00
38
94sB_happy26
1551
348
82
77
9
176
464
1.16
.13
5.00
39
95sB_happy27
1547
335
76
77
10
178
489
1.58
.17
0.82
40
97sB_happy29
1296
321
70
78
9
170
479
1.69
.16
1.13
41
101sA_neu al4
1555
204
29
79
15
135
300
2.80
.29
0.36
42
103sA_neu al6
1088
203
25
80
5
153
284
1.93
.00
0.16
43
105sA_neu al8
1575
239
79
78
7
152
477
2.83
.09
0.23
44
108sA_neu al11
1842
196
28
78
7
145
262
3.87
.04
0.27
45
112sA_neu al15
1838
223
84
79
11
149
485
3.15
.22
0.58
46
119sB_neu al22
1294
218
23
79
10
175
262
2.98
.13
0.25
47
114sB_neu al17
1609
215
24
79
8
166
258
1.11
.05
0.37
48
115sB_neu al18
1282
221
40
80
9
175
494
1.30
.14
0.79
49
121sB_neu al24
1400
208
16
79
8
172
243
2.55
.22
1.18
50
124sB_neu al27
1631
205
17
78
7
175
233
1.54
.05
1.00
51
128sA_sad1
1756
197
22
76
8
166
243
2.09
.16
0.44
52
137sA_sad10
1996
178
26
75
6
149
251
3.36
.12
0.05
53
138sA_sad11
1599
184
25
76
12
148
253
1.93
.35
0.92
54
140sA_sad13
1760
181
20
77
8
149
233
1.81
.11
0.32
55
142sA_sad15
1555
171
17
77
7
147
238
2.03
.11
0.33
56
144sB_sad17
1294
218
55
77
10
170
509
2.39
.22
1.14
57
143sB_sad16
1367
216
30
79
9
178
272
1.37
.08
0.14
58
146sB_sad19
1278
205
24
78
12
169
247
2.68
.37
0.19
59
149sB_sad22
1101
208
34
78
10
179
265
2.98
.23
0.53
60
150sB_sad23
1491
244
74
77
10
182
499
2.34
.30
0.24
61
160sA_su p ise2
1340
314
92
79
9
168
528
1.52
.09
0.86
62
163sA_su p ise5
1360
291
66
78
11
204
464
1.24
.21
1.80
63
164sA_su p ise6
1222
321
99
80
6
212
522
1.21
.10
0.72
64
168sA_su p ise10
1586
295
59
77
11
218
516
2.43
.19
4.50
65
172sA_su p ise14
1652
329
110
79
8
152
493
1.91
.11
0.32
66
175sB_su p ise17
1243
319
44
78
9
239
406
1.85
.10
0.59
67
178sB_su p ise20
1187
343
61
79
12
226
440
1.78
.21
0.50
68
182sB_su p ise24
1458
360
64
78
8
236
464
1.53
.08
0.36
69
185sB_su p ise27
1541
385
51
79
9
281
499
1.24
.14
1.41
70
187sB_su p ise29
1432
393
65
79
7
268
486
1.07
.05
0.90
Appendices
!
307
11. RTs o p osody, music and acial exp essions in Chap e IX
RTs o emo ion ecogni ion in speech p osody, music and acial exp essions, o PD
pa ien s and heal hy con ols. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
Modali y / emo ion
RTs
Pa ien s
Con ols
Music
Happiness
4,482 (250)
3,706 (253)
Peace ulness
5,972 (367)
5,374 (349)
Sadness
6,169 (423)
5,505 (334)
Fea
6,053 (407)
5,040 (359)
Speech p osody
Happiness
3,649 (357)
2,878 (184)
Su p ise
3,992 (331)
3,193 (202)
Sadness
3,938 (350)
3,047 (225)
Fea
4,332 (316)
3,574 (269)
Facial exp essions
Happiness
2,694 (206)
2,125 (165)
Su p ise
3,437 (346)
3,094 (277)
Sadness
3,654 (382)
2,822 (219)
Fea
3,792 (368)
3,401 (313)