3D MODELLING OF SHEET PILE
CORNER IN DIFFICULT GROUND
CONDITIONS
JOSÉ BENEDITO GONÇALVES ARÊDE CALEJO
Disse ação subme ida pa a sa is ação pa cial dos equisi os do g au de
MESTRE EM ENGENHARIA CIVIL — ESPECIALIZAÇÃO EM GEOTECNIA
O ien ado : P o esso Dou o An ónio Mil on Topa Gomes
Coo ien ado : P o esso Dou o Ole Hededal
JULHO DE 2015
MESTRADO INTEGRADO EM ENGENHARIA CIVIL 2014/2015
DEPARTAMENTO DE ENGENHARIA CIVIL
Tel. +351-22-508 1901
Fax +351-22-508 1446
 miec@ e.up.p
Edi ado po
FACULDADE DE ENGENHARIA DA UNIVERSIDADE DO PORTO
Rua D . Robe o F ias
4200-465 PORTO
Po ugal
Tel. +351-22-508 1400
Fax +351-22-508 1440
 [email p o ec ed].p
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Rep oduções pa ciais des e documen o se ão au o izadas na condição que seja
mencionado o Au o e ei a e e ência a Mes ado In eg ado em Engenha ia Ci il -
2014/2015 - Depa amen o de Engenha ia Ci il, Faculdade de Engenha ia da
Uni e sidade do Po o, Po o, Po ugal, 2015.
As opiniões e in o mações incluídas nes e documen o ep esen am unicamen e o
pon o de is a do espe i o Au o , não podendo o Edi o acei a qualque
esponsabilidade legal ou ou a em elação a e os ou omissões que possam exis i .
Es e documen o oi p oduzido a pa i de e são ele ónica o necida pelo espe i o
Au o .
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
Aos meus pais, i mãs, amigos e a ô
Li e is no he numbe o days you li e, is he numbe o days you emembe
Pasha
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This p ojec is he climax o an un o ge able phase o my li e ha de ined me as a ci il enginee and
as a ci izen o he wo ld. Du ing he i e yea s o my deg ee, and especially in he las 4 mon hs, I had
he suppo om many people, o whom I would like o exp ess my g a i ude:
 To my supe iso in Po ugal, P o esso An ónio Topa Gomes, o all he ecommenda ions,
guidance, mo i a ion and eedback;
 To my supe iso a COWI, P o esso Ole Hededal, o he heo e ical suppo ,
ecommenda ions and especially o p o iding me his amazing oppo uni y o de eloping my
hesis in such a ecognized company;
 To all he s a o COWI, who p o ided me wi h he necessa y knowledge o conclude my
p ojec success ully and also o he ad ice gi en o h i e in he enginee ing wo ld;
 To An ónio Fonseca, o he companionship and laugh in e e y day we spen oge he a
COWI, and o all he c i ics, sugges ions and discussion o he p oblems I was acing day by
day;
 To Diana Ab unhosa, o being an awesome ad en u e pa ne , keeping me inspi ed and
mo i a ed o accomplish my objec i es as an enginee and as a pe son;
 To my dea es iend João Noguei a, o being my Uni e si y companion and, o su e, a
iend o li e;
 To all he people ha sha ed wi h me hese 5 yea s o knowledge gain, pe sonal de elopmen
and inc ease o li e p o i ;
 To my pa en s and sis e s, ega dless o he con inen hey a e, he suppo ne e ades.

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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ABSTRACT
Ancho ed shee piles a e used as pe ime e bunds o a eclama ion a ea. Example o such use is he
Vä ahamnen Po , in S ockholm. In his case, soil condi ions a e ela i ely poo consis ing o so
clay/sedimen s o e laying a hin laye o ill and, unde ha , e y compe en bed ock. The so
sedimen s a e imp o ed by means o ei he lime-cemen columns o igid inclusions consis ing o
g ou piles ins alled by high-p essu e je ing.
A key elemen in he design is he co ne layou whe e he shee piles a e mu ually suppo ing each
o he by ies ins ead o ancho pla es. The back illing cons uc ion me hod, he complex g ound
condi ions and he kinema ics o he e aining sys em a e di icul o analyse analy ically o by simple
design me hods. Hence, a h ee dimensional ini e elemen me hod model is de eloped using PLAXIS
3D o in es iga e he pe o mance o he co ne in e ms o global de o ma ions and s abili y, ea h
p essu e dis ibu ion as well as o ces in s uc u al elemen s.
The au ho op ed o ocus on h ee scena ios ela ed o di e en condi ions o soil ein o cemen (by
je g ou ing o lime-cemen piles) o s udy changes in wall beha iou and global s abili y.
Resul s ob ained a e acco ding o expec ed. The applica ion o soil ein o cemen educes ea h
p essu es ac ing on he wall. Mo eo e , soil ein o cemen educes maximum de o ma ions o he
e aining wall and maximum s uc u al o ces. Je g ou ing e eals o be a conse a i e and necessa y
solu ion o he s abili y o he shee pile wall. Also, a sensi i i y analysis o e alua e he in luence o
su ace oughness o he shee pile wall is p o ided.
KEYWORDS: mul i-ancho ed shee pile wall, soil imp o emen , lime-cemen piles, je g ou ing,
nume ical analysis, ini e elemen me hod, mu ually suppo ed co ne , back illing.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
RESUMO
Co inas de es aca-p ancha são usadas como pa edes de e enção pa a e ei os de eclamação de
e eno. Um caso ipo é o po o Vä ahamnen, em Es ocolmo. Nes a si uação, as condições do solo são
acas consis indo numa camada de a gila mole no malmen e consolidada (sedimen os) sob e uma ina
camada compe en e de ill (depósi os glacia es), sob a qual es á p esen e uma camada bas an e
compe en e de maciço ochoso. A camada de sedimen os é e o çada an o po colunas de cal-cimen o
ou blocos ígidos cons i uídos po es acas ins aladas ia je g ou ing a al a p essão.
Um elemen o cha e no dimensionamen o é a o ma do can o onde as co inas de es aca-p ancha se
supo am mu uamen e po i an es em ez de anco agens de placa. O mé odo cons u i o po
enchimen o, as complexas condições do solo e a cinemá ica do sis ema de e enção o nam-se de
di ícil análise pela ia analí ica ou mé odos simples de dimensionamen o. Assim, na p esen e
disse ação é desen ol ido um modelo i-dimensional pelo mé odo dos elemen os ini os usando o
PLAXIS 3D pa a in es iga a pe o mance do can o em e mos de de o mações e es abilidade global,
dis ibuição de p essões de e as assim como os es o ços nos elemen os es u u ais.
O au o op ou po se oca em ês cená ios elacionados com di e en es condições de melho amen o
do solo (je g ou ing ou colunas de cal-cimen o) de modo a es uda al e ações no compo amen o da
es u u a e es abilidade global.
Os esul ados ob idos são de aco do com espe ado. A aplicação de écnicas de e o ço do solo eduz as
p essões de e a a a ua na co ina. Além disso, o solo e o çado eduz as de o mações máximas da
co ina e os máximos es o ços na es u u a. A aplicação de je g ou ing e elou se uma solução
conse ado a e necessá ia pa a a es abilidade da co ina. Na p esen e ese é ambém ap esen ada uma
análise de sensibilidade pa a a alia a in luência da ugosidade da co ina me álica.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: co inas es aca-p ancha plu i-anco adas, melho amen o de solo, colunas de cal-
cimen o, Je G ou ing, análise núme o, mé odo elemen os ini os, can o com supo e mú uo,
enchimen o.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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6.2. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ......................................................................... 117

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figu e 2.1 - Vä ahamnen po : a) Cons uc ion o pile deck (S ockholm Royal Seapo ) and b) ende
o inal shape o he po (Aa sle 2014) ............................................................................................. 3
Figu e 2.2 - Geome y o he po and phases o cons uc ion (Aa sle 2014) ..................................... 4
Figu e 2.3 - Li ing o a g a i y L-wall o posi ioning on-si e ................................................................ 5
Figu e 2.4 - Loca ion o he co ne in Vä ahamnen Po (Aa sle 2014) ............................................. 5
Figu e 2.5 - Plan o he Vä ahamnen po wi h loca ion o he co ne (Aa sle 2014) .......................... 6
Figu e 2.6 - 3D ep esen a ion o he shee pile co ne : ancho s, shee pile wall (da k blue), g a i y wall
(da k g ey), illing ma e ial (ligh blue) and soil ein o cemen (g ey) .................................................... 6
Figu e 2.7 - Va ia ion o PSR wi h dis ance om he co ne and aspec o he si e (Ou e al. 1996) ..... 7
Figu e 2.8 - Rela ion o e ical ea h p essu e wi h dep h, e ealing silo e ec ................................... 9
Figu e 2.9 - De ailed plan o shee pile wall, ancho s and co ne ie ods (COWI 2015) ....................... 9
Figu e 2.10 - Example o double wall ie co e dam (le ) and cellula co e dams ( igh ) (C.J. Mahan) 10
Figu e 2.11 - Scheme o he ancho s in he co ne ............................................................................10
Figu e 2.12 - Expec ed ailu e mechanisms in he co ne : il ing a ound ip (le ) and ansla ion ( igh )
.........................................................................................................................................................11
Figu e 2.13 - Typical soil p o ile om S ockholm coas al a ea ............................................................12
Figu e 2.14 - Disposal o he applied g ound ein o cemen ...............................................................12
Figu e 2.15 - Soil p o ile on-si e wi h laye s' hickness .......................................................................13
Figu e 2.16 - Samples o he Sp ängs en ma e ial used as back ill.....................................................15
Figu e 2.17 - D ainage sys em ins alled be o e applying op laye o illing ma e ial ............................15
Figu e 2.18 - U (le ) and Z ( igh ) s eel shee pile sec ions and co esponden in e locks ...................16
Figu e 2.19 - Hyd aulic sys em used o pile d i ing p essing me hod (ThyssenK upp 2010) ..............17
Figu e 2.20 - Rep esen a ions o impac (le ) and ib a ion ( igh ) pile d i ing me hods (ThyssenK upp
2010) ................................................................................................................................................18
Figu e 2.21 - Example o connec ions o he ie ods o he shee pile wall: no mal bol ing wi h pla e
(le ) and MACALLOY ype ods ( igh ) ..............................................................................................19
Figu e 2.22 - Example o di e en ancho ing echniques (ThyssenK upp 2010) .................................20
Figu e 2.23 - Rep esen a ion o a deadman ancho (side cu ) ............................................................20
Figu e 2.24 - Admissible loca ion o ancho blocks (ThyssenK upp 2010) ..........................................21
Figu e 2.25 - Admissible loca ion o ancho blocks in cohesi e soils (ThyssenK upp 2010) ................21
Figu e 2.26 - Rep esen a ion o waling beam (le ) and conc e e capping beam ( igh ) .......................22
Figu e 2.27 - Execu ion o d y mixing lime, lime-cemen o cemen pile (Moseley & Ki sch 2004) .......23
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
xi
Figu e 2.28 - Rep esen a ion o he ailu e modes assumed in a block o piles (Moseley & Ki sch 2004)
......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figu e 2.29 - Example shee pile wall wi h lime-cemen piles used as soil ein o cemen (Moseley &
Ki sch 2004) ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Figu e 2.30 - S eps o applica ion o je g ou ing (A chiExpo) ............................................................. 25
Figu e 2.31 - Th ee echniques o je g ou ing: single, double (o win) and iple. Top (Solen anche
Bachy) and bo om (Moseley & Ki sch 2004) ..................................................................................... 26
Figu e 3.1 - Te zaghi and Peck Diag ams (Ma os Fe nandes 1990) .................................................. 30
Figu e 3.2 - F ee ea h suppo me hod (Viei a & Ma os Fe nandes 2000) ......................................... 31
Figu e 3.3 - Fixed ea h suppo me hod (Viei a & Ma os Fe nandes 2000)........................................ 31
Figu e 3.4 - Rep esen a ion o ETM p ocedu e (Ca ubba & Colonna 2000) ...................................... 32
Figu e 3.5 - Bilinea s ess-displacemen ela ionship (Ca ubba & Colonna 2000) ............................ 33
Figu e 3.6 - Rep esen a ion o wall de o ma ions associa ed wi h ac i e and passi e limi s a es ....... 35
Figu e 3.7 - Soil masses gene a ing ea h p essu es on e aining wall ............................................... 36
Figu e 3.8 - Ske ch o he e aining wall sys em (le ) and adop ed ep esen a i e s uc u al model
( igh ) ................................................................................................................................................ 39
Figu e 3.9 - La e al ea h p essu es on he wall p oduced be he h ee scena ios .............................. 40
Figu e 3.10 - Bending momen s (kN.m/m) on he wall o he h ee case scena ios: T&P, K0 and Ka
( om le o igh ) .............................................................................................................................. 41
Figu e 3.11 - Shea o ces (kN/m) on he wall o he h ee case scena ios: T&P, K0 and Ka ( om le o
igh ) ................................................................................................................................................. 42
Figu e 3.12 - Wall de o ma ion (mm) o he h ee case scena ios: T&P, K0 and Ka ( om le o igh ) . 43
Figu e 4.1 - Plane S ain condi ions ................................................................................................... 45
Figu e 4.2 - 10-node e ahed al elemen used in PLAXIS 3D o soil disc e isa ion (adap ed om
PLAXIS 2013a) ................................................................................................................................. 47
Figu e 4.3 - 16-node elemen used o in e aces (le ) and 6-node iangles used o pla e elemen s
( igh ) (adap ed om PLAXIS 2013a) ................................................................................................ 47
Figu e 4.4 - Soil laye s in h ee dimensional display using PLAXIS 3D............................................... 48
Figu e 4.5 - Bo ehole used o inpu soil laye s in PLAXIS 3D (le ) and soil-s uc u e p o ile ( igh ) ..... 48
Figu e 4.6 - De ailed d awing o wall 2, showing a ia ion o ill le el. ................................................. 49
Figu e 4.7 - Plan o shee pile wall and ancho s dis ibu ion: uppe le el a -0.4m (le ) and lowe le el
a -9m ( igh ) ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Figu e 4.8 - S uc u al elemen s modelled in PLAXIS 3D: Shee pile wall (blue), G a i y wall (g ey),
Waling (pink) and ancho s (black), wi h highligh ing o ancho on wall 2. ........................................... 50
Figu e 4.9 - Scena io wi h no ein o cemen : le - op iew a dep h -14m and igh - gene al c oss
sec ion .............................................................................................................................................. 51
Figu e 4.10 - Scena io wi h KC Piles: le - op iew a dep h -14m and igh - gene al c oss sec ion .. 52
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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Figu e 4.11 - 3D ep esen a ion o KC scena io, showing he KC Piles (b own)..................................52
Figu e 4.12 - Top iew o he scena io wi h KC Piles wi h Je G ou ing ein o cemen (KC&JG) a dep h
-14m and gene al c oss sec ion .........................................................................................................53
Figu e 4.13 - 3D ep esen a ion o KC&JG scena io, showing he KC Piles (b own), je g ou ing (da k
g ey) and spoil (ligh g ey) .................................................................................................................54
Figu e 4.14 - Ho izon al plan desc ibing he leng hs o he model's bo de s .......................................55
Figu e 4.15 - De ail o he su ace wi h ixed displacemen s in X- and Y-di ec ions, simula ing L g a i y
wall ...................................................................................................................................................55
Figu e 4.16 - Diag am ep esen a i e o pe ec ly elas ic-plas ic model (PLAXIS 2013b) ....................56
Figu e 4.17 - Concep o dila ion angle ..............................................................................................57
Figu e 4.18 - C i ical S a e line ..........................................................................................................58
Figu e 4.19 - Ho izon al c oss sec ion o idealized shee pile .............................................................60
Figu e 4.20 - Loading phases 3 o 8 o he no ein o cemen case (NR) ............................................62
Figu e 5.1 - Loca ion o selec ed c oss sec ions ................................................................................64
Figu e 5.2 - Ho izon al e ec i e ea h p essu es ex ac ed in h ee di e en loca ions: a he in e ace,
a 0.05 m and a 0.5 m om he wall ..................................................................................................65
Figu e 5.4 - Wall de o ma ion no malized o wall heigh , o NR (s/H) .................................................66
Figu e 5.5 - T ans e se displacemen o capping beam (m) ...............................................................67
Figu e 5.6 - De o ma ion o shee pile wall in a 3D en i onmen .........................................................67
Figu e 5.7 - E ec i e e ical (le ) and ho izon al ( igh ) ea h p essu es a CSB, PSD and "a es "
sec ion, o NR ..................................................................................................................................68
Figu e 5.8 - Ra io o e ec i e ho izon al and e ical s esses a CSB and PSD .................................69
Figu e 5.9 - Ho izon al (Y-di ec ion) ea h p essu es a -9 m ..............................................................70
Figu e 5.10 - Ve ical e ec i e s esses a dep h -10m, e ealing co ne e ec ..................................70
Figu e 5.11 - E ec i e Ve ical S esses a e ical sec ions L1 (25.5;19.5) and L2 (25.5;-5) ..............71
Figu e 5.12 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB along loading phases, in pe cen age o wall
heigh ................................................................................................................................................72
Figu e 5.13 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a PSD along loading phases, in pe cen age o wall
heigh ................................................................................................................................................73
Figu e 5.14 - La e al displacemen o wall in Y-di ec ion a dep hs -0.4 m and -9 m............................74
Figu e 5.15 - Scheme o co ne opening (le ) and pulling o wall 2 ( igh ) ..........................................74
Figu e 5.16 - Wall displacemen in Y-di ec ion (Ho izon al displacemen ) ...........................................75
Figu e 5.17 - Wall displacemen in Z-di ec ion (Ve ical displacemen ) ...............................................75
Figu e 5.18 - Displacemen in Y-di ec ion a CSC, showing ou wa ds wall o a ion .............................76
Figu e 5.19 - Ho izon al wall displacemen a dep h -0.4 m (le ) and -9 m ( igh ) ...............................76
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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Figu e 5.20 - Wall de o ma ion a CSC, along loading phases ........................................................... 77
Figu e 5.21 - Axial o ces (kN) in ancho s and ies a uppe (0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els ............... 78
Figu e 5.22 - Axial o ce in waling a -9 m (kN) .................................................................................. 79
Figu e 5.23 - Axial o ce in capping beam (kN) .................................................................................. 79
Figu e 5.24 - Bending momen s in waling beam a -9m (kN.m) .......................................................... 80
Figu e 5.25 - Bending momen s in capping beam (kN.m) .................................................................. 80
Figu e 5.26 - Bending momen diag am a PSD, CSB and CSC (kN.m) ............................................. 81
Figu e 5.27 - Ve ical axial o ce in shee pile wall (kN/m) .................................................................. 82
Figu e 5.28 - Ve ical axial o ce in shee pile wall a CSB (kN) .......................................................... 82
Figu e 5.29 - De ail o he soil laye 1m hick, be ween shee pile and monoli h ................................. 83
Figu e 5.30 - E ec i e ho izon al (le ) and e ical ( igh ) s esses a CSB and PSD.......................... 84
Figu e 5.31 - Coe icien o Reduc ion o la e al ea h p essu es ........................................................ 85
Figu e 5.32 - E ec i e e ical s esses in c oss sec ion a x=19 ........................................................ 86
Figu e 5.33 - E ec i e e ical s esses a dep h -11m, in a c oss sec ion a x=19 ............................. 86
Figu e 5.34 - P incipal di ec ions in a c oss sec ion a x=19 ............................................................... 87
Figu e 5.35 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB along loading phase o KC, in pe cen age o
wall heigh ........................................................................................................................................ 88
Figu e 5.36 - La e al displacemen o wall in Y-di ec ion a dep h -0.4 m and -9 m, o KC ................. 88
Figu e 5.37 - Wall displacemen in Y-di ec ion (Ho izon al displacemen ) o KC ................................ 89
Figu e 5.38 - Wall displacemen in Z-di ec ion (Ve ical displacemen ) o KC .................................... 89
Figu e 5.39 - Ho izon al wall displacemen a dep h -0.4 m (le ) and -9 m ( igh ) o KC..................... 90
Figu e 5.40 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSC along loading phases o KC, in pe cen age o
wall heigh ........................................................................................................................................ 90
Figu e 5.41 - Axial o ces in ancho s and ies a uppe (-0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els, o KC (kN) .. 91
Figu e 5.42 - Axial o ce in waling a -9m, o KC (kN) ....................................................................... 92
Figu e 5.43 - Axial o ce in capping beam, o KC (kN) ...................................................................... 92
Figu e 5.44 - Bending momen s in waling beam a -9 m (kN.m) ......................................................... 93
Figu e 5.45 - Bending momen s in capping beam (kN.m) .................................................................. 93
Figu e 5.46 - Bending momen diag am a CSB and CSC, o KC (kN.m) .......................................... 94
Figu e 5.47 - E ec i e ho izon al s esses in on and back o he shee pile wall (kPa) ..................... 95
Figu e 5.48 - Ve ical axial o ce in shee pile wall a CSB, o KC (kN) .............................................. 95
Figu e 5.49 - E ec i e ho izon al (le ) and e ical ( igh ) s esses a CSB and PSD, o KC&JG ....... 96
Figu e 5.50 - Coe icien o la e al ea h p essu es ............................................................................ 97
Figu e 5.51 - E ec i e e ical s esses in c oss sec ion a x=19 m .................................................... 98
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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Figu e 5.52 - P incipal di ec ions in a c oss sec ion a x=19 m ...........................................................98
Figu e 5.53 - Displacemen in Y-di ec ion o monoli h composed by Je g ou ing and KC Piles ..........99
Figu e 5.54 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB along loading phases o KC&JG, in
pe cen age o wall heigh ................................................................................................................100
Figu e 5.55 - La e al displacemen o wall in Y-di ec ion a dep h -0.4 m and -9 m ...........................100
Figu e 5.56 - Wall displacemen in Y-di ec ion (Ho izon al displacemen ), o KC&JG ......................101
Figu e 5.57 - Wall displacemen in Z-di ec ion (Ve ical displacemen ), o KC&JG ..........................101
Figu e 5.58 - Ho izon al wall displacemen a dep h -0.4 m (le ) and -9 m ( igh ), o KC&JG ...........102
Figu e 5.59 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSC along loading phases o KC&JG, in
pe cen age o wall heigh ................................................................................................................102
Figu e 5.60 - Axial o ces in ancho s and ies a uppe (-0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els, o KC&JG
(kN) ................................................................................................................................................103
Figu e 5.61 - Axial o ce in waling a -9m, o KC&JG (kN) ...............................................................104
Figu e 5.62 - Axial o ce in capping beam, o KC&JG (kN) ..............................................................104
Figu e 5.63 - Bending momen s in waling beam a -9 m (kN.m) .......................................................105
Figu e 5.64 - Bending momen s in capping beam (kN.m) .................................................................105
Figu e 5.65 - Bending momen diag am a CSB and CSC, o KC&JG (kN.m) ..................................106
Figu e 5.66 - Ve ical axial o ce in shee pile wall a CSB, o KC&JG (kN) ......................................107
Figu e 5.67 - Coe icien o educ ion o la e al ea h p essu es a CSB, o KC and KC&JG.............108
Figu e 5.68 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB in las loading phase o KC and KC&JG, in
pe cen age o wall heigh ................................................................................................................109
Figu e 5.69 - La e al displacemen o wall in Y-di ec ion a dep hs -0.4 m and -9 m o KC and KC&JG
.......................................................................................................................................................110
Figu e 5.70 - Axial o ces in ancho s and ies a uppe (-0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els, o KC and
KC&JG ...........................................................................................................................................110
Figu e 5.71 - Bending momen diag am a CSB o KC and KC&JG (kN.m) .....................................111
Figu e 5.72 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB in las loading phase o su ace oughness
0.3, 0.5 and 2/3, in pe cen age o wall heigh ...................................................................................113
Figu e 5.73 - Bending momen a CSB o su ace oughness 0.3, 0.5 and 2/3 (kN.m) .....................113
Figu e 5.74 - Ve ical axial o ce in shee pile wall a CSB o su ace oughness 0.3, 0.5 and 2/3 (kN)
.......................................................................................................................................................114

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
x iii
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
xix
TABLE OF TABLES
Table 3.1 - Soil pa ame e s used o la e al ea h p essu e calcula ion ..............................................37
Table 3.2 - P ope ies o s uc u al elemen s......................................................................................38
Table 3.3 - Reac ion o ces o he h ee case scena ios....................................................................42
Table 4.1 - Inpu soil pa ame e s used ini ially in he model ...............................................................57
Table 4.2 - Inpu und ained soil pa ame e s .......................................................................................57
Table 4.3 - Desc ip ion o s uc u al elemen s used in si u .................................................................59
Table 4.4 - Inpu s uc u al elemen pa ame e s used in he model ....................................................59
Table 4.5 - Adap ed inpu pa ame e s o shee pile ...........................................................................59
Table 4.6 - Desc ip ion o phases o cons uc ion o each s udy scena io ..........................................61
Table 5.1 - Th ee cases (NR, KC and KC&JG) analysed wi h PLAXIS 3D..........................................63
Table 5.2 - Compa a i e cases KC and KC&JG ...............................................................................107
Table 5.3 - Su ace oughness chosen o he sensi i i y analysis ....................................................112
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
xx
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
xxi
SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATONS
E - elas ic modulus [KPa]
KC Piles - lime-cemen piles
PSR - plane s ain a io
T&P - Te zaghi and Peck
ETM - equi alen ie suppo me hod
Rd - passi e esis an o ce (kN)
Ri - equi alen o ce in s ep i (kN)
xi - dis ance o equi alen o ce in s ep i (m)
Ti - o ce in ancho i (kN)
yi - dis ance om he op o he wall o he ancho i (m)
SRM - sub-g ade eac ion me hod
J - momen o ine ia
Kh - ho izon al sub-g ade eac ion modulus
w - ho izon al wall displacemen (m)
z - dep h (m)
k - sp ing s i ness in SRM; ancho axial s i ness (kN/m)
a - non-dimensional coe icien
L - leng h (m)
A - a ea (m2)
Fd - d i ing o ce (kN)
mu - mass weigh (kg)
u - dis ance o poin o o a ion (m)
Ω - equency o exci a ion
D - diame e (m)
σz - e ical ea h p essu e (kPa)
K, K0 - a - es ea h p essu e coe icien
Ka - ac i e ea h p essu e coe icien
Kp - passi e ea h p essu e coe icien
φ' - ic ion angle (º)
δ - wall oughness
β - sloping o g ound su ace (º)
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
6
Figu e 2.5 - Plan o he Vä ahamnen po wi h loca ion o he co ne (Aa sle 2014)
The co ne is cons i u ed by one main wall and a pe pendicula smalle wall. The main wall de elops
pa allel o he adjacen pile deck and is suppo ed by wo le els o ancho s. On he o he hand, he
smalle wall is connec ed wi h ie ods o he main wall, suppo ed in he op co ne by an ancho and
la e ally p e en ed by neighbou ing g a i y L wall. Figu e 2.6 shows a h ee dimensional model o he
s uc u e o be e unde s anding he p e ious desc ip ion. I is clea whe e he illing ma e ial (ligh
blue) is deployed, he loca ion o ancho s, he layou o shee pile wall (da k blue) and he g a i y wall
(g ey).
Figu e 2.6 - 3D ep esen a ion o he shee pile co ne : ancho s, shee pile wall (da k blue), g a i y wall (da k
g ey), illing ma e ial (ligh blue) and soil ein o cemen (g ey)
Ancho s (lowe
le el hidden by
illing)
Ancho s
Soil
Rein o cemen
Back illing
Ma e ial
So Clay
Glacial Till
Shee pile wall
G a i y Wall
Co ne Ties (lowe
le el hidden by soil
ein o cemen )

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
7
The desc ip ion o he en i e sys em and adop ed s uc u al model a e explained in de ail in he
ollowing chap e s, depending on he ype o analysis (analy ical o nume ical).
Following, is p esen ed a desc ip ion o he pa icula aspec s ha make his special case an impo an
subjec o s udy, as well as some conside a ions ha should be necessa y o ake in o accoun when
analysing and s udying he p esen si ua ion.
2.1.3.1. Co ne E ec s
In exca a ions whe e co ne s exis i has been e i ied he occu ence o a phenomenon cha ac e ized
by he es ic ion o wall de lec ion, which is he e named as co ne s i ening e ec . In some
si ua ions, his co ne e ec has such in luence on he beha iou o he e aining wall ha can be aken
in o accoun o, o example, educe cos s in g ound imp o emen (Ou e al. 2008).
The co ne s i ening e ec is no mally obse ed in he displacemen a he cen e o e aining walls
a om he co ne s, whe e he mo emen is gene ally highe han he alues obse ed in a eas nea
he co ne . Fu he mo e, calcula ed alues using plane s ain analysis esul in much highe
de o ma ions han he obse ed in cons uc ion si es a he cen al sec ion o he e aining wall (Lee e
al. 1998). This ac , among o he s, lead o inc easing esea ch by many au ho s in o de o ob ain a
ela ionship be ween he wall displacemen and he plain s ain analysis calcula ed displacemen . One
o he pa ame e s used o de elop such s udies is he plain s ain a io (PSR), which ela es he
maximum displacemen o a wall in a ce ain sec ion wi h he maximum displacemen o he same
c oss sec ion calcula ed using plain s ain analysis. The PSR a ies be ween ze o and he uni y, when
he sec ion in s udy is in a plain s ain condi ion. Ou e al. (1996) de eloped a ela ionship be ween he
PSR and he shape o exca a ion a ea, as well as wi h dis ance o co ne s o speci ic cases, desc ibed
in Figu e 2.7.
Figu e 2.7 - Va ia ion o PSR wi h dis ance om he co ne and aspec o he si e (Ou e al. 1996)
As he e e ed s i ening e ec is e y sensible o di e en pa ame e s, such as s i ness o s u ing
sys em, dep h o exca a ion, loca ion o igid laye and e en by he ho izon al geome y o he
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
8
exca a ion, i is no clea ly e alua ed using only wo dimensional plain s ain analysis. In ac , i has
been e i ied by many au ho s ha in exca a ion pi s wi h co ne s he displacemen s in cen e o
exca a ion walls ha e highe alues when calcula ed by plane s ain ini e elemen analysis han in
h ee dimensional ini e elemen analysis (Ou e al. 2008), (Finno e al. 2007).
The case s udy in he p esen hesis, a shee pile co ne unde back illing condi ions, is a ypical
si ua ion ha had no been ho oughly s udied be o e and a small amoun o in o ma ion is a ailable
on he li e a u e. The e o e, he p e iously desc ibed co ne e ec migh no be he same o
exca a ion and back ill ype o loadings on e aining walls, which adds up o he di icul ies in
p edic ing he beha iou o he s uc u e.
Ano he possible consequence due o he exis ence o co ne s in he shee pile sys em may be a simila
e ec o he known silo e ec . This e ec was desc ibed by Janssen in 1895 as a educ ion o he ea h
p essu e in he bo om o silos. Basically, in he op o he silos he e ical ea h p essu e de elops
simila ly o he ypical iangula dis ibu ion om Rankine's o mula ion, bu ends o an asymp o ic
limi as i becomes deepe . Using he shea plane me hod, i is possible o analy ically e i y his ac ,
by simply calcula ing he s a ic equilib ium o an in ini esimal ho izon al laye , aking in o accoun he
weigh o he soil mass and upwa ds ic ion om walls su ace esul an o ho izon al ea h p essu e
(Widisinghe & Si akugan 2012). Acco ding o he la e con i med Jáky's assump ion (Pipa pongsa &
Heng 2010), i is plausible o admi a es p essu e condi ions and, he e o e, K0 as he coe icien o
ea h p essu e a es using he ho izon al and e ical s esses a cen e o he sec ion. By sol ing he
s a ic equilib ium, one ob ains a unc ion o e ical s ess wi h he dep h in equa ion (2.1), whe e D is
he silo diame e , K he coe icien o ea h p essu e a es ,

he soil weigh and

he su ace
oughness.










 D
zK
exp
K
D
z. an.4
1
an.4




( 2.1 )
Plo ing he equa ion (2.1) wi h he dep h z, ob ains he diag am in Figu e 2.8. The pa ame e s used
we e 2 m as he diame e D, uni weigh γ o 21 kN/m3. The su ace oughness angle δ co esponds o
2/3 o he ic ion angle, which was 40º. Ea h p essu e coe icien K was calcula ed using Jáky's
o mula and is dependen on he ic ion angle. The esul an g aph clea ly shows he asymp o ic
endency o e ical s ess as he dep h inc eases. I is in e es ing o also no e ha he ini ial inclina ion
is close o he uni weigh o he soil, which indica es ha close o he su ace he a ching e ec and
consequen silo e ec is p ac ically none.
The simila i y o he silo shape o he co ne shape makes i possible o assume ha an analogous
e ec may occu .
Taking his ac in o accoun , i is possible o expec some in luence o he co ne in he beha iou o
he ill ma e ial, esul ing in possible educed ea h p essu es and inc eased e ical s esses in he
shee pile wall, among o he consequences o his e ec .
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
9
Figu e 2.8 - Rela ion o e ical ea h p essu e wi h dep h, e ealing silo e ec
2.1.3.2. Co ne Tie Rods
Figu e 2.9 shows a plan o he shee pile wall and placemen o ancho s ods. On he igh side, close
o he co ne , he walls a e mu ually suppo ed by a g oup o 10 ie ods. These s uc u al elemen s
we e used ins ead o ancho s due o he di icul ies ha would be ound in placing he ancho blocks o
he smalle wall.
Figu e 2.9 - De ailed plan o shee pile wall, ancho s and co ne ie ods (COWI 2015)
Co ne
Tie Rods
Ancho s
Ancho ed Wall
Mu ually suppo ed
co ne
σz ≈ γ*z
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
10
In he back side o he wall, whe e he ancho blocks a e loca ed, he ill ma e ial will be placed. When
he back ill ma e ial pushes he wall sys em ou wa ds i is expec ed ha in he mu ually suppo ed
co ne he g oup o ie ods wo k in ension as a esponse o he endency o co ne opening, esul an
om he pushing o bo h walls. I is an in ui i e p edic ion, bu sill he beha iou and dis ibu ion o
s esses in hese s uc u es unde such condi ions is no o ally known and p edic able.
In ac , his si ua ion has some simila i ies wi h double wall ied co e dams, which a e commonly
used o wa e on s uc u es and exca a ion enclosu es (Figu e 2.10). These s uc u es consis in wo
pa allel s eel shee pile walls connec ed by ies, c ea ing a space in be ween ha is illed wi h g anula
ma e ial, such as sand, g a el o e en ock (Gui & Han 2009). The e o e, i is possible o admi ha in
bo h cases he wall, and consequen ly he ie ods a e unde he same back ill kind o loading.
Figu e 2.10 - Example o double wall ie co e dam (le ) and cellula co e dams ( igh ) (C.J. Mahan)
Howe e , in co e dams he design is simply done by admi ing a plane s ain de o ma ion analysis
and calcula ion. In he assumed case o s udy his may no be co ec and possibly is oo conse a i e.
Ac ually, he ie ods s i ness a ies along he wall, due o di e en leng hs, as ep esen ed in Figu e
2.11. As he ies a e connec ed o bo h walls, i appea s o be di icul o calcula e he co ec s i ness
o use in plane s ain calcula ions.
In eali y, he mos common si ua ion whe e a simila co ne ie od disposi ion is used is on cellula
co e dams, no mally u ilized o e ain wa e and soil ou o he exca a ion pi . Though, hese a e
subjec ed o ex e nal ea h p essu e, and no o in e nal back ill p essu e.
Figu e 2.11 - Scheme o he ancho s in he co ne
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
11
2.1.3.3. Failu e Mechanisms
As he e is no enough knowledge on he beha iou o his speci ic s uc u e, wo main ailu e
mechanisms we e hough a p io i when app oaching any design o his de ail. T ansla ion o wall
sys em and il a ound he longe wall a e assumed o occu in he e aining sys em in he co ne , as
ep esen ed in Figu e 2.12, and bo h a e p obable o occu simul aneously.
The ansla ion o he co ne is expec ed o occu in he di ec ion pe pendicula o he main long wall,
named he e as wall 1, and may be accompanied by a ci cula ailu e o he soil mass in on o he
wall. The e o e, he s abili y is assumed o be assu ed by he passi e esis ance o he soil in on o
wall 1 and by he ancho sys em.
The o a ion o he s uc u e occu s along he base o wall 1, pushing his wall ou wa ds and he
smalle wall, e e ed as wall 2, upwa ds. To assu e he s abili y o he co ne agains o a ion, i is
hough o make use o he ic ion wi h he soil in he back o he wall 2, an ancho in he op o he
same wall and passi e esis ance o soil in on o wall 1,
Figu e 2.12 - Expec ed ailu e mechanisms in he co ne : il ing a ound ip (le ) and ansla ion ( igh )
2.1.3.4. Soil Rein o cemen
The g ound in he cons uc ion a ea is mainly composed by a hick laye o so sedimen clay on op
o glacial ill and bed ock. This is he ypical soil p o ile o he ma ine soil ound in Scandina ia,
de ailed in Figu e 2.13. The laye o ill and bed ock p o e no mally o be compe en s uc u es
capable o bea ing high loads. Howe e , he same canno be said o he so ma ine clay. In ac , he
clay ma e ial in he egion is esul an om he deposi ion o sedimen s ha ha e been ca ied by he
ne wo k o i e s ha sho e S ockholm. As he i e low keeps aking he seabed along he ime, he
clay does no su e much consolida ion. The e o e, i shows low s eng h pa ame e s ha ise up
many conce ns when building in such condi ions.

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
12
Figu e 2.13 - Typical soil p o ile om S ockholm coas al a ea
When such soil condi ions a e p esen on si e and i is necessa y o achie e he equi ed le el o
s eng h, echniques o soil ein o cemen ough o be used.
The e o e, lime-cemen piles (KC Piles) we e applied o he clay seabed using a deep-mixing me hod
all along he back o he shee pile wall and je g ou ing columns done in he c i ical a eas nex o he
co ne , as idealized in Figu e 2.14.
I is possible ha his imp o ed g ound would beha e simila ly o a monoli h, especially in he co ne ,
whe e a conc e e block is likely o be c ea ed. This way, he ein o ced soil would ansmi ea h
p essu es di ec ly o bea ing s a um, in his case he glacial ill. Howe e , he educ ion in ea h
p essu e is no ce ain, as he beha iou o he KC Piles and je g ou ing is no su ely known. I should
be examined i he e is any shea de o ma ion ha may induce ea h p essu es in o he shee pile wall
and wha is he ailu e mode o hese sys ems.
Figu e 2.14 - Disposal o he applied g ound ein o cemen
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
13
2.2. GROUND CONDITIONS
The g ound on si e assumed in he analysis o he cu en wo k is a ypical Scandina ian ma ine soil
s uc u e, composed o na u al sedimen s, o e a hin laye o na u al glacial ill, below which lies a
e y compe en bed ock, as ou lined in Figu e 2.13. A his poin , only in oduc o y and geological
conside a ions a e done ega ding he soil. Though, o each ype o analysis in he ollowing chap e s
he assumed g ound p o iles and geo echnical p ope ies a e p o ided in de ail.
2.2.1. CLAYEY SEABED
The i s pa icula aspec o he g ound in si u is he seabed composed by so clay. As de ailed in
Figu e 2.15, i is a laye o clayey soil a ying be ween 5 and 9 m o hickness, esul an om he
deposi ion o i e sedimen s in he coas al banks. I is a e y ine and low pe meable ma e ial,
no mally cons i u ed by pa icles wi h less han 0.002 mm o diame e and wi h a plas ic beha iou a
he app op ia e wa e con en . Clay can be classi ied by he A e be g limi s which ela es i s
beha iou wi h he wa e con en and also by he plas ici y index, liquidi y index and ac i i y le el.
No mally consolida ed clay is gene ally a p oblema ic soil when i comes o design o geo echnical
s uc u es. Due o low cohesion, ypical und ained beha iou and, in some si ua ions, hixo opy, i is
no conside able o comple ely assu e s abili y o s uc u es such as ounda ions and shee pile walls.
In he egion whe e he case s udy is placed, he appea ing clay has ela i ely low alues o und ained
shea s eng h, down o 3 kPa.
Figu e 2.15 - Soil p o ile on-si e wi h laye s' hickness
2.2.2. GLACIAL TILL
The glacial ill is a mix o a wide a ie y o g anula pa icles, wi h a ying sizes and shapes, om
clay o boulde s. I was o med by he mo emen s o exis ing glacial ice in Scandina ia, which
anspo ed, e oded and deposi ed he ock agmen s du ing ad ance and e ea o he ice mass
(S ahle & S ahle 1973).
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
14
The g anula composi ion goes om la ge boulde s o ine clay. The smalle elemen s a e o med due
o e osion o ab asion be ween he elemen s o la ge dimension and he bed ock unde lying he
glacie . Also, as i was deposi ed due o he mel ing o ice ha con ained he deb is, i shows li le
s a i ica ion, hus has a less uni o m a angemen o pa icles.
In gene al, glacial ill is a compe en and esis an ma e ial. In his speci ic case, he 2 o 5 m laye o
ill (Figu e 2.15) shows a high alue o ic ion angle and he e o e has an adequa e bea ing capaci y.
2.3. BACKFILL CONDITIONS
2.3.1. CONSIDERATIONS IN BACKFILLING
One o he peculia aspec s o he si ua ion ha is being in es iga ed is he cons uc ion me hod and i s
design conside a ions.
As i was s a ed be o e, back illing and exca a ion a e gene ally wo possible cons uc ion me hods o
use wi h e aining walls. Al hough in he end o he cons uc ion s age he shape is he same, i.e. he e
is a mass o soil being e ained, he loading condi ions in he wall and in he soil a e di e en .
The e o e, he expec ed beha iou is dissimila (Bilgin 2010).
So, in o de o calcula e he ea h p essu es o he design o ied shee pile walls unde back illing
condi ions some conside a ions ha a e aken in o accoun in exca a ions canno be assumed. Fo
example, he Te zaghi-Peck diag ams, which a e o en used o design mul i- ied exca a ions, we e
de eloped om esul s o many obse a ions o exca a ions in cons uc ions si es.
In eali y, some au ho s ha pe o med he ew exis ing s udies ega ding back ill condi ions
concluded ha he back illing me hod has conside ably highe wall de o ma ions compa ed wi h
exca a ion. Also, he wall ip de o ma ions a e e en mo e a ec ed by he cons uc ion me hod.
Mo eo e , bending momen s a e signi ican ly highe in back illing han in exca a ions (Bilgin 2010).
These conclusions lead o unce ain y abou he design me hods ha should be applied o mul i- ied
shee pile walls unde back illing condi ions.
Rega ding he p ocedu es o cons uc ion, back illing is done by laye s ha in he cu en si ua ion, as
he ill is subme ged, will no be well compac ed. In ma ine wo ks, i is no mally a d edge ha sp eads
he ma e ial in laye s. Though, he op laye s, which will be used o in as uc u e, a e no mally
compac ed and i s applica ion mo e con olled.
2.3.2. BACKFILL MATERIAL
The ill ma e ial is desc ibed as a ic ional ma e ial, wi h high alues o ic ion angle. I is composed
o g a el and la ge sha p boulde s (see Figu e 2.16), e ie ed no mally om o he g ound wo ks,
esul an om blas ing and exca a ion. The la ge elemen s sizes gi e he soil high le els o
pe meabili y, p o iding i wi h a d ained beha iou .
The main unc ion o he so called Sp ängs en ( ansla ed o blas ed) is o p o ide he base o he
cons uc ion o in as uc u es necessa y o he po . While he lowe laye s se e solely as capable
illing, he op laye s will co e he unde g ound se ice sys ems o he building, such as he d ainage
sys ems (Figu e 2.17) and will be he con ac laye wi h he s uc u es abo e. The e o e, he ma e ial
applied abo e wa e le el has o be well compac ed and i s pe o mance con olled.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
15
Figu e 2.16 - Samples o he Sp ängs en ma e ial used as back ill
The in e ac ion o he back ill ma e ial wi h he shee pile wall is o main in e es when analysing he
beha iou o he s uc u e. Ac ually, such in e ace cha ac e is ic should be s udied o unde s and he
e ec o in e ace esis ance (su ace oughness) in la e al p essu es on he wall and any dis u bances
in co ne e ec s.
Figu e 2.17 - D ainage sys em ins alled be o e applying op laye o illing ma e ial
2.4. ELEMENTS OF ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALL
2.4.1. SHEET PILE WALL
In o de o e ain he soil ha will become he ounda ion g ound o in as uc u es o he po , shee
pile walls we e used as he e aining sys em.
These ypes o e aining s uc u es, commonly known as LARSSEN shee piles, a e applied in
di e en si ua ions ha include exca a ions, wa e on s uc u es, b idge abu men s, cu ings, land ill,
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
22
2.4.4. WALING AND CAPPING BEAM
The waling and capping beam a e wo elemen s o he shee pile wall esponsible o edis ibu ing he
eac ion o ces be ween he shee pile wall and he ancho s. Also, bo h p o ide highe s i ness o he
wall, as well as connec ion be ween piles o p e en e ical shea and consequen ela i e e ical
mo emen . Howe e , ypically he waling beam is made o s eel and loca ed in in e media e heigh s o
he shee pile wall, whe eas he capping beam is buil on op o he wall, wo king as a cap (Chu 2010).
Figu e 2.26 - Rep esen a ion o waling beam (le ) and conc e e capping beam ( igh )
When designing hese s uc u es, he s uc u al model o he beams should be conside ed simple
suppo ed wi h poin loads applied by he ancho loads. S ill, beams can al e na i ely be conside ed
con inuous and hus wi h ixed suppo s. Ye , his p ocedu e is less conse a i e han he i s op ion.
Also, du ing he design, he possible loss o a ie od has o be checked and a waling leng h o wo
imes he single leng h should be conside ed.
The capping beam should in addi ion be designed o esis shea s esses due o ela i e e ical wall
mo emen esul an o di e en ial se lemen s o la e al bending. Besides, in he case o quays whe e
he capping beam is he moo ing zone, he s esses caused by he con ac wi h moo ing ships should be
aken in o accoun and addi ional sa e y measu es should be conside ed.
2.5. SOIL IMPROVEMENT
2.5.1. KC PILES
Lime-cemen piles, o in Swedish, Kalkcemen pela e (KC Piles), a e esul o a soil s abiliza ion
echnique whe e quicklime o cemen a e mixed in si u wi h so soil, which can be cons i u ed by so
clay o sil as well as o ganic soils. In he applica ion o his me hod, a mixing ool ("egg bea e ")
o a es as i goes deepe in he g ound, emoulding he soil. When he equi ed dep h is eached, he
equi ed mix o lime, lime-cemen o cemen is supplied and mixed wi h he s abilizing soil, as he
mixing ool o a es and e u ns o he su ace (see Figu e 2.27).
The use o lime-cemen columns has been inc easing since hei de elopmen in he 1970's (B oms &
Boman 1975). The me hod has been used in si ua ions whe e so ma ine deposi s a e exis en , such as
in po s and ha bou a eas, wi h he main pu poses o inc easing load bea ing and educing g ound
se lemen s. Applica ion o such echniques has also ex ended o embankmen s, oadways and
ounda ions in so g ound.

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
23
Figu e 2.27 - Execu ion o d y mixing lime, lime-cemen o cemen pile (Moseley & Ki sch 2004)
Mos commonly used a he p esen ime in Japan and in Scandina ian coun ies, such as Sweden and
Finland, KC Piles ha e u ned ou o be a compe i i e solu ion o soil imp o emen and s abiliza ion.
I ac ually became an al e na i e o g ound imp o emen ha , al hough may appea mo e cos ly due
o use o inely g ound quicklime, has a lowe o al cos as less lime han cemen is equi ed (Moseley
& Ki sch 2004).
The main idea o soil imp o emen when using blocks o KC Piles is inc easing bea ing esis ance and
shea s eng h. This is mainly achie ed by he chemical eac ions be ween lime, cemen and soil
pa icles. Wha can be obse ed is ha he quicklime eac s wi h ine pa icles o clay, occu ing
loccula ion, whe eas he cemen eac s and agglome a es g anula pa icles. So, lime-cemen mixes
a e ecommended o use in o ganic soils when he desi ed shea s eng h canno be ob ained wi h o he
mixes.
Figu e 2.28 - Rep esen a ion o he ailu e modes assumed in a block o piles (Moseley & Ki sch 2004)
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
24
By inc easing he esis ance and shea s eng h, he s abilized soil, which wo ks as a block, will ha e
ailu e modes di e en om he p e ious no s abilized soil. Such ailu e modes a e ep esen ed in
Figu e 2.28. The design o hese s uc u es ha e o ake in o accoun he assumed ailu e modes, which
depends on he pene a ion dep h in o a s i laye below he wall and in he bea ing capaci y o he
columns hemsel es.
In he si ua ions whe e KC Piles a e applied in he s abili y o deep exca a ions wi h shee pile walls
(Figu e 2.29), such as he case o he S ockholm Po , hese will ha e wo unc ions, depending on
whe e he columns a e placed. I a block o piles is loca ed behind he shee pile wall, hen hey will
educe he ac i e ea h p essu e, assuming hey ans e he load o he bo om o he block wi hou
sp eading. Howe e , i loca ed in on o he shee pile wall, he columns will inc ease he passi e
ea h p essu e, educing he isk o oe ailu e.
KC Piles a e cha ac e is ic o i s duc ili y and high pe meabili y, compa ed o uns abilized soil.
Ac ually, lime-cemen piles ha e been epo ed o ha e ailu e s ain alues a ound 2% o ul ima e
s eng h o 130 kPa, e ealing o be less b i le han cemen piles (Moseley & Ki sch 2004). Also, hei
und ained shea s eng h can ise up o 200 kPa and o ha e a modulus o de o mabili y E50 o 200Cu.
Figu e 2.29 - Example shee pile wall wi h lime-cemen piles used as soil ein o cemen (Moseley & Ki sch 2004)
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
25
Single columns loca ed below an embankmen migh su e la e al displacemen caused by high la e al
ea h p essu e due o he ill. Such si ua ion may be possible o occu in he p esen case s udy.
Howe e , hese displacemen s a e usually small and la ge alues may only be expec ed when he
s abili y o he embankmen is low and he global ac o o sa e y is lowe han 1.5 (Moseley & Ki sch
2004).
2.5.2. JET GROUTING PILES
Among he a ailable solu ions in he ma ke , je g ou ing is one o he mos e sa ile o ms o g ound
imp o emen . Al hough i is a echnology wi h a high echnical demand, wi h his echnique i is
possible o inc ease g ound s eng h, p e en g oundwa e low and p o ide s uc u al s i ness wi h
one single applica ion.
Je g ou ing echnique s a ed being de eloped in he 1950s mainly in Japan, whe e i was i s used o
imp o e e ec i eness o wa e igh ness. In his si ua ion, he un ea ed soil was e oded and hen
ejec ed o he su ace, being a e wa ds eplaced by cemen -based slu y o p o ide impe iousness.
La e , je g ou ing was used o c ea e hin cu -o walls as well as o seal gaps be ween shee piles. In
he 1970s, o a ing je g ou ing eme ged in Japan o sa is y new demands and was la e in oduced in
Eu ope, becoming wo ldwide popula since hen.
The p inciple idea o his echnology is o physically e ode he g ound using a high-p essu e wa e o
g ou , in o de o imp o e he su ounding soil. No mally, he d ill is i s in oduced o he equi ed
dep h and only a e wa ds he p essu ed je (wa e o g ou ) is applied while wi hd awing he
equipmen , c ea ing he desi ed je g ou column (see Figu e 2.30).
Figu e 2.30 - S eps o applica ion o je g ou ing (A chiExpo)
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
26
A e he globaliza ion o he je g ou ing, h ee main a ian s eme ged, as shown in Figu e 2.31.
The single sys em is a simple o m o je g ou ing, wi h a single je g ou e oding and mixing he soil.
I is a no so much con olled p ocess as below g ound wa e le el (whe e o en je g ou ing occu s)
he e oding dis ance can be educed due o he absence o su ounding ai , inc easing he necessa y
ene gy o cu he desi ed diame e .
The double sys em is simila o he single sys em wi h he addi ion o comp essed ai ha sh ouds he
g ou je . This way, he e oding capaci y is inc eased especially below he wa e able, due o he
c ea ion o an a mosphe e a ound he g ou . S ill, his op ion is no so con olled and can p oduce mo e
spoil ha expec ed, his is, mo e esidual g ou han he e oded olume o soil.
The iple sys em uses g ou , wa e je and comp essed ai su ounding he wa e . This me hod consis s
o a single g ou je ha is loca ed app oxima ely hal a me e below a composi e je o wa e sh ouded
by comp essed ai . This way, i is a me hod ha is be e con olled and he quali y o he inal p oduc
can be de ined acco ding o he necessa y.
In addi ion o hese sys ems, la e in he 1980s and 1990s he je g ou ing echnique e ol ed o a mo e
complex sys em called "C ossje g ou ing", allowing o a be e con ol o e oding capabili y and
he e o e columns diame e s. This basically consis s in wo non-ho izon al je s ha collide a a ce ain
dis ance, limi ing hei e oding capaci y. In some cases, i can be coupled wi h con en ional deep
mixing me hods in o de o enhance con ol o soil mixing.
Figu e 2.31 - Th ee echniques o je g ou ing: single, double (o win) and iple. Top (Solen anche Bachy) and
bo om (Moseley & Ki sch 2004)
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
27
In he p esen case s udy he e a e se e al easons o he use o je g ou ing in he a ea o he co ne
ins ead o he lime-cemen piles used in he es o he ein o ced zone along he wall.
Fi s ly, he g ound in he co ne zone p esen ed boulde s and ock agmen s o la ge size mixed wi h
he so soil. The e o e, he equipmen used in he execu ion o KC Piles, he o a ing "egg bea e ",
was no sui able o hese g ound condi ions, as i could no agmen such la ge and s ong pa icles o
p o ide a good soil mix. As je g ou ing only uses he wa e o g ou je p essu e o e ode he soil, he
big boulde s could be agmen ed wi h high p essu e je i necessa y.
Secondly, he s uc u al s abili y could no be assu ed wi h ce ain y due o many unp edic able h ee
dimensional e ec s and de o ma ions, as explained be o e. So, in o de o main ain a conse a i e and
sa e app oach, he je g ou ing was a easonable solu ion. As al eady men ioned, i is expec ed ha he
je g ou ing piles would wo k as a monoli h wi h high comp essi e s eng h, up o 1 MPa, and abso b
ea h p essu es om he ill, educing ins abili y ac o s.

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
28
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
29
3
ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS
3.1. INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS
In he analysis o deep exca a ion p oblems wi h mul i- ied e aining walls, independen ly o he ype
o analysis, he i s equi emen is ob aining a co ec dis ibu ion o ea h p essu e. When designing
an ea h e aining s uc u e, he main poin is de e mining he co ec la e al ea h p essu es and he
esul an esponse o he e aining s uc u e.
Howe e , depending on he cons uc ion p ocess, i i is an exca a ion o back illing, he me hods o
calcula e he ea h p essu e dis ibu ion along he wall may be di e en . This is ela ed mainly o he
de o ma ion mode o he wall and mechanisms o load ans e h ough a ch e ec s in each o he
p ocesses.
In his chap e a e p esen ed di e en app oaches o design e aining s uc u es in mul i- ied
exca a ions, such as Te zaghi & Peck diag ams, he Equi alen Tie Suppo Me hod and he Sub-
g ade Reac ion Me hod. Besides, a simple analysis o he shee pile wall in he case s udy p esen ed in
he p e ious chap e is p o ided, assuming h ee di e en cases o la e al ea h p essu e dis ibu ion.
This se es as a e e ence o he h ee-dimensional analysis in chap e 4.
3.2. TERZAGHI & PECK DIAGRAMS
Te zaghi & Peck diag ams we e de eloped by Te zaghi and Peck in 1967 as a esul o obse a ions o
s u ed exca a ions (Figu e 3.1). They we e sugges ed based on empi ical in o ma ion o b aced
exca a ions, whe e comp ession o ces in each s u we e measu ed and a e wa ds he appa en
diag ams could be de i ed, i.e. he p essu e dis ibu ion on he wall based on he s u o ce pe a ea o
in luence. Te zaghi & Peck (T&P) diag ams we e hen o mula ed bo h o cohesionless and cohesi e
ma e ials. Al hough o cohesionless soils hey a e di ec ly applicable and no u he conce ns exis ,
o cohesi e soils he diag ams should be used aking in o accoun s abili y numbe s, based on s abili y
o he exca a ion base.
As T&P diag ams we e de eloped om b aced exca a ions, hey a e commonly accep ed as a eliable
me hod o calcula ing his ype o e aining walls bu may no be used o ie-back walls in some
si ua ions. Howe e , hey can be used o calcula e ini ial p e-s esses in p e-s essed ie-back walls, as
hese may show as much s i ness as b aced exca a ions.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
30
Figu e 3.1 - Te zaghi and Peck Diag ams (Ma os Fe nandes 1990)
Ne e heless, i is impo an o in oduce he unde s anding o such diag ams as an accep ed me hod
o calcula ion o design ea h p essu es in exca a ions.
3.3. EQUIVALENT TIE SUPPORT METHOD
The Equi alen Tie Suppo Me hod (ETM) is a ool ha can be used o calcula e mul i-suppo ed
s uc u es using simple equilib ium equa ions. In sho , his me hod assumes an equi alen ie o each
exca a ion s age, which ep esen s he esul an o ce o he ie o ces sys em. Fo using his me hod, i
is necessa y o eso o he classical design me hods. The e o e, hese ha e o be explained be o e
ully unde s and his me hod.
3.3.1. CLASSICAL DESIGN METHODS
The main wo classical design me hods a e ee and ixed ea h suppo . They a e based on he
exis ence o limi equilib ium s a e (ac i e and passi e) in bo h sides o he wall, which is simply
suppo ed in he ie and in he ip and i is analysed as a beam subjec ed o la e al ea h p essu es.
These me hods di e om each o he mainly in he ype o suppo adop ed in he ip o he wall
(Viei a & Ma os Fe nandes 2000).
The ee ea h suppo me hod admi s he soil on he embedded pa o he wall canno p oduce
nega i e bending momen , he e o e admi ing a simple suppo on he ip o he wall. By means o
momen equilib ium o disco e he necessa y embedded leng h and ho izon al o ce equilib ium i is
possible o ob ain he ancho o ces (Figu e 3.2).
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
31
Figu e 3.2 - F ee ea h suppo me hod (Viei a & Ma os Fe nandes 2000)
The ixed ea h suppo me hod conside s ha he soil embedding he wall p oduces nega i e bending
momen , hus admi ing a ixed suppo on he ip o he wall. In his case, i is necessa y o ha e a
esis an o ce Rd ha ep esen s passi e o ce in on o he wall. Conside ing an "equi alen beam" i
is necessa y o iden i y he loca ion o null bending momen whe e a hinge will be placed, spli ing he
wall in wo s a ically de e mined beams. A e wa ds, using s a ic equilib ium equa ions i is possible o
de e mina e he ancho o ces, passi e eac ion Rd and embedded leng h o he wall (Figu e 3.3).
Figu e 3.3 - Fixed ea h suppo me hod (Viei a & Ma os Fe nandes 2000)
3.3.2. EQUIVALENT TIE SUPPORT METHOD PROCEDURES
-
-
- Calcula e
-
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
38
3.5.3. SHEET PILE WALL SYSTEM
As i can be obse ed in he ske ch in Figu e 3.8, he s uc u e analysed is a single 24.4 m heigh
e aining wall suppo ed by wo le els o ancho s and embedded on he soil in he bo om ip.
Howe e i is assumed ha he e will be o a ional mo emen a ound he ip, wi hou any es ain .
The e o e, he s uc u al model adop ed is a e ical beam, simply suppo ed on he bo om and wi h
wo elas ic suppo s ep esen ing he ancho s. The p ope ies o he s uc u al elemen s a e simila o
he ones used on si e, desc ibed in Table 3.2.
The s i ness o he elas ic suppo s (i.e. sp ings) was calcula ed using he eal pa ame e s and based
on Hooke's law in equa ion (3.8), whe e k is ancho axial s i ness, E i s elas ic modulus, A he c oss
sec ion a ea and L he leng h o he ancho od.
( 3.8 )
The wo le els o ancho s ha e di e en leng hs and spacing. Acco ding o he p o ided plans, he
uppe ods a e spaced 2.80 m ha e 50 m leng h, while lowe ods a e spaced 1.40 m and ha e 25 m
leng h. The e o e, i is expec ed ha ancho s ha e di e en s i ness.
An impo an aspec o no ice is ha so clay p esen in si u does no p o ide enough eliable s eng h.
This means ha o conse a i e easons he laye o clay in on o he shee pile wall was no aken
in o accoun when calcula ing ea h p essu es. Thus, i is assumed i will no gene a e any passi e
ea h p essu e esis an o he o a ion o he wall.
Table 3.2 - P ope ies o s uc u al elemen s
Elemen
Desc ip ion
Ma e ial
Ine ia y (m4/m)
S i ness, k
(kN/m)
Young Modulus, E
(kN/m2)
Shee Pile
AZ 46-700 2
S eel S430
1,154x10-3
N/A
200x106
Uppe Ancho
Rods
SAS 670/800 3
(ϕ63,5)
S eel
670/800
N/A
12668
200x106
Lowe Ancho
Rods
SAS 670/800
(ϕ75)
S eel
670/800
N/A
35344
200x106
2
AZ 46-700 a e Z-sec ion shee piles o he AZ se ies ma ke ed by A celo P o il Luxembou g. I is a Z-sec ion wi h 4400 cm2/m sec ion
modulus and 700mm d i ing s ep. They a e di e en o simila sec ion piles om o he companies. The e o e, speci ica ions a e e ie ed
om he comme cial p oduc de ail, which can be ound in Appendix.
3
SAS 670/800 a e ancho od sys ems ma ke ed by S ahlwe k Annahü e. They a e h eaded ba s wi h yielding s ess (0,2% s ain) and
maximum s ess o 670 and 800 N/mm2 espec i ely. Speci ica ions a e e ie ed om he comme cial p oduc de ail, which can be ound in
Appendix

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
39
Figu e 3.8 - Ske ch o he e aining wall sys em (le ) and adop ed ep esen a i e s uc u al model ( igh )
3.5.3. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS
The analy ical analysis pe o med o he shee pile wall is based on a simple adop ion o he s uc u al
model p esen ed be o e wi h la e al ea h p essu es applied on he wall, calcula ed using he h ee
di e en app oaches al eady discussed.
The o al la e al ea h p essu es applied on he wall o each o he app oaches a e shown in he g aph
on Figu e 3.9 (calcula ions in Appendix). I is possible o obse e ha on op he wall he ea h
p essu es a e highe o he T&P, while below -3 and -9 m ea h p essu es a e highe o K0 and Ka,
espec i ely.
In he laye whe e he monoli h is loca ed, only la e al p essu e due o wa e di e en ial is ac ing on
he wall. As i was assumed in he beginning o his analysis, he monoli h is supposed o abso b ea h
p essu es om soil laye s abo e and un ea ed soil behind he block. Hence, i explains he inexis ence
o la e al p essu es besides he di e en ial wa e p essu e below -11 m.
These diag ams shape we e al eady expec ed, as la e al p essu es calcula ed by ea h p essu e
coe icien s a e inc eased wi h dep h due o o e bu den. Fu he mo e, la e al ea h p essu es p esen
highe alues o he si ua ion whe e a es coe icien was used, which is alid since Ka is logically
smalle han K0.
As he wo cases ha use ea h coe icien s o calcula e la e al ea h p essu es ha e highe alues on
he bo om o he shee pile wall compa ed o he case using T&P diag ams, i can be expec ed highe
o ces in he lowe ancho le el o such si ua ions.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
40
Figu e 3.9 - La e al ea h p essu es on he wall p oduced be he h ee scena ios
Fo he s uc u al analysis, he e aining wall is s udied as a beam subjec ed o la e al ea h p essu es.
I was hen inpu in s uc u al calcula ion so wa e wi h he loads co esponden o he h ee s udy
app oaches.
A e unning he s uc u al analysis using calcula ion so wa e (Robo S uc u al Analysis, by
Au oDesk), he ob ained bending momen s, shea o ces and eac ion in he suppo s a e shown below
in Figu e 3.10, Figu e 3.11 and Table 3.3, espec i ely.
By obse ing Figu e 3.10 i is possible o conclude ha using Te zaghi & Peck diag ams he e is a
highe dis ibu ion o bending momen along he s uc u e. This is accep able as T&P diag ams we e
empi ically ob ained a e obse a ion o s u ed exca a ions, whe e a ching e ec and consequen
bending momen edis ibu ion a e highly p esen . In he K0 case maximum alues o bending momen
a e highe han he T&P. I can be no iced as well ha bending momen s a e highe han he Ka
scena io, which is ob ious since ea h p essu es calcula ed using coe icien Ka a e smalle han in K0.
In all h ee cases, ex eme bending momen s occu in he lowe ancho s le el and in he a ea be ween
bo h ancho le els, app oxima ely a same dep h.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
41
Figu e 3.10 - Bending momen s (kN.m/m) on he wall o he h ee case scena ios: T&P, K0 and Ka ( om le o
igh )
By examining bo h Figu e 3.11 and Table 3.3 i is possible o e i y ha again maximum shea o ce
alue is highe o K0 case. Also, eac ion o ces a e app oxima ely he same o bo h le els o
ancho age in T&P case, while o he o he si ua ions hey a e app oxima ely wo imes highe in
lowe ancho s in compa ison o uppe ancho s. This is expec ed and can ac ually be close o he eal
o ces dis ibu ion o si ua ions o back illing, whe e a ching e ec s and consequen ly load
dis ibu ion o ancho s a e no as in luencing as in exca a ions.
Ano he in e es ing aspec is he o al la e al o ce applied in each case. T&P diag ams ha e a highe
esul an han Ka and simila o K0. Ac ually, he esul an using T&P diag am is 45% highe han he
esul an o ce om he ac i e la e al ea h p essu es. This pe cen age is close o wha is s a ed in
Ma os Fe nandes (1990) ha in cohesionless soils, T&P diag ams esul in la e al o ce a leas 30%
highe han he esul an o ce due o ac i e ea h p essu es.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
42
Figu e 3.11 - Shea o ces (kN/m) on he wall o he h ee case scena ios: T&P, K0 and Ka ( om le o igh )
Table 3.3 - Reac ion o ces o he h ee case scena ios
Reac ions
(kN/m)
T&P
Ko
Ka
Uppe Ancho
362,00
227,91
143,87
Lowe Ancho
341,79
491,09
329,59
Tip
16,72
18,90
21,77
To al
720,51
737,90
495,23
To calcula e ancho o ces in uppe and lowe le el i is only necessa y o mul iply he ob ained alues
wi h by od spacing. Taking in o accoun he cha ac e is ic yielding capaci y o he ods speci ied in
he comme cial p oduc s (see no e 3) and using he basic ela ion o s ess, o ce and a ea, one can do
simple ul ima e capaci y e i ica ion. The maximum yielding o ce (wi h no pa ial coe icien s) o he
uppe and lowe ods is 1845 kN and 2960 kN, espec i ely. In ac , obse ing he maximum eac ion
alues o he h ee cases o bo h o uppe and lowe ancho s and mul iplying by od spacing, one
ob ains 1014 kN and 687 kN, espec i ely. This is an indica o ha he s esses a e in a sa e load ield,
ye i should be conside ed ha no pa ial sa e y coe icien s we e used.
The ob ained wall de o ma ion o h ee scena ios is ep esen ed in Figu e 3.12. In all cases he main
de o ma ion mode is o a ion along he bo om ip o he shee pile. Howe e , in T&P scena io he op
o he wall has he highe de o ma ion alue because T&P diag ams conside a cons an ea h p essu e
dis ibu ion. So as he op is no es ained ho izon ally and has a highe load compa ed o he es o
he wall, i is expec ed ha i will ha e highe la e al mo emen . On he con a y, o he cases K0 and
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
43
Ka he op has lowe de o ma ion, while maximum alues o la e al mo emen occu in he zone o
posi i e bending o he shee pile.
Figu e 3.12 - Wall de o ma ion (mm) o he h ee case scena ios: T&P, K0 and Ka ( om le o igh )
Ano he impo an aspec o no e is he low de o ma ion in he a ea igh below he lowe ancho . This
e lec s he inexis ence o la e al ea h p essu es ep esen ing he abso bing beha iou o he monoli h.
Ac ually, in case he ancho s' s i ness is highe han expec ed, i is possible ha in his lowe zone
back bending (wall de o ms backwa ds) may occu , which in ex eme alues could gene a e
unexpec ed p essu es on he back o he wall due o leaning o shee pile wall agains he monoli h.
Ha ing he analy ical s udy o he shee pile wall, i is possible now o p oceed o he h ee
dimensional analysis wi h a base e e ence.

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
44
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
45
4
THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODELLING
IN PLAXIS 3D
4.1. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
4.1.1. 3D ANALYSIS
The complex case o a mu ually suppo ed co ne unde back illing condi ions is no a common
si ua ion and, as i has al eady been e e ed, esea ch a ound hese p oblems is educed and
p ac ically non-exis en in he li e a u e. Re aining s uc u es ha e been s udied mainly in he cases o
enclosed exca a ions. Howe e , he back illing p ocess is much di e en and e aining s uc u es
unde such condi ions equi e sepa a e s udies.
The exis ence o he co ne i sel in ui i ely leads o he necessi y o a 3D analysis. In hese si ua ions
he dis ibu ion o ea h p essu es is ele an in all h ee Ca esian di ec ions, in opposi ion o he
supposed in a 2D plane s ain analysis, ha he hi d Ca esian s ess pe pendicula o he plan (i.e.
di ec ion o he in ini e leng h - Figu e 4.1) is cons an and no used in calcula ions. Fu he mo e, he
beha iou o he wo mu ually suppo ed walls is dependen on he in e ac ion be ween bo h. So, using
wo dimensional analysis, he co ne (i.e. he wo connec ed walls) mode o de o ma ion is no
p edic able.
Ano he ele an aspec ha may equi e a hi d dimensional analysis is he signi ican 3D e ec s ha
may a ise om la e al a ching o e ained soil and la e al lexu e o he wall-waling sys em, as
sugges ed by Lee e al. (1998). Ac ually, he simple 2D plane s ain analysis does no eplica e such
la e al ac ion. The e o e, de o ma ions and s esses in he s uc u e may di e om he esul s o he
analy ical analysis.
Figu e 4.1 - Plane S ain condi ions
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
46
As summa y, 3D analysis is ele an as di e en le els o de o ma ions, s uc u al o ces and ea h
p essu es a e expec ed along he shee pile wall sys em.
4.1.2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Due o he al eady explained complexi y o he p esen ed case s udy a h ee-dimensional analysis is
equi ed, which is he cen al idea o his hesis. A ini e elemen analysis in a hi d dimension
en i onmen is a complex me hod o analyse geo echnical p oblems ha consume much ime and
esou ces. The e o e, i is no mally used in cases whe e analysis using plain s ain o axisymme ic
condi ions canno ep esen accu a ely he eal condi ions and bounda ies o he p oblem.
The ini e elemen me hod is a nume ical me hod o analysis commonly used o sol e highly
unde e mined and complex p oblems. In Geo echnics i is a usual si ua ion o ace his so o
p oblems ha a e no accu a ely sol ed wi h simple models. In ac , o he case o mul i-p opped
walls, some au ho s concluded ha simpli ied me hods o analysis whe e an app op ia e calib a ion o
he geo echnical da a is made could p o ide compa able alues o bending momen and ancho o ces
wi h hose o ini e elemen analysis (Ca ubba & Colonna 2000). Howe e , simpli ied me hods, such
as he Equi alen Tie Suppo Me hod (ETM) o he Sub-g ade Reac ion Me hod (SRM), do no ake
in o accoun in e ac ions be ween soil, wall and ancho s, as hey assume only he inal limi
equilib ium condi ion. The e o e, hese do no p o ide comple e in o ma ion abou he a ia ions o
soil displacemen h ough all he phases and ce ain ies abou global s abili y, ha is wo sened o a
h ee dimensional si ua ion.
Al hough he ini e elemen analysis gi es esul s close o he eali y, i is a e y sensible me hod ha
encloses a co ec modelling o bounda ies and geome y, an e icien and good quali y mesh, he
adequa e choice on he cons i u i e models o he soil as well as o he soil pa ame e s.
4.1.3. PLAXIS 3D
The so wa e chosen o pe o m he equi ed compu a ions was PLAXIS 3D. I is a common and e y
popula ini e elemen analysis p og am, specialized in geo echnical applica ions and wi h h ee
dimensional capaci ies. The ac ha i p o ides wide in o ma ion ega ding displacemen s, s esses
and s ain in soil and s uc u al elemen s wi h a conside able le el o accu acy makes PLAXIS 3D an
accep able and desi ed p og am in he geo echnical ield.
Th ee ypes o calcula ions a e possible o pe o m, namely Plas ic, Consolida ion and Sa e y
Analysis. Fo he p esen ed case, plas ic calcula ions a e necessa y as i is equi ed in o ma ion
ega ding mo emen s o soil and s ess-s ain condi ions.
PLAXIS 3D is based in he ini e elemen me hod wi h basic equa ions o s a ic equilib ium and
kinema ic ela ions. By associa ing cons i u i e ela ions ep esen a i e o he soils, i p o ides a
ealis ic ep esen a ion o soil beha iou .
The soil is disc e ised in o 10-node e ahed al elemen (Figu e 4.2). Howe e , s uc u al elemen s
ha e di e en ypes o elemen . As shown in Figu e 4.3, pla es ha e 6-node iangles, while in e aces
ha e 16-node elemen wi h pai nodes ( wo nodes in he same coo dina es); beams and node- o-node
ancho s ha e 3-node line elemen s. These di e ences in elemen ypes ha e o be conside ed when
analysing ou pu s, because shape unc ions a e di e en and he e o e in e pola ed esul s may ha e
di e en meanings.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
47
Figu e 4.2 - 10-node e ahed al elemen used in PLAXIS 3D o soil disc e isa ion (adap ed om PLAXIS 2013a)
Figu e 4.3 - 16-node elemen used o in e aces (le ) and 6-node iangles used o pla e elemen s ( igh )
(adap ed om PLAXIS 2013a)
4.2. INPUT INFORMATION
4.2.1. SOIL LAYERS
The soil olume is composed by h ee soil laye s, shown in Figu e 4.4, which a e inpu in he model
ia ep esen a i e bo eholes, ep esen ed in Figu e 4.5. The soil p o iles used in he bo eholes we e
based on Figu e 2.15, a e simpli ica ions o laye s' hickness. To a oid unnecessa y densi y o
images, all bo eholes can be ound in he Appendix.
The lowe laye ep esen s glacial ill and de elops om he bo om o he model a -25 me es, which
ep esen s bed ock, up o a dep h a ying be ween -20.5 and -16 me es, depending on he loca ion.
The medium laye is he so clay, om he op o glacial ill up o -11 me es. The ma e ial o his
laye may change o a ma e ial simula ing KC Piles o Je G ou ing, depending on he s udy scena ios
ha a e p esen ed a e wa ds.
The op laye consis s o he ill ma e ial, which is deposi ed in laye s and is only exis en in he back
o he e aining wall. Ac ually, on si e his op laye is cons i u ed by he same ma e ial (Sp ängs en) in
h ee di e en condi ions and he e o e hese a e soil laye s wi h di e en p ope ies. These laye s
we e de ailed in he p e ious chap e o he analy ical analysis, whe e hey we e all conside ed.
Howe e , as he named compac ill is only 0.40 me es hick and has he same uni weigh as he
"uncompac " ill, he laye om su ace o dep h o -11.0 me es was assumed o he modella ion as
"uncompac " ill. The ma e ial placed on he op deck, o e 0.0 me es is eplaced by a su ace load.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
54
Figu e 4.13 - 3D ep esen a ion o KC&JG scena io, showing he KC Piles (b own), je g ou ing (da k g ey) and
spoil (ligh g ey)
4.2.4. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The bounda y condi ions in he limi s o he model a e se by de aul o he ollowing con igu a ion:
 Ve ical bounda y planes a e ixed in he pe pendicula di ec ion, bu ee in plane e ical and
ho izon al di ec ions, i.e. bounda ies wi h hei no mal in X-di ec ion ha e ux = 0 and
bounda ies wi h hei no mal in Y-di ec ion ha e uy = 0;
 Bo om bounda y plane is ixed in all di ec ion (ux = uy = uz = 0);
 G ound su ace is ee in all di ec ions.
The limi s o he model we e de ined o xmin = -5; xmax = 40; ymin = -30 and ymax = 70, as schemed in
Figu e 4.14. Such alues we e ob ained a e ials so ha a plane s ain de o ma ion s a e a all
e ical model bounda ies was achie ed and bounda ies condi ions would ha e low in luence on he
esul s.
The bounda ies pe pendicula o Y-di ec ion and he bounda y a x = -5 should be ca e ully chosen
and unde s ood. Fi s , he bounda ies a ymin = -30 and ymax = 70 we e chosen so ha he e would exis
enough space o model he ancho s as well as o p o ide place o he occu ence o a passi e ailu e
slip in he ill. The necessa y dis ance D o hese ailu e cu es o happen can be app oxima ely
de e mined a p io i using he equa ion (4.1), whe e H is he high o soil laye wi h ailu e and φ is he
ic ion angle.
( 4.1 )
The bounda y a x = -5 is c ucial as his mus ep esen plane s ain de o ma ion condi ions.
O he wise, he esul s will come highly in luenced by he mo emen es ic ion p o ided by he
de aul bounda y se ings. Howe e , i should be educed o a minimum amoun o s uc u al elemen s,
in o de o dec ease compu a ion ime. The necessa y condi ions a e achie ed a he plane s ain
de o ma ion c oss sec ion (PSD), which is demons a ed in Chap e 5.

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
55
An impo an aspec no ye desc ibed is he connec ion be ween he shee pile wall and he exis en
g a i y wall. Ac ually, wall 2 is assumed as being simply suppo ed by he g a i y wall and i s
mo emen in he backend p e en ed in X-di ec ion. Howe e , as i is no o in e es s udying he
g a i y wall and aking in o accoun ha i s mo emen s will no a ec la gely he s uc u e's
beha iou , L walls we e modelled as su aces wi h bo h mo emen s in X- and Y-di ec ion ixed. Only
se lemen in Z-di ec ion is allowed (see Figu e 4.15).
Figu e 4.14 - Ho izon al plan desc ibing he leng hs o he model's bo de s
Figu e 4.15 - De ail o he su ace wi h ixed displacemen s in X- and Y-di ec ions, simula ing L g a i y wall
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
56
4.2.5. SOIL MODELS AND PARAMETERS
In o de o ob ain an accep able ou pu om any compu a ion i is necessa y o ha e selec ed adequa e
cons i u i e laws ha ep esen accu a ely he soils' beha iou in he model.
Among he a ailable soil models, he simple elas ic-plas ic model wi h Moh -Coulomb (MC) ailu e
c i e ia was chosen o all ypes o soil. This model is a cons i u i e soil model ha p o ides a simple
ep esen a ion wi h need o ew and easily ob ained pa ame e s, such as ic ion angle (φ), dila ion
angle (ψ), cohesion (c), poisson coe icien (υ) and elas ic modulus (E). Due o i s simplici y based on
pe ec ly elas ic-plas ic beha iou , i is no mally used o pe o m as e ini ial app oxima e
calcula ions be o e op ing o mo e complex soil models (see Figu e 4.16). Howe e , i may no
p o ide accu a e and so ealis ic beha iou in some kinds o soil such as in no mal consolida ed clays,
whe e some ha dening may occu . In his case, o he models such Soil Ha dening o So Soil C eep
could be used o ob ain a close beha iou o eali y, ye in de imen o compu a ion speed (PLAXIS
2013b). Besides, such models equi e ad anced pa ame e s ha need o be de e mined wi h mo e soil
es s and a e wa ds calib a ed o he model.
Despi e he ac ha hese models should be used o ep esen ing he clay laye , he au ho s ill op ed
o use Moh -Coulomb because i was in ended an ini ial app oach o he p oblem.
Figu e 4.16 - Diag am ep esen a i e o pe ec ly elas ic-plas ic model (PLAXIS 2013b)
Fo he soil mass ep esen ing soil imp o emen wi h lime-cemen piles (KC Piles) was also used MC
model. Howe e , o modelling je g ou ing and he g ou spoil a linea elas ic model was chosen. This
choice was based on he assump ion ha he monoli h will no plas i y and he e will be no in e nal
up u e. In eali y his assump ion is no co ec , bu as he yielding o he g ou ing occu s much la e
han he soil and he objec i e is o s udy soil beha iou , i is an accep able op ion.
In Table 4.1 a e desc ibed all soil pa ame e s ha we e used in he inpu o PLAXIS 3D. Mos o he
alues we e based on p o ided in o ma ion by COWI, ega ding soil in si u. Howe e , Poisson a io
alues we e ob ained om a e age obse ed alues in he li e a u e. As no in o ma ion ega ding he
coe icien o ea h p essu e K0 was p o ided, i was se o Au o in PLAXIS 3D, which means ha he
p og am au oma ically compu es his alue based on Jaky's o mula, in equa ion (3.3).
Fill and glacial ill a e desc ibed as ha ing a d ained beha iou , whe eas clay and imp o ed clay (KC
Piles) appea o show und ained condi ions, due o low pe meabili y. The e o e, in hese ma e ials
und ained p ope ies should be used, as desc ibed in Table 4.2, ins ead o he ini ially p esen ed
d ained pa ame e s in Table 4.1.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
57
Table 4.1 - Inpu soil pa ame e s used ini ially in he model
Soil
Uni Weigh , γ
(kN/m3)
Poisson a io, υ
F ic ion Angle,
φ (º)
Cohesion, c
(kPa)
Oedome ic modulus,
Eoed (MPa)
Clay
12,82
0,4
27,6
0,85
310
Fill
21
0,2
38
0,001
10
Glacial Till
21
0,3
40
0,001
100
Je
G ou ing
24
0,1
N/A
N/A
3,17x107
JG Spoil
22
0,1
N/A
N/A
2,56x107
KC Piles
14
0,15
36,8
46
16500
The ic ion angle and cohesion, esul an o in e p e a ion o geo echnical es s, a e used wi hou
applica ion o speci ic pa ial ac o s and hus a e cha ac e is ic alues. Fo pu ely ic ional soils
cohesion alue is 0,001 because PLAXIS shows nume ical issues i he cohesion is null.
Table 4.2 - Inpu und ained soil pa ame e s
Soil
Und ained
shea s eng h,
cu (kPa)
Clay
8,68
KC Piles
104,1
Ano he pa ame e ha needs o be in oduced in he ma e ial in o ma ion o g anula ma e ials is he
dila ion angle ψ (Figu e 4.17). This cha ac e is ic is pa icula ly impo an in plas ic analysis using
Moh -Coulomb model as i is associa ed wi h olume de o ma ions in plas ic domain. The dila ion
angle indica es how he soil olume changes wi h shea ing, which means ha posi i e dila ion angle
will esul in olume inc ease in a pu e shea ing condi ion.
Figu e 4.17 - Concep o dila ion angle
The g anula ill is simply deposi ed (i.e. no compac ion) hus ini ial oid a io is smalle han he
c i ical, ypically close o he uni y. A e loading esul an om he weigh o soil laye s placed
abo e, oid a io will educe un il i eaches (i i eally does) c i ical s a e (see Figu e 4.18).
The e o e, he dila ion pa ame e , which in Figu e 4.18 is ep esen ed by Ψ (e-ec i ), is posi i e, so he
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
58
soil is con ac i e. Consequen ly dila ion angle will be nega i e, which means educ ion o olume.
So, dila ion is assumed o be ze o in he g anula ma e ials as he se lemen is no ele an o he
s udies in he p esen hesis.
Figu e 4.18 - C i ical S a e line
Rega ding he Poisson a io, i is ele an o e e ha clayey soil show a highe alue han g anula
soil. As glacial ill can be assumed as a mix u e o bo h ypes o soil and based on commonly used
alues, an a e age a io was chosen. Conce ning mo e igid s uc u es like he je g ou ing and he KC
Piles, ypical alues o conc e e we e inpu .
I is impo an o deno e ha Oedome ic (o Cons ained) Modulus, Eoed, is ob ained a e in si u
geo echnical es s. The Young Modulus, E, is hen de i ed om he equa ion (4.2).
( 4.2 )
4.2.6. STRUCTURES AND INTERFACES
The elemen s in PLAXIS 3D used o ep esen he e aining wall and he ancho s we e pla e elemen s
and node- o-node ancho s, espec i ely. To simula e no-displacemen deadman ancho s, ixed
displacemen nodes we e used, as ancho s displacemen a e no unde s udy. Fo he capping and
waling beams, beam elemen s we e chosen.
In Table 4.3 a e p esen ed he eal elemen desc ip ion. The sizes and ype o he elemen s we e based
on in o ma ion abou he cons uc ion si e used as example, which was p o ided in an in e nal
documen o COWI. I was decided o use simila shee pile walls, beams and ancho s p o iles so he
analysis could p o ide an accep able ep esen a ion o he eal s uc u e, in o de o he esul s o be
use ul.
Pla es and beams we e modelled using pu ely elas ic models. Howe e , ancho s we e modelled wi h
elas ic-plas ic models, wi h yielding ensile s eng h o 1877 kN and 1312 kN o lowe and uppe
ancho s, espec i ely. To simula e ailu e o buckling, yielding comp essi e s eng h was se o 1 kN,
because PLAXIS does no accep 0 kN.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
59
Table 4.3 - Desc ip ion o s uc u al elemen s used in si u
Elemen
Desc ip ion
Ma e ial
Waling
2x UNP 400
S eel S355
Shee Pile
AZ 46-700
S eel S430
Uppe Ancho Rods
SAS 670/800 (ϕ63,5)
S eel 670/800
Lowe Ancho Rods
SAS 670/800 (ϕ75)
S eel 670/800
Capping
Beam (1,00x1,00)
Conc e e
The inpu pa ame e s o he s uc u al elemen s a e shown in Table 4.4. The equi ed pa ame e s a e
uni weigh , Poisson a io, elas ic modulus, a ea and ine ia x and y, I2 and I3 in PLAXIS, espec i ely.
Table 4.4 - Inpu s uc u al elemen pa ame e s used in he model
Elemen
Uni Weigh , γ
(kN/m3)
Poisson
a io, υ
Elas ic Modulus,
E (kPa)
A ea, A
(m2)
Ine ia y, I2
(m4)
Ine ia x, I3
(m4)
Waling
77
0,3
2,10x108
1,82x10-2
3,00x10-5
4,07x10-4
Shee Pile
3,15
0,3
2,00x108
2,87x10-2
N/A
N/A
Uppe Ancho
78
0,3
2,00x108
3,17x10-3
7,98x10-7
7,98x10-7
Lowe Ancho
78
0,3
2,00x108
4,42x10-3
2,00x10-6
2,00x10-6
Capping
25
0,1
3,00x107
1,0
8,33x10-2
8,33x10-2
When doing he inpu o he s uc u e pa ame e s, some adap a ions had o be made, such as in he
pla e elemen s ep esen ing he shee pile wall. In Table 4.5 a e desc ibed speci ic inpu pa ame e s o
pla es.
Table 4.5 - Adap ed inpu pa ame e s o shee pile
Elemen
E1 (kN/m2)
E2 (kN/m2)
G12 (kN/m2)
G13 (kN/m2)
G23 (kN/m2)
E'A (kN)
Shee Pile
2,20x107
1,10x106
1,10x106
1,47x106
4,41x105
N/A
To ob ain he equi alen p ope ies o he shee pile AZ 46-700, he ue alues o he shee pile we e
inpu in a ans o ma ion sp eadshee p o ided by he de elope o PLAXIS. The calcula ions
occu ing in his ans o ma ion a e based in he equa ions (4.3) o (4.7), whe e Es eel is he elas ic
modulus o s eel, E1, E2, G12, G13 and G23 a e calcula ion pa ame e s, I1 is ine ia and d he sec ion
heigh , equi alen o h in Figu e 4.19.
( 4.3 )
( 4.4 )

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
60
( 4.5 )
( 4.6 )
( 4.7 )
Figu e 4.19 - Ho izon al c oss sec ion o idealized shee pile
The co ec in e ac ion be ween soil and shee pile wall has o be modelled using an in e ace. This
in e ace, cha ac e ized o ha ing pai nodes in he a ea elemen s, will p o ide a be e simula ion o
he hin laye be ween he shee pile wall and he soil. In e aces use simila soil models o ep oduce
i s eal beha iou . Fo he case o Moh -Coulomb model, he in e ace ic ion angle inpu ep esen s
in eali y he skin ic ion o he shee pile wall, i.e. he oughness o s eel.
Fo his model, he model and pa ame e s o in e aces a e se o be he same as he adjacen soil.
Howe e , he skin ic ion angle ep esen ing oughness be ween he shee pile wall and soil mass will
be 2/3 o he soil ic ion angle, which is se when desc ibing in e ace s eng h p ope ies o each
soil. In equa ion (4.8), Rin e symbolizes he a ia ion ac o o he s eng h pa ame e s ep esen ed by
he ic ion angle, φ. The e o e, using he sugges ed alue will esul in he educ ion o esis ance in
he in e ace elemen s. This alue was ini ially chosen based on e iewed li e a u e (PLAXIS 2013a)
and expe ience o he au ho . Al hough i is a high alue, as oughness be ween sand and s eel pla e
may a y om 0 o 0.5, i was sugges ed as a i s app oach aking in o accoun co osion o s eel pla e
and Z shape o he shee pile wall. Howe e , he oughness alue should be subjec o a pa ame ic
s udy, o unde s and i s in luence in he beha iou o he wall and load dis ibu ion.
( 4.8 )
Fo he si ua ion o igid s uc u es such as he Je G ou ing monoli h and he KC Piles, Rin e is he
uni a y alue because i is assumed ha bo h ypes o ma e ial do no ha e educed s eng h in
in e aces.
4.2.7. LOADING AND STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION
As he s uc u e beha iou is highly dependen on he cons uc ion p ocess, i was necessa y o apply
di e en loading phases o simula e ini ial condi ions, implemen a ion o ancho s and shee piles, je
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
61
g ou ing, applica ion o KC Piles and back illing by laye s. So, se en s ages o cons uc ion we e
con igu ed in he model o he h ee s udy scena ios. In Table 4.6 is a desc ip ion o he di e en
phases o loading and in Figu e 4.20 a 3D ep esen a ion.
I is impo an o no e ha lime-cemen columns a e applied be o e d i ing he shee pile walls in place
and je g ou ing is done a e wa ds, as desc ibed on si e. The back illing ma e ial is deposi ed on
laye s o wo me es, al hough i s laye is h ee me es hick. Also, he capping beam is only
ac i a ed be o e illing he las wo me es. In eali y, he capping beam uses he las laye o illing
ma e ial as base o he conc e e deploymen , so i should simula ed simila ly.
Table 4.6 - Desc ip ion o phases o cons uc ion o each s udy scena io
Phase
NR
KC
KC&JG
Ini ial
Phase
Ini ial S ess S a e
Ini ial S ess S a e
Ini ial S ess S a e
P1
Shee Pile Wall, Waling
Beam and Co ne Ties
KC Piles
KC Piles
P2
Ancho s
Shee Pile Wall, Waling
Beam and Ancho s/Ties
Shee Pile Wall, Waling
Beam, Je G ou ing (w/
spoil) and Ancho s/Ties
P3
Fill 3 m ( o -8m)
Fill 3 m ( o -8m)
Fill 3 m ( o -8m)
P4
Fill 5 m ( o -6m)
Fill 5 m ( o -6m)
Fill 5 m ( o -6m)
P5
Fill 7 m ( o -4m)
Fill 7 m ( o -4m)
Fill 7 m ( o -4m)
P6
Fill 9 m ( o -2m)
Fill 9 m ( o -2m)
Fill 9 m ( o -2m)
P7
Fill 11 m ( o 0m) and
capping beam
Fill 11 m ( o 0m) and
capping beam
Fill 11 m ( o 0m) and
capping beam
P8
Su ace loading 90kPa
Su ace loading 90kPa
Su ace loading 90kPa
O e he op laye is applied a su ace loading which ep esen s he applica ion o he 2,4 m laye o
ill ma e ial abo e deck in combina ion wi h an equi alen load ep esen a i e o di e en ial wa e
load and a ic loads. In o al, he inal su ace loading applied is 90 kPa, p o iding a conse a i e
load case scena io.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
62
Figu e 4.20 - Loading phases 3 o 8 o he no ein o cemen case (NR)
P2
P4
P3
P5
P6
P7
P8
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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5
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
5.1. METHODOLOGY
To ully unde s and and comp ehend he case s udy, i is necessa y o choose he ele an in o ma ion
o ex ac om he ou pu o compu a ions p o ided by PLAXIS 3D. These mus p o ide a clea and
simple iew o he wall beha iou and soil-s uc u e in e ac ion. The e o e, an impo an aspec o
examine is he de o ma ion mode o wall sys em (i.e. wall 1 and wall 2). The wall mo emen s can
hen be ela ed o he dis ibu ion o s esses in he s uc u al sys em, which is signi ican in o ma ion
o his s udy.
Also, in o ma ion o high ele ance is he educ ion o la e al ea h p essu es ha is expec ed o occu
on he shee pile wall. One o he i s assump ions made be o e s udying his case was he ans e o
loads om he soil mass abo e and behind he monoli h o he bea ing s a um (glacial ill and
bed ock), o he si ua ion KC and KC&JG. This load ans e mechanism should be e i ied by
s udying he s ess dis ibu ion inside he block.
Table 5.1 shows a summa y o he cases explained in Chap e 4, which a e h oughou his chap e
analysed and compa ed. Fi s ly, he base si ua ion wi h no soil ein o cemen (NR) is deeply
sc u inized, ollowed by a less de ailed s udy o he cases wi h soil ein o cemen , KC and KC&JG.
Table 5.1 - Th ee cases (NR, KC and KC&JG) analysed wi h PLAXIS 3D
Case
Abb e ia ion
Desc ip ion
No soil
Rein o cemen
NR
Model wi h no soil ein o cemen
KC Piles
Rein o cemen
KC
Model wi h lime-cemen piles (KC
Piles) ein o cemen
KC Piles and Je
G ou ing
Rein o cemen
KC&JG
Model wi h lime-cemen piles
ein o cemen and je g ou ing nea
he co ne
5.1.1. CROSS SECTIONS
In o de o ob ain a clea isualiza ion o he esul s and p og ess along he wall de elopmen , se e al
key c oss sec ions we e selec ed. These c oss sec ions, wi h he loca ion as in Figu e 5.1, a e
dis ibu ed along he wall and a e expec ed o ep esen all he ele an aspec s in oduced be o e.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
70
Figu e 5.8 - Ho izon al (Y-di ec ion) ea h p essu es a -9 m
As in oduced in he Chap e 2, ano he consequence o co ne e ec s may be he educ ion o e ical
s esses, simila ly o wha happens in a silo. This is p obable o occu in a eas close o he connec ion
be ween bo h walls.
Figu e 5.9 shows he e ec i e e ical s esses a dep h -10 m, loca ed in he ill laye . I is clea he
educ ion o e ical ea h p essu es close o he wall. Howe e , such educ ion is mo e ema kable
nea he co ne , in he p oximi y o he walls connec ion.
In Figu e 5.10 a e ep esen ed he e ec i e e ical s esses in wo line e ical sec ions, L1 and L2.
Ve ical line sec ion L1 (25.5;19.5) is loca ed close o he co ne and is compa ed wi h line sec ion L2
(25.5;-5) in a egion a om he wall's in luence and in plane s ain s a e. Wha can be obse ed is
ha he e is a signi ican educ ion in he e ec i e e ical s esses, eaching 50% a some dep hs. This
means ha pa o he e ical s esses may ha e been ans e ed o he shee pile wall, whe e
consequen ly an inc ease o axial o ces is expec ed.
Figu e 5.9 - Ve ical e ec i e s esses a dep h -10m, e ealing co ne e ec
L1 ▪
L2 ▪

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Figu e 5.10 - E ec i e Ve ical S esses a e ical sec ions L1 (25.5;19.5) and L2 (25.5;-5)
5.3.2. WALL DEFORMATION MODE
The ollowing aspec o analyse is he de o ma ion mode o he wall along he loading phases. This is
he i s indica o o how he wall esponds o he la e al ea h p essu es gene a ed by he soil mass.
Figu e 5.11 shows he wall de o ma ion a c oss sec ion B (CSB) in he zone o mu ually suppo ed
wall, ep esen ed by no malized de o ma ion o wall heigh .
I is possible o obse e ha du ing he ini ial loading s ages he wall o a es along he op, which
acco ding o Te zaghi (1941) is heo e ically ypical o exca a ed mul i-s u ed walls, accompanied
by small ansla ion and bending. Howe e , he wall immedia ely shows o a ion a ound he wall ip in
he ollowing phases.
The desc ibed change o beha iou may be ela ed o he ac ha du ing he ini ial illing le el (up o -
6m), he esul an o ea h p essu es is loca ed a a lowe pa o he wall, in compa ison wi h he las
loading s ages. This aspec combined wi h high co ne ies s i ness and educed ip wall embedmen
esul s in a highe mo emen o he wall in he ip han in he op. Ye , his shape changes as he illing
akes place and he loca ion o o al soil impulse ascends on he wall. As he las loading phase is
eached, i is clea he o a ion a ound he ip wi h highe de o ma ion in he uppe ie in compa ison
wi h he lowe ie, simila o de o ma ion o non p e-s essed mul i- ied walls in exca a ions (Ma os
Fe nandes 1990).
L1
L2
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72
Figu e 5.11 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB along loading phases, in pe cen age o wall heigh
In espec o he displacemen alues, he maximum obse ed alue was 0.15% o o al wall heigh ,
co esponding o absolu e displacemen o 3.3 cm and occu s in he bending zone o he wall, be ween
he wo le els o ies, due o lexibili y o he shee pile. On he op hal o he wall, he no malized
de o ma ion is highe han 0.1% which can be, acco ding o da a collec ed by Ma os Fe nandes (1990),
enough o mobilize ac i e p essu es (see Figu e 3.8). Thus, in Figu e 5.7 i was e i ied ha ea h
p essu e a io was close o ac i e coe icien , so i is possible ha he soil is eaching he ac i e limi
s a e.
In Figu e 5.12 i is shown he wall displacemen in PSD sec ion, which ep esen s mul i-ancho ed
sec ion. I is no able a signi ican di e ence in he de o med shape o he wall om he mu ually ied
sec ion. In ac , he endency o a o a ion a ound he op o he wall du ing ini ial loadings main ains,
bu he inal shape is di e en . The e is s ill a o a ion a ound he ip o he wall, bu de o ma ion in
op and lowe ancho s is app oxima ely he same, e ealing a highe cu a u e in he lowe pa o he
wall. This dis inc ion can be explained by he ac ha in he mu ually suppo ed co ne he wall
beha es as a igid s uc u e, due o bo h highe ies' s i ness and o he pe pendicula connec ion wi h
wall 2, leading o a de o med shape wi h less a ching.
De o ma ion alues in he PSD sec ions do no exceed 0.08% o wall heigh , e ealing ha he egion
whe e he wall is ancho ed is s i e (i.e. less de o ma ion) han mu ually suppo ed walls, which
Global wall shape - - -
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
73
co obo a es wha was sugges ed by Figu e 5.7 . As b ie ly explained in sec ion 5.2, his may esul
om he ac ha he small wall 2 is simply ancho ed on op and does no p o ide he same s i ness o
wall 1 as an enclosed e aining sys em o a con inuous ancho ed wall would.
Figu e 5.12 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a PSD along loading phases, in pe cen age o wall heigh
Ano he ele an elucida ion ha can be aken om obse a ion o Figu e 5.11 and Figu e 5.12 is ha
he su cha ge applica ion o 90kPa is esponsible o almos 70% o wall de o ma ion a he op.
Ac ually, he alue o su cha ge is equi alen o a loading o app oxima ely 8 m o illing ma e ial,
which co esponds o almos 40% o o al illing (i.e. illing in he back o he wall and equi alen
"su cha ge" illing). So, i is possible o conclude ha he su cha ge is an impo an ac o ha should
be ca e ully conside ed.
S ill ega ding he wall mo emen , Figu e 5.13 shows he displacemen o he wall in Y-di ec ion a
dep h o -0.4 m and -9 m, whe e he waling beams and ancho s (o ies) a e placed. Once again, i can
be e i ied ha he displacemen on op is highe han displacemen in he middle, which desc ibes a
o a ion o he wall a ound he bo om. Howe e , his igu e shows a be e pe spec i e o he ela i e
displacemen s in he a ious c oss sec ions. In ac , i can be obse ed ha he wall s i ness in he
mu ually suppo ed a ea is no cons an , appea ing o be mo e igid in he connec ion o bo h walls (a
c oss sec ion D) and mo e lexible in he i s ies (nea c oss sec ion A). This may be ela ed o he
ac ha he i s ies ha e conside able mo e leng h ha he ies close o he walls' connec ion, hus
less igid.
Global wall shape - - -
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
74
Simila ly o wha was in oduced in sec ion 5.2, he e aining wall displacemen is opposi e o he
expec ed and s a ed in e iewed li e a u e (sec ion 2.1.3.1). The ac ha his si ua ion deals wi h a no
enclosed e aining s uc u e, as wall 2 is simply suppo ed by a op ancho , i is easonable ha he
co ne has a global educed s i ness compa ed wi h he mu ually suppo ed zone.
Figu e 5.13 - La e al displacemen o wall in Y-di ec ion a dep hs -0.4 m and -9 m
Also, Figu e 5.13 e eals ha ea h p essu e edis ibu ion e i ied in Figu e 5.8 can occu due o
a ching e ec s. Obse ing bo h igu es side by side i is possible o conclude ha he zones wi h less
de o ma ion ha e highe ea h p essu es, in opposi ion o zones wi h la ge de o ma ions.
Ano he in e es ing de ail ha can s ill be obse ed in Figu e 5.13 is he de o ma ion in he ansi ion
zone, om ancho ed o mu ually suppo ed wall. I can be seen ha a he uppe le el (-0.4 m) he e is
a smoo h a ia ion o he displacemen , whe eas his a ia ion is mo e ab up a he lowe le el (-9 m).
Such a ia ions can be explained by he educed ancho spacing and highe s i ness a lowe le el,
which will no allow o a smoo h bending o he wall.
5.3.3. DEFORMATION OF CORNER
To analyse he de o ma ion o he mu ually suppo ed co ne i is necessa y o obse e he c oss
sec ion C (CSC), loca ed in he middle sec ion o wall 2. In combina ion wi h in o ma ion in c oss
sec ion B (CSB) and D (CSD), i is expec ed o p o ide a sa is ac o y iew o he in e nal de o ma ion
o he co ne ega ding o a ion a ound wall 1, as well as pulling o wall 2 and opening o he wall
sys em. The pulling o wall 2 is an e ec cha ac e ized by he ou wa ds mo emen o wall 1 and
inwa ds mo emen o wall 2. The opening o co ne is a consequence o mo emen o walls 1 and 2
ou wa ds, e ealing he shape simila o he one o an opening book (see Figu e 5.14).
Figu e 5.14 - Scheme o co ne opening (le ) and pulling o wall 2 ( igh )
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
75
The ou wa ds o a ion ha is expec ed o he wall sys em, as desc ibed in Chap e 2, is isible by
obse a ion o wall displacemen s in Y- and Z- di ec ion, i.e. in ho izon al and e ical di ec ions,
schemed in Figu e 5.15 and Figu e 5.16. The mo emen s a e ep esen ed by a colou scale and
simpli ied by he a ows indica ing in ensi y and di ec ion a di e en dep hs. The o a ion a ound he
ip o he wall esul s om he combina ion o se lemen in e ical di ec ion highe in he p oximi y
o walls' connec ion and la ge ho izon al displacemen s on he op o he wall.
Figu e 5.15 - Wall displacemen in Y-di ec ion (Ho izon al displacemen )
Figu e 5.16 - Wall displacemen in Z-di ec ion (Ve ical displacemen )
The obse ed o a ion mo emen is a esul o wo main cha ac e is ics o he wall. Fi s ly, wall 2 is
only suppo ed by an ancho on op, which is esponsible o p e en ing o a ion and p o iding
s abiliza ion, as e e ed be o e. Secondly, he exis en g ound slope does no p o ide su icien
embedmen o wall 2 and con ibu es o a sliding (i.e. ansla ion wi h se lemen ) o he wall in Y-
di ec ion.
A e obse a ion o displacemen s a CSC h oughou loading phases displayed in Figu e 5.17 i
becomes clea ha he o a ion o he wall is p ac ically he same in all dep hs, i.e. no la e al bending

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
76
occu s. Also, as he de o ma ion is simila o CSD, dis ega ding minimal elas ic de o ma ion o he
ma e ial, i can be concluded ha he main mo emen in he co ne is o a ion along he ip combined
wi h ansla ion. Howe e , i is in e es ing o no ice ha in he ini ial loading phases he o a ion
mo emen is in he opposi e di ec ion. This is possibly due o he ancho placed on op o wall 2 and
lowe loca ion o ea h p essu e global o ce.
Figu e 5.17 - Displacemen in Y-di ec ion a CSC, showing ou wa ds wall o a ion
The e ec o opening o he wall sys em can be analysed by obse a ion Figu e 5.18. I shows he
ho izon al displacemen o shee pile wall a he wo le els o ancho age (o ie). Wha can be
concluded is ha i is no a ele an e ec a he op o he wall bu becomes clea e in he lowe le el.
A dep h -9 m he e is a la e al wall bending ou wa ds, which e eals a si ua ion o small opening o
he co ne .
Figu e 5.18 - Ho izon al wall displacemen a dep h -0.4 m (le ) and -9 m ( igh )
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
77
In Figu e 5.19 is p esen ed he wall displacemen a CSC o di e en loading phases. I is possible o
e i y a la ge in luence o he ies in es ic ing mo emen . In he ini ial illing phases, he op o he
wall shows nega i e de o ma ion which means he wall is mo ing inwa ds. Analysing Figu e 5.19 side
by side wi h in Figu e 5.11, o he same ini ial loading s ages i is possible o e i y posi i e
de o ma ion (in Y-di ec ion) in wall 1, leading o he idea ha ini ially wall 1 is pulling he op o
wall 2 inwa ds (X-di ec ion), by ac i a ion o he co ne ies. This e eals he pulling e ec ha was
desc ibed Figu e 5.14. Howe e , in he ollowing loading s ages his e ec is inexis en , p obably
because ea h p essu e is high enough o su icien ly s e ch he co ne ies.
Figu e 5.19 - Wall de o ma ion a CSC, along loading phases
5.3.4. STRUCTURAL FORCES
5.3.4.1 Ancho s and Ties
The a ia ion axial o ces in he ancho s and ies a e an impo an ac o o obse e and unde s and.
This is associa ed wi h di e en wall de o ma ion and ods s i ness.
In Figu e 5.20 a e displayed he o ces in ancho s and co ne ies o bo h uppe and lowe le els, a -
0.4 m and -9 m espec i ely.
A i s , i is possible o e i y ha globally, axial o ces a e highe in lowe le el han in uppe le el,
wi h a maximum o 750 kN and 300 kN espec i ely. In he PSD sec ion a e obse ed he lowe o ces
alues ha inc ease along he ods in he ancho ed wall, eaching he maximum in he ansi ion zone
o he mu ually suppo ed wall, which is no mal aking in o accoun his is he a ea wi h mo e
displacemen .
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
78
In he co ne ies, he de elopmen o he o ces e eals a di e en shape. I is obse able a minimum
a he longes and sho es ie, and he maximum alues in he middles ies. This is associa ed wi h he
a ious le els o displacemen a his pa o he wall (Figu e 5.12), as well as wi h he a ying
s i ness o he ies.
An in e es ing aspec is he high d op o he o ces om he ancho s o he ies. This may signi y ha a
highe amoun o o ces due o ea h p essu es is suppo ed by he ancho ed wall han by he mu ually
suppo ed wall. The e migh be some ela ions wi h la e al a ching e ec s, which a e a consequence o
di e en s i ness along he wall.
Figu e 5.20 - Axial o ces (kN) in ancho s and ies a uppe (0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els
The an i- o a ion ancho on op o wall 2 eaches yielding, a 1312 kN. This is he c i ical s uc u al
elemen , esponsible o main aining s abili y o he co ne and o he wall sys em. The e o e, any soil
ein o cemen is expec ed o change he o ce in his elemen .
5.3.4.2 Waling and Capping Beam
The waling and capping beams a e esponsible o p o iding highe la e al s i ness o he wall and
p e en ela i e se lemen o he shee piles.
Figu e 5.21 shows he axial o ce in he waling loca ed a -9 m. The axial o ce is 550 kN a PSD
sec ion and inc eases o 1000 kN, when s a s he mu ually suppo ed wall. A he mu ually suppo ed
zone, he axial o ce educes un il i eaches he co ne , a e which ises up again o 200 kN. The
educ ion o axial o ce in he beam as i ge s close o he co ne is esul o he dis ibu ion o o ces
o he co ne ies and o he shee pile wall.
Simila beha iou is obse ed o he capping beam, in Figu e 5.22. Though, in capping beam
maximum alues each 2500 kN in wall 1 and 1000 kN in wall 2.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
79
Figu e 5.21 - Axial o ce in waling a -9 m (kN)
The exis ence o peaks in he axial o ce dis ibu ion o he waling beam, in opposi ion o he capping
beam, is because o he in e ac ion wi h he ies. In ac , i is expec ed a p ac ically cons an diag am o
axial o ce be ween he ies suppo , wi h poin d ops a he ies connec ion. Howe e , nume ical
calcula ions su e much in e e ence in such sensible a eas. Consequen ly, peaks simila o wha is
obse ed in Figu e 5.21 a e p obable o occu .
Figu e 5.22 - Axial o ce in capping beam (kN)
Figu e 5.23 and Figu e 5.24 show he diag am o bending momen s a waling beam and capping beam,
espec i ely. The maximum posi i e and nega i e bending momen s in he capping beam a e
372.8 kN.m and -481.1 kN.m, espec i ely. These a e much highe compa ed o he alues in he
waling beam, 147.6 kN.m and -119.8 kN.m o posi i e and nega i e bending momen s, espec i ely.
This is mainly explained by he ac ha he in oduc ion o ancho s and ies educes he maximum
cu a u e o he beam, e en in oducing in ex eme si ua ions an opposi e cu a u e. Consequen ly,
bending momen is also educed as o linea p opo ion wi h cu a u e.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
86
Ano he in e es ing e ec is he educ ion o e ical s esses in he soil laye be ween he monoli h
and he shee pile wall due o he so called silo e ec . This is obse able in Figu e 5.31. The e ical
s esses can be d as ically educed up o le els close o 0 kPa. Howe e , in gene al educ ions a e up o
50% o a es p essu es, as i can be de i ed om Figu e 5.32.
Rele an consequences o his e ec a e he inc ease o e ical o ces in he shee pile wall and
inc ease o s esses in he monoli h, which can be no iced by he inc ease o e ical s esses in he
bo de s o he monoli h in compa ison wi h he alues in he middle sec ion.
Figu e 5.31 - E ec i e e ical s esses in c oss sec ion a x=19
Figu e 5.32 - E ec i e e ical s esses a dep h -11m, in a c oss sec ion a x=19
5.4.1.2 T ans e o Loads h ough he Monoli h
To e i y he assump ion ha he ea h p essu es a e abso bed by he monoli h, i is necessa y o
obse e he de elopmen and change o p incipal di ec ions h oughou he block o KC Piles.
Figu e 5.33 shows he dis ibu ion o p incipal di ec ions in a e ical plane c oss sec ion a x=19. In
he back side o he monoli h, ho izon al ea h p essu es a e aken by he monoli h and ans e ed o
he ill laye . This is concluded by obse ing he pa hs illus a ed by he di ec ions o he p incipal
s esses.
Monoli h

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
87
Howe e , in he on side o he monoli h, he e ical s esses ha we e elie ed om he spacing
laye a e no ans e ed o he bo om laye . In ac , hese a e ansmi ed back o he soil laye a a
lowe dep h, which can also con ibu e o he inc ease o la e al ea h p essu es obse ed in Figu e
5.30 o CSB sec ion a ound dep h -19 m.
Figu e 5.33 - P incipal di ec ions in a c oss sec ion a x=19
5.4.2. WALL DEFORMATION MODE
In Figu e 5.34 is displayed he shape o he wall along he loading phases. The e is he endency o a
o a ion along he ip o he wall, simila ly o wha was obse ed in he NR case. Howe e , he wall
shape is di e en along he dep h.
I is possible o obse e ha below dep h -15 m, he wall is in a sub- e ical posi ion, di e en om
NR case (dashed line). This is esul an o he p esence o he KC Piles behind he wall. Al hough
hese a e p esen up o dep h -11 m, he e ec o ea h p essu es abo e he monoli h is ob iously
obse ed some me e s below he op o he monoli h. Howe e , abo e -9 m, he dep h o he lowe
le el o ies, he bending shape o he wall is simila o he case NR, hough wi h less de o ma ion.
Mo eo e , compa ing wall de o ma ion in he NR case wi h KC case, i is possible o conclude ha he
p esence o KC Piles educes displacemen on op almos 30%.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
88
Figu e 5.34 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB along loading phase o KC, in pe cen age o wall heigh
In Figu e 5.35 i is obse able he lowe de o ma ion in compa ison wi h NR case. Ye , he shape o
he wall a dep hs -0.4 m and -9 m is simila o hose in Figu e 5.13, hough a -9 m he a ia ion o
displacemen in he ansi ion zone (i.e. be ween ancho ed wall and mu ually suppo ed wall) is less
ab up o he KC case.
Figu e 5.35 - La e al displacemen o wall in Y-di ec ion a dep h -0.4 m and -9 m, o KC
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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Ano he in e es ing aspec is he wall displacemen a -0.4 m. In ac , i is highe o he KC case han
o he NC case, desc ibed in Figu e 5.13, in he a ea whe e he wall is mul i-ancho ed. I is a a he
s ange si ua ion, as he applica ion o KC Piles is expec ed o educe de o ma ions. Howe e , i is
possible ha he mo e igid KC Piles mi iga e he di e ence o s i ness along he wall, leading i o
ha e a mo e uni o m displacemen .
5.4.3. DEFORMATION OF CORNER
In Figu e 5.36 and Figu e 5.37 is possible o obse e he de o ma ion o wall 2 in Y- and Z- di ec ion.
As explained in sec ion 5.3.3, o a ion o he wall esul s om he combina ion o mo emen in hese
wo di ec ions, simpli ied by he black a ows. Simila ly o he NR case, wall sys em o a es ou wa ds,
hough wi h lowe alues, as i can be seen by he colou scale. This is an ob ious consequence o he
applica ion o KC Piles.
S ill in Figu e 5.36 is possible o obse e he maximum ho izon al displacemen due o bending,
occu ing in he a ea be ween uppe and lowe ie le els.
Figu e 5.36 - Wall displacemen in Y-di ec ion (Ho izon al displacemen ) o KC
Figu e 5.37 - Wall displacemen in Z-di ec ion (Ve ical displacemen ) o KC
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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Simila o he obse ed o he NR case, he opening o wall sys em is no p e en ed wi h soil
ein o cemen using KC Piles, as i can be e i ied in Figu e 5.38. In ac , displacemen in wall 2 is no
e ec i ely educed by he applica ion o KC Piles, e en ha ing a some dep hs displacemen s highe
han in he case wi h no ein o cemen . This can be no iced in Figu e 5.39, whe e wall shape a CSC
o las loading s age in NR case is ep esen ed by a dashed line.
Figu e 5.38 - Ho izon al wall displacemen a dep h -0.4 m (le ) and -9 m ( igh ) o KC
Though maximum displacemen is highe han in NR case, a dep hs below lowe ies le el is
no iceable he in luence o KC Piles. Ano he in e es ing aspec , also isible in Figu e 5.34, is a sligh
inc ease o de o ma ion a dep h -20 m. This can be ela ed wi h a o a ion- ansla ion mo emen o
he monoli h ha pushes he soil and consequen ly he wall a he bo om.
Figu e 5.39 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSC along loading phases o KC, in pe cen age o wall heigh
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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5.4.4. STRUCTURAL FORCES
5.4.4.1 Ancho s and Ties
The o ces in ancho s and ies a e shown in Figu e 5.40. I is possible o no e he educ ion in he alue
o maximum o ce o 510 kN and 290 kN in lowe and uppe le els o suppo , espec i ely. Simila
endency ha was obse ed in he NR case is e i ied in his si ua ion, hough wi h lowe alues.
Howe e , i is ele an o no e he ollowing di e ences:
 Fo ces in uppe le el emain p ac ically he same, while o ce in lowe le els dec ease up o
30%;
 Di e ences o o ces om ancho s o ies a e less p onounced.
Such obse a ions lead o he conclusion ha KC Piles ha e high in luence in he lowe suppo le els,
bu ew in luence in he uppe le els. Fu he mo e, i is possible ha he educed di e ence o o ces
om ancho s o ies is associa ed wi h lowe la e al ea h p essu e edis ibu ion due o a ching e ec ,
as ela i e displacemen s a e smalle (Figu e 5.35).
Figu e 5.40 - Axial o ces in ancho s and ies a uppe (-0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els, o KC (kN)
The an i- o a ion ancho , loca ed a he op o wall 2, shows, as expec ed, a educed axial o ce o
1227 kN. Howe e , i is s ill a high alue in compa ison wi h he o he ancho s and is close o he
yielding alue o 1312 kN.
5.4.4.2 Waling and Capping Beam
The axial o ces in he waling beam o KC a e shown in Figu e 5.41. I is possible o no ice a
educ ion o app oxima ely 25% a PSD sec ion and 35% o he maximum axial o ce. Howe e , in
wall 2, he o ce a he waling can d op 50%.
The endency o educ ion o axial o ces in he a ea o mu ually suppo ed wall and close o he
co ne , as obse ed o he NR case, is clea . This a ia ion o axial o ce migh ep esen ele an
in o ma ion o he design o he waling, as i could be help ul o op imize he beam's dimensions, hus
educing cos s in ma e ial.
In he capping beam, howe e , he educ ion o axial o ce is almos none. In Figu e 5.42 is e i ied
ha he exis en educ ion o axial o ces is mainly in he ancho ed pa o he wall, which is

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
92
p ac ically insigni ican . So, i can be concluded ha he dis ibu ion o axial o ces in he capping
beam emains he same, hus leading again o he idea ha soil ein o cemen does no a ec s uc u al
elemen s close o he op.
Figu e 5.41 - Axial o ce in waling a -9m, o KC (kN)
Figu e 5.42 - Axial o ce in capping beam, o KC (kN)
The bending momen in he waling beam, shown in Figu e 5.43, has a simila shape and dis ibu ion in
compa ison wi h NR case. Howe e , maximum and minimum bending momen alues a e (as
expec ed) lowe , associa ed wi h educ ion o ea h p essu es and consequen lowe ac ing o ces.
In capping beam, maximum alue o bending momen is close o ob ained in NR, bu minimum alue
is much lowe . Ac ually, hese ake place in he connec ion be ween wall 1 and 2. The e o e, he
connec ing sys em o he shee piles in his loca ion is c i ical and should be subjec o de ailed s udy.
NR ---
NR ---
KC __
KC __
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Also, bending momen diag am does no ollow he same shape as in NR case, as isible in Figu e
5.44. In ac , in he mul i-ancho ed pa o he wall he posi i e bending momen s (in blue) show a
iangula shape, in opposi ion o he same diag am in he NR si ua ion. Again, as in o he pa ame e s
e alua ed, he applica ion o KC Piles has no much in luence in o ces o uppe s uc u al elemen s.
Figu e 5.43 - Bending momen s in waling beam a -9 m (kN.m)
Figu e 5.44 - Bending momen s in capping beam (kN.m)
5.4.4.3 Shee Pile Wall
Bending momen s in he shee pile wall a e ep esen ed in Figu e 5.45 o sec ion CSB and CSC. In
compa ison wi h he diag am ob ained o NR case, ep esen ed by dashed line, i is possible o no e
ha he maximum bending momen is in ac highe o he KC scena io. This can be due o he sligh
inc ease o ea h p essu es ha can be seen abo e -11 m in Figu e 5.30, bu also associa ed wi h a
educed a ching e ec .
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94
An in e es ing esul is he in e sion o bending momen s ha is e i ied below he monoli h dep h
(-11 m). This is a a he s ange e ec bu can be in pa explained by obse a ion o la e al ea h
p essu es in he back and in he on o he wall. The p esence o highe ea h p essu es in on o he
wall han in he back a dep h -15 m, as highligh ed in Figu e 5.46, a e p obably esponsible o
gene a ing nega i e bending momen s. In he ip o he wall, howe e , exis posi i e bending
momen s, e ealing he embedmen o he wall in he ill laye .
Figu e 5.45 - Bending momen diag am a CSB and CSC, o KC (kN.m)
In Figu e 5.47 is shown he e ical axial o ce in he shee pile a c oss sec ion CSB. As expec ed, i is
possible o see ha he e is a educ ion o axial o ce a he dep hs o he monoli h. Also, abo e -11 m
he axial load is lowe han in NR case, in dashed line. I is no an expec ed esul as supposedly abo e
he monoli h he e a e no ele an changes in e ical ea h p essu es. The e o e, i is no explainable
such educ ion o axial o ce in he shee pile, hough his aspec is no signi ican .
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95
A he ill laye he axial o ce is again aken by mobilizing shea s eng h o he soil, bu in his case
no load is obse ed a he ip, as axial o ce is 0 kN. This is consis en wi h he ac ha i is equi ed
mo e displacemen o mobilize ip esis ance han shea esis ance, he e o e he non exis ence o axial
o ce a he wall ip. Besides, i is no mal o ob ain no ip esis ance as he c oss sec ion a ea o he
shee pile wall is low.
Figu e 5.46 - E ec i e ho izon al s esses in on and back o he shee pile wall (kPa)
Figu e 5.47 - Ve ical axial o ce in shee pile wall a CSB, o KC (kN)
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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Figu e 5.57 - Ho izon al wall displacemen a dep h -0.4 m (le ) and -9 m ( igh ), o KC&JG
In Figu e 5.58 he wall de o ma ion a CSC shows he less e iden o pulling o op o wall 2.
Displacemen is educed a lowe dep hs, due o je g ou ing monoli h. Howe e , maximum
displacemen , loca ed be ween uppe and lowe suppo le els, is in ac highe han he case wi h no
soil ein o cemen , in dashed line.
Figu e 5.58 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSC along loading phases o KC&JG, in pe cen age o wall
heigh

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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5.5.4. STRUCTURAL FORCES
5.5.4.1 Ancho s and Ties
In Figu e 5.59 a e displayed he axial o ces in he ancho s and ies. I is possible o obse e a gene al
dec ease o o ces, wi h a educ ion o 430 kN and 280 kN in lowe and uppe ancho s espec i ely.
The ancho / ie o ces in lowe le els app oxima e o he o ces in uppe le els, while hese las
main ain close o ini ial case. Again he e is e i ied he ac ha he applica ion o soil ein o cemen
has low in luence in s uc u es in he uppe pa o he wall.
Axial o ces in he lowe le el educe in all suppo s, esul ing om he educ ion o ho izon al ea h
p essu es especially in he loca ion o he lowe co ne ies, ha a e co e ed by spoil om je g ou ing.
Howe e , in he uppe le el he e is an inc ease in he co ne ies. The e is a endency o achie e a
mo e uni o m dis ibu ion o o ces along he suppo s. This is associa ed wi h he ac ha he
de o ma ion o he wall in he op also has a mo e uni o m shape.
Figu e 5.59 - Axial o ces in ancho s and ies a uppe (-0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els, o KC&JG (kN)
These esul s show simila endency wi h wha was ob ained in he analy ical analysis, in sec ion 3.5.3,
o he Ka and K0 case scena io (see Table 3.3). The ancho o ces a e highe o lowe suppo s and
lowe in he uppe suppo s. In compa ison wi h Ka, he case K0 shows mo e conse a i e alues o
ancho s o ces o he lowe le el (491 kN), e en hough in he uppe le el ancho s o ces a e sligh ly
lowe han wha was ob ained wi h 3D analysis (228 kN).
On he o he hand, T&P diag ams p o ide much di e en esul s. In ac , he ancho s o ces a e highe
in uppe le el han in he lowe le el, in opposi ion o wha was obse ed in his analysis. This means
ha T&P diag ams may no be applicable o calcula ion o suppo o ces when pe o ming 2D plane
s ain analysis o his si ua ion.
The an i- o a ion ancho , in he op o wall 2, gi es much lowe o ces o 990 kN. This is below he
yielding limi as expec ed, hough i is a s ill high alue o such c i ical elemen . I is sugges ed by he
au ho ha an ex a ancho , in simila i y o he ancho ed wall, would p o ide enough sa e y le els.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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5.5.4.2 Waling and Capping Beam
In Figu e 5.60 and Figu e 5.61 a e p esen ed he axial o ces in waling and capping beam,
espec i ely. Axial o ces in waling educe up o 50%, o a maximum o 500 kN. Howe e , in he
capping beam he educ ion is minimal.
As in NR case, ep esen ed by a dashed line, he e is a endency o dec ease o axial o ce in he beams
close o he connec ion be ween wall 1 and wall 2. In he waling, in he ancho ed pa o he wall axial
o ces dis ibu ion ends o a uni o m shape.
Figu e 5.60 - Axial o ce in waling a -9m, o KC&JG (kN)
Figu e 5.61 - Axial o ce in capping beam, o KC&JG (kN)
In Figu e 5.62, he maximum and minimum bending momen s in he waling beam show much
a ia ion, compa ing wi h Figu e 5.23. Maximum bending momen educes almos 30% and minimum
educes up o 50%, which a e a he ele an alues. The dis ibu ion shape is simila and ex eme
alues appea in he same sec ions.
NR ---
NR ---
KC&JG __
KC&JG __
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In Figu e 5.63 a e ep esen ed he bending momen s in capping beam. The maximum bending momen
has insigni ican educ ion while minimum momen educes up o 20%. Howe e , he bending
momen s show a di e en shape in compa ison wi h NR scena io. In ac , in he ancho ed pa o he
wall capping beam is subjec o mo e nega i e bending momen s. Mo eo e , he shape o posi i e
bending momen s close o PSD sec ion shows a iangula o m, in opposi ion o he uni o m shape in
NR case. The highe bending momen and he iangula shape a his sec ion a e expec ed, as
de o ma ion ends o be lowe and mo e uni o m, in compa ison wi h he o he sec ions o he wall
close o he co ne , whe e a change o cu a u e is obse ed.
Figu e 5.62 - Bending momen s in waling beam a -9 m (kN.m)
Figu e 5.63 - Bending momen s in capping beam (kN.m)
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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5.5.4.3 Shee Pile Wall
Bending momen s a CSB and CSC a e displayed in Figu e 5.64. I is clea he inc ease o bending
momen a bo h sec ion in he pa o he wall abo e he lowe ancho le el (-9 m) up o 235 kN.m.
Howe e , simila o wha happens in KC case, he bending momen s ha e an in e sion below he
ancho le el due o he almos inexis ence o ea h p essu es on he wall.
In Figu e 5.65 is ep esen ed he e ical axial o ce in he shee pile wall a CSB. Again, is clea he
educ ion o axial o ce, especially h ough all he dep h o he monoli h. Like in he NR case, he axial
o ce is hen aken by he glacial ill h ough mobiliza ion o shea o ce.
Figu e 5.64 - Bending momen diag am a CSB and CSC, o KC&JG (kN.m)
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107
Figu e 5.65 - Ve ical axial o ce in shee pile wall a CSB, o KC&JG (kN)
5.6. COMPARISON BETWEEN KC AND KC&JG
In o de o e alua e he pe o mance o he wo di e en scena ios o soil imp o emen KC and
KC&JG, a compa ison s udy should be pe o med. In eali y, he soil ein o cemen wi h je g ou ing
e eals o be mo e expensi e han applica ion o KC Piles. Also, he block o je g ou ing c ea ed may
esul in a oo conse a i e solu ion.
The e o e, i is impo an o obse e and compa e he e ec s o such soil imp o emen echniques in
he ea h p essu es dis ibu ion, wall displacemen s and a ia ion o o ces in s uc u al elemen s. I
such di e ences a e ele an , especially in s uc u al o ces, i may esul in he possibili y o
downg ading and consequen sa ing o cos s.
Table 5.2 - Compa a i e cases KC and KC&JG
Case
Abb e ia ion
Desc ip ion
KC Piles
Rein o cemen
KC
Model wi h lime-cemen piles (KC
Piles) ein o cemen
KC Piles and Je
G ou ing
Rein o cemen
KC&JG
Model wi h lime-cemen piles
ein o cemen and je g ou ing
nea he co ne
5.6.1. COEFFICIENT OF EARTH PRESSURE
The i s pa ame e o obse e is he e iciency o he soil ein o cemen echnique in educing he
la e al ea h p essu es on he wall. In ac , he main objec i e o he g ound imp o emen is o abso b
he ea h p essu es and ans e hem di ec ly o he bea ing ill laye . This may be e i ied by

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
108
admi ing a coe icien o ea h p essu es, which ela es ho izon al ea h p essu es a e applica ion o
soil ein o cemen wi h he ho izon al ea h p essu es in he scena io wi h no ein o cemen .
Figu e 5.66 shows he coe icien o la e al ea h p essu es o scena io KC and KC&JG a sec ion
CSB. I is in e es ing o obse e ha as expec ed ea h p essu es a e educed up o 80% o he
KC&JG case below dep h -8 m, associa ed wi h he beginning o he je g ou ing spoil. This educ ion
is cons an down o -13 m, when i slowly inc eases eaching a "gain" o ea h p essu es, p obably due
o concen a ion o s esses in his a ea, as explained in he p e ious chap e .
In KC scena io is possible o obse e a simila beha iou o KC&JG. Howe e , educ ion o ea h
p essu es begins a a lowe dep h (-11 m), whe e he ein o ced laye is loca ed. A dep h -19m ea h
p essu es inc ease up o a peak "gain", as in KC&JG.
Figu e 5.66 - Coe icien o educ ion o la e al ea h p essu es a CSB, o KC and KC&JG
Spoil
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
109
In bo h scena ios wo in e es ing aspec s can be obse ed:
 Reduc ion o la e al ea h p essu es is no iced be o e he dep h o he ein o ced soil laye ,
p obably associa ed wi h soil a ching e ec s;
 Abo e he dep h o beginning o ea h p essu e educ ion he e is a sligh gain o ea h
p essu es.
In gene al, he ein o cemen wi h je g ou ing appea s o cause a highe educ ion o la e al ea h
p essu es. Howe e , he consequences o such e ec a e be e isible in changes in de o ma ion le els
and s uc u al o ces.
5.6.2. WALL DEFORMATION MODE
A esul o educ ion o ea h p essu es is a ia ion in wall de o ma ion. In Figu e 5.67 a e displayed
wall shapes a CSB o KC and KC&JG cases. Maximum displacemen is, as expec ed, lowe in soil
ein o cemen wi h je g ou ing. Though, such educ ion om KC&JG o KC scena io is up o 12%,
which in absolu e alues co esponds o a educ ion o 3 mm. Such a ia ion may no be signi ican .
Al hough he wall shape is simila in bo h cases, i is in e es ing o no e ha below dep h -15 m,
displacemen s a e sligh ly highe in KC&JG scena io. This is p obably associa ed wi h highe weigh
o je g ou ing, which combined wi h he g ound slope, has a highe ans e sal displacemen .
Figu e 5.67 - No malized wall de o ma ion (s/H) a CSB in las loading phase o KC and KC&JG, in pe cen age o
wall heigh
Figu e 5.68 shows he la e al displacemen o he wall a dep hs -0.4 m and -9 m. I is clea he lowe
wall displacemen o he KC&JG scena io close o he co ne , whe e in ac he je g ou ing
ein o cemen is applied. Howe e , his educ ion is mi iga ed close o he PSD sec ion. These esul s
a e no su p ising as he je g ou ing is only applied in he a ea close o he co ne , while in he zone
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
110
whe e he wall is mul i-ancho ed he soil ein o cemen is only execu ed using KC Piles. Besides, his
endency shows ha he applica ion o je g ou ing in he co ne p ac ically only has local e ec s,
which a e no el in a he a eas like a PSD.
The maximum ho izon al displacemen is obse ed a bo h le els o be loca ed whe e he longe ie is
connec ed, i.e. close o he ansi ion zone om ancho ed wall o mu ually suppo ed wall. This leads
o he idea ha such a ea should be s i e o allow uni o m wall displacemen , which could be
achie ed by ei he enla ging je g ou ed a ea o upg ading he longe ancho s.
Figu e 5.68 - La e al displacemen o wall in Y-di ec ion a dep hs -0.4 m and -9 m o KC and KC&JG
5.6.3. STRUCTURAL FORCES
In Figu e 5.69 a e p esen ed he axial o ces in ancho s and ies o bo h compa ed scena ios. I is
obse able a signi ican educ ion o s esses (up o 30%) in lowe co ne ies. Such e ec is caused by
he p esence o je g ou ing spoil a -8 m abo e he dep h o he lowe suppo le el, a -9 m. As a
bene i , downg ading in he middle ies a lowe le el could be conside ed and u he s udied.
In he o he elemen s, i is possible o obse e a small educ ion in ancho s close o he ansi ion zone
om ancho ed o mu ually suppo ed wall. This a ia ion is associa ed wi h lowe de o ma ions in his
a ea, as obse ed in Figu e 5.68. Close o PSD sec ion s uc u al o ces emain he same in bo h
cases.
Figu e 5.69 - Axial o ces in ancho s and ies a uppe (-0.4 m) and lowe (-9 m) le els, o KC and KC&JG
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
111
The an i- o a ion ancho on op o wall 2 which is a c i ical elemen o he s abili y o he co ne has
signi ican a ia ions. Fo KC ancho o ce is 1227 kN, while o KC&JG i is educed o 990 kN. This
ep esen s a educ ion o almos 20% in he axial s esses, loca ing he ancho in 75% o yielding
s ess.
The bending momen in he wall a CSB is p esen ed in Figu e 5.70. In gene al, maximum and
minimum bending momen is highe o he scena io KC&JG. This is may be associa ed wi h he ac
ha educing ea h p essu es in he back o he wall, inc eases he e ec o gene a ed passi e ea h
p essu es in on o he wall. This will lead o highe ex eme bending momen s. The e o e, his is
ano he e ec ha aduces he highe educ ion o ea h p essu es o he KC&JG scena io.
Figu e 5.70 - Bending momen diag am a CSB o KC and KC&JG (kN.m)
Globally, i is no iced ha he applica ion o je g ou ing educes de o ma ion, al hough no in a
signi ican amoun , and has a ele an educ ion o axial s esses in he co ne ies a lowe le el.
Howe e , he maximum and minimum bending momen s can ac ually be sligh ly inc eased, hough
no signi ican ly o jus i y a change o he shee pile g ade.
3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
118
 Imp o e modelling o je g ou ing and KC Piles, by c ea ing ealis ic pile g oups, ins ead o a
soil uni and applica ion o in e aces o simula e in e ac ion wi h su ounding soil laye s;
 P o ide a s udy on minimum capaci y o KC Piles ha assu es accep able de o ma ion and
sa e y le els;
 De elop a sensi i i y s udy on ancho s' s i ness, o unde s and in luence o his pa ame e ;
 Mo e ealis ic modelling o he ma e ials.

3D modelling o shee pile co ne in di icul g ound condi ions
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A chiExpo (h p://www.a chiexpo.com) - access da e 23 d Ap il
C.J. Mahan (h p://www.cjmahan.com) - access da e: 23 d Ap il
Sole anche Bachy (h p://www.sole anche-bachy.com) - access da e 23 d Ap il
S ockholm Royal Seapo (h p://www.s ockholm oyalseapo .com/en/) - access da e: 23 d Ap il
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APPENDIX
COMMERCIAL BROCHURE
SAS 670/800 Ø 18 - 75 mm
Adap ed om S ahlwe k Annahü e
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COMMERCIAL BROCHURE
AZ 46-700n
Adap ed om A celo Mi al
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LOCATION OF BOREHOLES

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CALCULATIONS OF EARTH PRESSURES IN ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS
T&P K0 Ka
Wa e in
on o
wall
Wa e
behind
wall
S a a
Dep h
[m]
Soil p essu e Su cha ges Wa e
P essu e
[KPa]
Soil
P essu e
Su cha ges
P essu e
[KPa]
Soil
P essu e
Su cha ges
P essu e
[KPa]
2,4 56,18 5,58 0,00 61,76 0,00 7,32 7,32 0,00 4,29 4,29
156,18 5,58 0,00 61,76 9,02 7,32 16,34 5,28 4,29 9,57
150,35 5,58 0,00 55,93 9,02 7,32 16,34 5,28 4,29 9,57
-0,36 50,35 5,58 0,00 55,93 17,39 7,32 24,71 10,18 4,29 14,47
-0,36 34,85 7,73 0,00 42,58 22,81 9,61 32,42 14,12 5,95 20,07
-0,4 34,85 7,73 0,39 42,97 22,99 9,61 32,99 14,23 5,95 20,57
-0,86 34,85 7,73 4,91 47,48 24,96 9,61 39,48 15,45 5,95 26,30
-8 34,85 7,73 4,91 47,48
55,67 9,61 70,19 34,46 5,95 45,31
-9 34,85 7,73 4,91 47,48 59,97 9,61 74,49 37,12 5,95 47,97
-11 34,85 7,73 4,91 47,48
68,57 9,61 83,09 42,44 5,95 53,30
-11 0,00 0,00 4,91 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91
-11 0,00 0,00 4,91 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91
-11 0,00 0,00 4,91 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91
-20,5 0,00 0,00 4,91 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91
-20,5 0,00 0,00 4,91 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91
-22 0,00 0,00 4,91 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91 0,00 0,00 4,91
Rock
Till
-25
Top Fill
Compac Fill
Uncompac Fill
JG Spoil
JG
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PARAMETERS USED IN ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS
Uni Weigh
[kN/m³]
F ic ion Angle
[°]
K0 Ka
Uncompac ed Fill 21 38 0,38 0,24
Compac ed Fill 21 45 0,29 0,17
Top Fill (abo e deck) 22 45 0,29 0,17
Till 21 40 0,36 0,22
Load [kN/m²]
Uni Weigh
[kN/m³]
Wa e di e ence 4,905 9,81
T a ic Load 25
Ea h
P essu e
Su cha ges