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A bi e swee inhe i ance: he cocoa islands o São Tomé and P íncipe om
colonial hegemony o de eloping mic os a e
Ana Sil a Fe nandes, Manuel Fe nandes de Sá, Rui Fe nandes Pó oas Cen o de
Es udos de A qui ec u a e U banismo, Faculdade de A qui ec u a da Uni e sidade do Po o (Resea ch
Cen e on A chi ec u e and U banism, Facul y o A chi ec u e o he Uni e si y o Po o)
Rua do Gólgo a 215, 4150-755 Po o, PORTUGAL. Telephone/ ax: 00 351 226057144 - 00 351 226057199
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al e nandes@a q.up.p , msa@a q.up.p , po oas@a q.up.p
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Abs ac
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This pape ocuses on he con ex o São Tomé and P íncipe, discussing he speci ici y o
pos colonial e i o ies, o analyse how colonisa ion s a egies induced speci ic socioeconomic
s uc u es and e i o ial o ganisa ion sys ems, and how hese ac o s s ill ha e impac in
con empo anei y.
Two aspec s will be analysed: on he one hand, he ac o s ha h oughou ime ha e s ongly
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con ibu ed o he speci ic con o ma ion o São Tomé, and on he o he hand he challenges ha
hese and he cu en si ua ion pose o he in eg a ed de elopmen o an inclusi e e i o y.
The e o e, he analysis will include ea u es such as in he impac o he geos a egic loca ion, he
ole o he ci y as an i adia ion poin , he specialisa ion o his e i o y as a plan a ion colony, land
dis ibu ion o he in e ac ion be ween social g oups. These will p o ide he basis o unde s anding
legacy and cu en challenges, such as con empo a y land use and p ope y, he u banisa ion
p ocess and he mu a ion o he u al en i onmen , he spa ial epe cussion o income dispa i ies,
in e en ion s akeholde s, o he inhe i ance o s uc u es and hei po en ial as ca alyse s o
de elopmen .
Th ough he case-s udy o he bi e swee legacy o he cocoa empi e, i is in ended o con ibu e o
a wide discussion o e pos colonial inhe i ance and cu en challenges.
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Keywo ds
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Pos colonialism, de eloping coun y, São Tomé and P íncipe, u ban g ow h, in o mal se lemen s
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The idea o pos colonialism akes he ole o mo o and amewo k o unde s anding he con ex
ha is o be he e p esen ed - he small A ican a chipelago o São Tomé and P íncipe -, he legacy
i inhe i ed and he cha ac e is ics ha we e pe pe ua ed o assimila ed h oughou ime. This idea
encompasses se e al no ions: on he one hand, he manipula ion unde aken wi hin he colonial
p ojec , as well as he pe iphe iza ion and submissi e ole o he o e seas e i o ies wi hin he
in e es s o he colonial me opolis. On he o he hand, he adical changes in he socioeconomic
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s uc u es unde aken wi h he independence and he econs uc ion o he se e al ope a i e
sys ems. These young na ions ace he p ocess o u baniza ion wi hin a se ing o in ense poli ical
con ulsions, economic di icul ies and esh c ea ion o egula o y sys ems, ansla ing in o
addi ional de elopmen challenges in compa ison wi h hei wes e n coun e pa s, whe e his
u baniza ion p ocess ook place o e a longe pe iod o ime and mo e consolida ed s uc u es.
The choice o a small-scale case s udy was in ended a s udying hese issues in de ail,
unde s anding his con ex as a labo a o y ha allows a ine analysis, in o de o de ec endencies
ha migh be iden i ied in o he con ex s, beyond his speci ic one. This choice is also based in he
s ong belie ha smalle numbe s don’ necessa ily mean simple mu a ion p ocesses no
ad an ages in he de elopmen challenges.
The goal o his esea ch1, besides analysing he speci ici y o pos colonial con ex s and i s
inhe i ance, is o unde s and how hese ha e pe pe ua ed in ime, ei he agg a a ing speci ic
si ua ions o a ou ing o he s. Addi ionally, i is also in ended o app oach his heme h ough an
ope a i e pe spec i e, discussing he cons ain s o o mal planning ools and he S a e’s ole o
p o ision o wel a e wi hin a con ex o sca ce esou ces, in o de o assess in e en ion capaci ies
and po en ials o di e en s akeholde s.
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São Tomé and P íncipe - mu a ions h oughou ime
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The a chipelago o São Tomé and P íncipe, loca ed in he Gul o Guinea o e he Equa o line, is
o med by wo islands and some isle s, and sums a o al o one housand squa e kilome es, being
he second smalles A ican na ion, wi h a ound a hund ed and se en y housand people.
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a b c
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Figu e 1. Localion o he a chipelago: (a, b) he Gul o Guinea, (c) São Tomé island, (d) P íncipe island.
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1 This pape is pa o an ongoing PhD esea ch o he i s au ho wi hin he Doc o al P og amme o he
Facul y o A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Po o, Po ugal, ha ing he supe ision o he second and hi d au ho s,
being suppo ed by a schola ship om Fundação pa a a Ciência e Tecnologia. This esea ch aims a
s udying he se lemen pa e ns and he impac o he inhe i ances in he buil en i onmen , ocusing on wo
componen s: he i s being he buil he i age and i s adap a ion in o esponding o con empo a y needs, and
he second is he dwelling pano ama, namely he a eas o in o mal cons uc ion.
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Though his a chipelago has been one o he wo ld’s leade s in cocoa expo a ion a he ou b eak
o he wen ie h cen u y and s ill e ains angible po en ial and esou ces, nowadays hal o i s
popula ion s and benea h he po e y line, which places his coun y in he g oups o he Leas
De eloped Coun ies (LDC) and he Small Insula De eloping S a es (SIDS), acing he challenges
and he impac o he ansi ion om plan a ion colony o de eloping Mic os a e.
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Colonisa ion, decolonisa ion and he independen Na ion
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Fo i e cen u ies, he Po uguese coloniza ion o São Tomé and P íncipe was based mainly in wo
aspec s: on he one hand, i s ole as impo an ading po o he A ican and A lan ic comme cial
ou es p o ided by i s p i ileged geos a egic loca ion; and on he o he hand, he a ou able
condi ions o ex ensi e plan a ion on i s e i o y, c ea ed by e ile soil and humid clima e. The
cul i a ed p oduc s we e mainly suga -cane, co ee and cocoa, all o which elied hea ily on
ex ensi e wo k o ce - p o ided by sla es, and la e con ac ed labou - which shaped p o oundly
he socie y, he ela ion be ween social g oups and he spa ial dis ibu ion o he popula ion
h oughou his o y and i s economic cycles.
F om he suga cycle along he six een h cen u y, o he co ee and cocoa pe iod o he nine een h
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and wen ie h cen u ies, he e i o y has unde gone in ense manipula ion - ege a ion emo al and
adical changes in land use, implemen a ion o in a-s uc u es, he cons uc ion o p oduc ion
es a es and he implemen ed social hie a chy - which shaped a buil en i onmen ha e lec ed,
and esponded o, he speci ic pu poses o he colonial p ojec .
Majo in es men s, echnology and he concen a ion o e o s in he maximiza ion o he cocoa
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p oduc ion, placed o a sho pe iod his small a chipelago in an in e na ional hegemonic posi ion.
Bu his specializa ion soon showed side-e ec s as he p oduc ion declined and he cocoa
de alua ion in in e na ional ma ke s induced majo economic di icul ies in his e i o y.
Addi ionally, his economic specializa ion also ansla ed in o a speci ic social o ganisa ion: as he
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c ops demanded ex ensi e labou , his wo k o ce was achie ed h ough la ge numbe s o sla es
o he suga p oduc ion h oughou he six een cen u y, and h ough con ac ed labou wo
cen u ies a e wa ds o he plan a ions o co ee, cocoa and o he p oduc s.
Be ween hese wo majo economic cycles, bo h he lesse impac o he colonial adminis a ion in
he e i o y (main aining jus he ading ac i i ies in he u ban a ea) and he eedom g an ed o
o me sla es, allowed he eme gence o a class o “new na i es” (“ o os”), which he subsequen
colonial ein es men didn’ supp ess. Alongside, he ligh o sla es om he o me colonial
es a es had also c ea ed a new communi y (“angola es”)2.
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2 Though i has been claimed ha hey migh ha e been he su i o s o a ship w eck o he coas , he mos
common posi ion is he ligh o sla es (Nascimen o, 2008; Seibe , 1998; Ten ei o, 1961).
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Pa allel o he de elopmen o hese social g oups, he colonial ein es men in he explo a ion o
he e i o y o he plan a ion o co ee, cocoa and ew o he p oduc s, ein oduced a igid labou
and social ela ion wi hin he es a es, con ibu ing o he c ea ion o a highly hie a chical social
s uc u e3. The e o e, e en hough being a small e i o y wi h low demog aphy, he p esen São
Tomé and P íncipe has inhe i ed he legacy o a agmen ed socie y.
The independence b ough g ea socioeconomic changes, wi h he depa u e o mos o he
se le s, lea ing many o he managemen posi ions acan , o be newly occupied (Oli ei a, 1993:
10). Alongside, e i o ial changes also ook place: he na ionalisa ion o g ea pa o he land4,
ollowed by an ag a ian e o m wel e yea s a e wa ds in which he land was dis ibu ed by o me
employees o he ag icul u al en e p ises h ough small plo s, in oduced a adical mu a ion no only
in he land di ision, bu also in i s ole and unc ion.
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The capi al ci y o São Tomé - u ban e olu ion
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These di e en pe iods a e also e lec ed upon u ban e olu ion: he capi al ci y o São Tomé has
g own om he i s implan a ion spo o s e ch along he bays and o he in e io o he e i o y,
accompanying he endencies o he di e en pe iods in o he cu en mo phology o an ex ensi e
blu wi hou clea limi s [Figu e 2].
F om an olde co e, suppo ed by a wa e on -pa allel axis and i s su ounding buildings, he ci y
has expanded inwa ds h ough in il a ion lanes, which ha e in u n hickened and ex ended o ill
he in-be ween a eas.
U ban g ow h, hough al eady isible om he six een h cen u y ahead, has in ensi ied hal way
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along he wen ie h cen u y, accompanying he expansion plans o colonial mode nism and he
u ban a ac i eness o he independen na ion. Ne e heless, wi hin he economic di icul ies aced
by he new na ion, he p o ision o in as uc u es was unable o each a simila hy hm o g ow h,
which has caused in o mal se lemen s o as ly inc ease, c ea ing agmen a ion and dispa i ies
be ween planned and unplanned a eas.
Nowadays, po e y a ec s mo e han hal o he o al popula ion o São Tomé and P íncipe, i een
pe cen being unde ex eme po e y. In his con ex , in o mal se lemen s o basic housing uni s
ha e g own bo h wi hin he emainde s o he colonial buildings and in ecen pe i-u ban a eas, as
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3 Ne e heless, his igid class di ision didn’ necessa ily co espond o a acial dis inc ion: he e a e
desc ip ions o “whi e sla es”, “ ee A icans” and “weal hy c eoles” (Hen iques, 2000; Cla ence-Smi h, 1989),
inducing he in e p e a ion o a socie y in which social classes we e no s ic ly ela ed o he acial
backg ound. Cla ence-Smi h (1989: 496) adds “ ha class lines cu ac oss acial ones, and ha he black
c eoles we e o en allies o he whi e plan e s in a s uggle which pi ed bo h g oups agains A ican
peasan s.”
4 The na ionaliza ion o es a es owned by colonial se le s eached a ound eigh y-six pe cen o he o al
su ace o he coun y (UNDP, 2008: 54).
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he numbe o o al u ban dwellings conside ed o lack he minimum li ing condi ions ge s close o
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h ee qua e s o he o al exis ing cons uc ions.
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a b c d e
Figu e 2. Diag am o he e olu ion o he ci y o São Tomé along i e hund ed yea s: (a) disco e y and
se ling, XV h cen u y (b) suga and sla e cycle, XVI h cen u y (c) sla e cycle, XVII h-beg.XVIII h (d) co ee and
cocoa cycle, XX h-beg.XX h, (e) om mode nisa ion o independence, mid-XX h cen u y, and ( ) om
independence onwa ds, 1975-2010 [ASF, based on he Plan o 1646, Leo e (1788-1796),IGC-JIU-MU
(1958) and GoogleEa h (2010).
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A bi e swee inhe i ance - he pos colonial legacy
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The pos -colonial e i o y ga he s he e o e cons ain s and po en ials ha a e s ongly ela ed o
he socioeconomic e olu ion p ocess ha i has wi nessed, esul ing bo h om he colonial legacy
and he independency p ocess ha ollowed.
F om he ex ensi e in luences o he inhe i ance o o m he con empo a y con ex , i e signi ican
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aspec s will be highligh ed he e.
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The i s is ela ed o he impac o he geo-s a egic posi ion o his small a chipelago which, in a
con ex o expansion and ma i ime ade, became an impo an ou pos o es ablished ou es. This
e i o y also acqui ed a speci ic ole in he colonial empi e, he la e being a icula ed as a sys em
in which each pa played a speci ic ole o he whole and especially o he me opolis. This pu pose
is ela ed no only o he specializa ion o he p oduc ion ( elying hea ily on cocoa, hough no being
s ic ly a monocul u e) bu also o he anspo , ou low and sale in in e na ional ma ke s, which
was essen ial o he success o he whole ade chain and a a ou able economic ou come.
Ne e heless, his condi ion changed p o oundly up o he p esen globalised economy, as
p oduc ion and comme ce a e pe o med h ough e y di e en mechanisms, and a mic o-scale
s a e like he Democ a ic Republic o São Tomé and P íncipe aces di icul ies in inding sus aining
ools.
The second aspec is ela ed o he insula i y and i s impac : he physic he e ogenei y and he adial
o ganisa ion o he e i o y, in which he capi al ci y akes he ole o sole connec ion o he ex e io ,
and he e o e o he il e h ough which e e y hing mus pass. This posi ion was impo an no only
du ing he p ocess o he occupa ion o he e i o y - om he i s se le s on, used as basecamp
o explo a ion o he in e io and as p oduc /se ices agglome a ion - bu also un il nowadays, o
main aining his condi ion o cen al node o concen a ion o goods and in o ma ion. Focusing on
he i s aspec as basis o land occupa ion, Ten ei o (1961) desc ibes he ci y as ha ing an "ideal
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loca ion, i no in all aspec s, a leas in wo: a la ge bay which shel e ed he ships and wide open
land ha , gen ly and wi hou a ugged e ain, lead o he in e io ", he e o e becoming he "cen e
o adia ion o se lemen ". The ci y would hus assume "a double ole o co e ha a ac ed se le s
o he island's in e io and d ained p oduc s o he ex e io ". This condi ion holds up o he p esen :
being an insula con ex and hus ex emely dependen on he ex e io , he in e ace whe e impo
and expo ela ions ake place eaches his cha ac e o a ac ion and adia ion spo . Fu he mo e,
he smalle island o P íncipe is dependen on i s bigge coun e pa , hus su e ing he cons ain s
o double insula i y. Though he condi ion o insula i y by i sel es ablishes al eady a g ea impac in
he socioeconomic and geog aphic s uc u es o a e i o y, colonial occupa ion also con ibu es o
ampli ying i s e ec , bo h by he s a egies implemen ed and he ela ion o he me opolis.
A hi d aspec is ela ed o São Tomé and P íncipe as a "plan a ion-colony", meaning he
inhe i ance o an ag icul u al economy elying on ex ensi e c ops, and hus ex emely ulne able o
luc ua ions in he alue o hese ew p oduc s and dependen on impo s o all he o he .
Addi ionally, i is also impo an o unde s and ha he buil en i onmen was designed o he
speci ic pu pose o he colonial p ojec s and s a egies, meaning ha he se lemen s pa e ns, he
in as uc u es and all he inhe i ed cons uc ions ollowed hese pa icula aims, which ha e
d as ically changed in ime and need p ope adap a ion o he p esen needs and uses.
A ou h idea, closely ela ed o he p eceding, consis s o he land, i s s uc u e and p ope y. The
coexis ence o wo di e en scales h ough he cocoa cycle - he ex ensi e ag icul u al es a es and
he small ya ds o he "na i es" - is ollowed by he na ionaliza ion o he la ge plan a ion a eas
(which cons i u e abou eigh y-six pe cen o he o al land a ea) and i s subsequen di ision in o
small plo s and dis ibu ion, leading o adical changes no only in he land bu also in he economic
capaci ies o i s inhabi an s.
Finally, he las ac o o be p esen ed is he inhe i ed social s uc u e, ha se s o om an
unoccupied e i o y o he "in en ion o a socie y” (Hen iques, 2000), whe e se le s, “new na i es”,
and hi ed labou , om se e al loca ions and cul u es, a e in oduced in he egion and in e ac
h ough di e en powe ela ions ha change h oughou ime bu lea e aces in he collec i e
memo y. Today's socie y, despi e i s small scale, has inhe i ed his condi ion o agmen a ion and
s ill e ains some s igmas ha hinde social cohesion and he s eng hening o ci il socie y and
common iden i y.
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Con empo a y challenges and po en ials
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The con empo a y challenges o he de elopmen o his e i o y a e, he e o e, ex ensi e and
in e connec ed h oughou scales and hemes o ocus. F om he impac s o he mac oeconomic
backg ound o he inhe i ed s uc u es and he dwelling pano ama, he o me legacy is c ucial in
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dic a ing he p esen -day eali y, c ea ing he speci ici y o a pos colonial e i o y and i s pa icula
challenges. São Tomé and P íncipe is pa adigma ic in his cause-e ec ela ion, in which he aces
o i s pas legacy s ill impac g ea ly in he con empo a y se ing.
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Socioeconomic challenges
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Though no ho oughly add essing mac oeconomic issues, hei e e ence is essen ial o
unde s anding widesp ead impac s. As men ioned be o e, he change in he in luence o he
geos a egic loca ion o his small a chipelago, along wi h he in es men mainly in he ag icul u al
sec o , ha e been ele an ac o s in dic a ing i s cu en condi ion o economic agili y. Nowadays,
ollowing he g ea cocoa decline, a majo pa o he na ional income is achie ed h ough he
se ice sec o , in which he ou ism plays he key ole (Ca doso, 2007). None heless, wi h
cons ain s such as he o e all cos s o he lack o in as uc u es, his ou is des ina ion is ha dly
compe ing wi h o he o e s and emains benea h he desi ed numbe s. Alongside, he disco e y o
oil banks asho e has aised he hopes on majo e enues, si ua ion ha e en hough s ill in p ocess
o nego ia ion, has al eady aised expec a ions ha induced impac on p ices (Weszkalnys, 2008).
This si ua ion has no only p oduced a misma ch be ween eali y and expec a ions, bu also isks
inducing he ‘oil cu se’, meaning o con ibu e o he accen ua ion o economic and social dispa i ies
be ween a small eli e and he p e alen dep i ed popula ion (F ynas, Wood, Oli ei a, 2003;
Weszkalnys, 2009).
Po e y is indeed he majo issue o be ackled, as mo e han hal o he popula ion o São Tomé
and P íncipe s and benea h he po e y line. Add essing his p oblem means no only o u gen ly
ul il immedia e needs bu also o u ge empowe men and u u e chances o imp o emen , meaning
o induce he escape om he po e y ap, he dependency cycle and he social dispa i ies.
Tackling po e y and in o mali y elies, na u ally, also on o he ields o in e en ion, such as he
p oduc ion o income and he access o social assis ance, which ansla es in o an all-
encompassing long- e m p ocess. I in ol es also la ge-scale e o s such as he p o ision o basic
in as uc u al ne wo ks, which end o demand big in es men s ha a e only pa ially, o
insu icien ly, assumed by he S a e o by ex e nal unding.
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S a e, s akeholde s and go e nance
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In a de eloping na ion, he cons ain s on he esou ces and capaci ies o he S a e o en lead o
he ole o ensu ing he wel a e being assumed by di e en agen s, om dona ing in e na ional
agencies o o he s akeholde s such as non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions. The idea o a wel a e
S a e is no only an unachie ed goal and an on-going s i e, bu also a mul i-agen ask, o ming a
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agmen a ion which o en lacks a icula ion, and in which agen s a e no complemen a y o a main
sys em bu almos i s subs i u e.
Fu he mo e, in e en ion elies g ea ly on ex e nal unding, which has a massi e p opo ion o he
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o al ac ion capaci ies - “By 1997, a s agge ing 97.3 pe cen o STP’s public in es men p og amme
was unded om ex e nal sou ces” (F ynas, Wood, Oli ei a, 2003: 52) - and also a majo in luence
in he decision-making p ocess. Ano he issue wi hin his heme is he pa chwo k o ini ia i es -
meaning he ac ion h ough p ojec s o limi ed- e m in es men s - which c ea es di icul ies in
ensu ing planning s a egies, a icula ion and con inui y o in e en ion. Fo he dono s, hei
agenda - o he isibili y o he ac ions whe e hei in es men is applied - also ends o achie e
impo ance in he choice o he in e en ion, which o en doesn’ co espond o mo e u gen needs
no o an a icula ed s a egy.
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Te i o y, se lemen s and he u banisa ion p ocess
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The buil en i onmen e lec s he e o e no only he speci ic legacy o he pas con ibu ions, bu
also his cu en collage o ini ia i es and ac ions.
The change om plan a ion es a es o new se lemen s has c ea ed majo mu a ions in hei oles
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and uses: om cen ally (o hie a chically) o ganised ag icul u al companies elying on la ge
numbe s o wo ke s, hey ha e been ans o med in o illages, in which he ela ions be ween
inhabi an s hemsel es and o he land became di e en . Though some oças main ain some
ag icul u al p oduc ion o ex ensi e c ops (mainly cocoa, o o he in smalle numbe s, like coconu ),
mos o hem ha e changed o small-scale subsis ence p oduc ion.
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se ling
along oads
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a ea o he es a e
subdi ided in o plo s
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oça’s main
buildings
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Figu e 3. Example o he di e en scales and s a egies o land di ision and occupa ion, Roça San o And é,
São Tomé [ASF, based on GoogleEa h image y, 2010].
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The buil s uc u es show hese mu a ions and ongoing esea ch has been ying o iden i y hem:
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one impo an aspec is na u ally he change in he unc ions o exis ing buildings, wi h he uni s ha
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we e o iginally dedica ed o ag icul u al pu poses being acan o adap ed o o he uses such as
housing. Ano he impo an aspec , due o he ans o ma ion o he social con ex , is he change o
he collec i e unc ions (such as communal ki chens) in o amily-scale uses, causing hese acili ies
o become obsole e (Fe nandes, Sá, Pó oas, 2011). Fu he mo e and in many se lemen s,
common in as uc u es (like wa e o sani a ion ne wo ks) ha e been disca ded, no only due o he
lack o main enance and ambiguous sha ed esponsibili y, bu also owing in pa o an inc easing
inadequacy o inhe i ed acili ies (Ca doso, 2007). None heless, and e en hough de i ing om a
shi in needs and socioeconomic se ing, mos o hese changes ha e also ep esen ed a loss o
acili ies o capaci ies essen ial o basic li ing condi ions, and hus need o be u gen ly p o ided.
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Figu e 4. Diag am o he unc ions o he buildings in he Roça Boa En ada, in he beginning o he XX h
cen u y and in 2010 – ed: housing, b own: p oduc ion, yellow: se ices and assis ance, g ey: acan [ASF].
!
!
A –
ai po
H – hospi al
M – mili a y
headqua e s A
A C – cen e
F –
o
P – po
R – ‘ oça’ (es a e)
R R
A – ai po
H –
hospi al M
– mili a y
headqua e s
C – cen e
F – o
P – po
R – ‘ oça’ (es a e)
!
!
!
H H
R M
R
M
P
F
F
!
C P C
!
R
F F
R
!
!
!
R R
!
!
!
!
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Figu e 5. Ci y o São Tomé: cons uc ions in he la e
1950s [ASF, based on he plan o 1958 IGC-JIU-UM].
Figu e 6. Ci y o São Tomé: cons uc ions in 2010,
[ASF, based on he images om GoogleEa hP o].
483
Nascimen o, A. (2002) Ó ãos da Raça - Eu opeus en e a Fo una e a Des en u a no S. Tomé e
!
P íncipe Colonial (Ins i u o Camões - Cen o Cul u al Po uguês em S. Tomé e P íncipe,
!
!
!
São Tomé).
!
Nascimen o, A. (2008) ‘As ONG em São Tomé e P íncipe: en e a a i mação da sociedade ci il e a
emulação do clien elismo nas p á icas polí icas’, CODESRIA: XII Gene al Assembly,
Yaoundé, Came oun.
Nascimen o, A. and Ca doso, P. (2008) A las da Luso onia: São Tomé e P íncipe (P e ácio &
!
Ins i u o Po uguês da Conjun u a e Es a égia, Lisbon).
!
Oli ei a, J. E. C. (1993) A economia de S. Tomé e P íncipe (Coope ação Po uguesa, Lisbon).
San o, A. C. E. (2009) São Tomé e P íncipe: p oblemas e pe spec i as pa a o seu
desen ol imen o (Edições Colib i, Lisbon).
!
Seibe , G. (2002) Cama adas, clien es e compad es: colonialismo, socialismo e democ a ização
em São Tomé e P íncipe (Vega, Lisbon).
Ten ei o, F. (1961) A ilha de São Tomé (Memó ias da Jun a de In es igações do Ul ama , Lisbon).
!
UNDP (2002) Rappo Na ional de Dé eloppemen Humain, São Tomé e P íncipe, 2002 –
Changemen s de 1990 à 2002 e Dé eloppemen Humain (Uni ed Na ions De elopmen
P og amme, São Tomé).
UNDP (2008) Rappo Na ional su le Dé eloppemen Humain a São Tomé e P íncipe 2008. La
p obléma ique de la e e e le dé eloppemen humain du able (Uni ed Na ions
De elopmen P og amme, São Tomé).
Weszkalnys, G. (2008) ‘Hope & Oil: Expec a ions in São Tomé e P íncipe’, Re iew o A ican
!
Poli ical Economy, 35: 117, 473-482.
!
Weszkalnys, G. (2009) ‘The cu se o oil in he Gul o Guinea: a iew om São Tomé and P íncipe’,
A ican A ai s, 108/433, 679-689 (Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, Ox o d).
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!
Iconog aphy and ca og aphy
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ASF - Ana Sil a Fe nandes ( i s au ho ).
!
AA.VV. (1646) Plan a da Baía de Ana Cha es, Comp eende a cidade, a Fo aleza de S. Sebas ião
e o Fo e do Picão de Nª Senho a da G aça, Decembe 16 h, nº 170, A qui o His ó ico Ul ama ino,
Lisboa.
!
CGU-JIU-UM (1961) Ca a da Ilha de S. Tomé. Escala 1:75.000. Cen o de Geog a ia do Ul ama ,
Jun a de In es igações do Ul ama , Minis é io do Ul ama . Papela ia Fe nandes, Lisboa.
!
HMS - Hugo Machado da Sil a, co-au ho o he a chi ec onic su eys o he Roças o STP.
!
IGC-JIU-MU (1958) Ca a de S. Tomé. Le an amen o Ae o o og amé ico. Folha nº 2. Escala
1:25.000. Ins i u o Geog á ico e Cadas al, Jun a de In es igações do Ul ama , Minis é io do
Ul ama , Lisboa.
490
IMVF, CEGOT-UC (2010) Sis ema de In o mação Geog á ica. São Tomé e P íncipe. Ve são 1.
Ins i u o Ma quês de Valle Flô e Cen o de Es udos em Geog a ia e O denamen o do Te i ó io da
!
!
Uni e sidade de Coimb a.
!
JIU-UM (1962) Ca a do P íncipe. Le an amen o Ae o o og amé ico. Escala 1:25.000. Jun a de
In es igações do Ul ama , Minis é io do Ul ama , Lisboa.
!
Leo e J R T (1788-1796) Plano da Baia de Ana Cha es, comp eendendo a Plan a da cidade de S.
Tomé e a pe spec i a e plan a da Fo aleza de S. Sebas ião, 440x670mm, nº176, A qui o His ó ico
Ul ama ino, Lisboa.
!
TN - Téla Non, online newspape o São Tomé and P íncipe, a ailable a h p://www. elanon.in o/.
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Acknowledgemen s
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This esea ch is being unde aken wi h he suppo o a schola ship om
FCT - Fundação pa a a Ciência e Tecnologia, wi hou which his
in es iga ion would no be possible.
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