Re iew
Psychological Repo s
2022, Vol. 0(0) 1–25
© The Au ho (s) 2022
A icle euse guidelines:
sagepub.com/jou nals-pe missions
DOI: 10.1177/00332941221123777
jou nals.sagepub.com/home/p x
P edic o s o
Heal h-P o ec i e and Helping
Beha io s du ing he Co id-19
Pandemic: The Role o Social
Suppo and Resilience
And ea Fon es
ISCTE-Uni e si y Ins i u e o Lisbon, BRU-IUL, Po ugal; and Uni e sidade Eu opeia, Lisbon, Po ugal
C´
ıce o Robe o Pe ei a
Ins i u o de Ciˆ
encias Sociais da Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Po ugal; and Uni e sidade Fede al da Pa aiba,
B azil
Sofia Menezes
Mili a y Academy Resea ch Cen e (CINAMIL); and ISCTE-Uni e si y Ins i u e o Lisbon, Po ugal
An onio Soa es, Ped o Almeida, Geó gia Ca alho, and
Pa ´
ıcia A iaga
ISCTE-Uni e si y Ins i u e o Lisbon, CIS_Isc e, Po ugal
Abs ac
The COVID -19 pandemic d ama ically a ec ed people’s li es. In his s udy, we ex-
plo ed he ole o social and pe sonal ac o s unde lying indi iduals’adap i e esponses
du ing he c i ical onse pe iod o he ou b eak. In pa icula , we es ed wo models on
he media ing ole o heal h-p o ec i e beha io s in he ela ionship be ween social
suppo , esilience, and helping beha io . A sample o 1085 pa icipan s om Po ugal
and B azil ook pa in an online su ey du ing he fi s wa e o he pandemic. Fi s ,
h ough an Explo a o y Fac o Analysis o he heal h-p o ec i e beha io s o p e en
con agion by he co ona i us, we iden ified wo dis inc dimensions, one agg ega ing
Co esponding Au ho :
And ea Fon es, ISCTE-Uni e si y Ins i u e o Lisbon, A . das Fo ças A madas, BRU_Isc e, Lisboa, 1649-
026, Po ugal.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
ac i e p o ec i e beha io s and he o he as a oidan beha io s. Secondly, we ound
ha esilience and ac i e p o ec i e beha io sequen ially media ed he ela ionship
be ween social suppo and willingness o help. In addi ion, a mul ig oup analysis
showed ha his media ional p ocess was simila in bo h coun ies. Gi en he wide
ange o social and indi idual ac o s ha may p edic p osocial beha io s, we highligh
he ole o social suppo on he in en ion o help h ough esilience and ac i e
p o ec i e beha io s.
Keywo ds
Social suppo , helping beha io s, esilience, p o ec i e beha io s
In oduc ion
In a message o he Wo ld Heal h Assembly in Gene a, Swi ze land, he Uni ed Na ions
Sec e a y-Gene al, An ónio Gu e es, s a ed ha he Co id-19 pandemic is he g ea es
challenge o his e a, classi ying i as a agedy (ONU News, 2020). Public heal h
measu es ha in e e e wi h pe sonal eedoms and conflic ing messages om au-
ho i ies a e s esso s ha may con ibu e o inc eased dep essi e and anxie y diso de s
(P e e baum & No h, 2020). The consequences ha e been el in se e al domains.
Howe e , he social ac o was one o he main impac ed aspec s: qua an ine, social
dis ancing, and sel -isola ion we e iden ified as he mos e ec i e heal h-p o ec i e
beha io s o educe i al ansmission. Ne e heless, social engagemen , such as e-
cei ing and gi ing social suppo o engaging in p osocial beha io , also seems o
mi iga e he psychological ha m ha ollows s ess ul ci cums ances (Flo es e al.,
2014) and may con ibu e o he well-being du ing he cu en pandemic (Miles e al.,
2021). Thus, a be e unde s anding o he con ibu ion o social and indi idual ac o s
o heal h-p o ec i e and p osocial helping beha io s is c i ical and was he main ocus
o ou s udy.
The Link Be ween Heal h-P o ec i e and P osocial Helping Beha io s
Heal h-p o ec i e beha io s we e associa ed wi h p osociali y in ecen s udies. Based
on Cap a a e al. (2012, p. 1289) defini ion, we will conside p osociali y as “ olun a y
ac ions unde aken o benefi o he s, such as sha ing, dona ing, ca ing, com o ing, and
helping”. Fo example, F anzen and W¨
ohne (2021) e idenced ha suppo o p e-
en i e measu es is one o he mos impo an p omo e s o coope a ion o p e en he
sp ead o COVID-19. Howe e , many coun ies implemen ed o he public heal h and
social measu es o con ol he pandemic. Some equi ed ac i e heal h-p o ec i e be-
ha io s, such as wea ing masks o washing hands equen ly.
In con as , o he s we e mo e ela ed o social dis ancing by asking indi iduals o
a oid ace- o- ace con ac o s ay a home. Adop ing hese measu es may imply
2Psychological Repo s 0(0)
di e en beha io al-mo i a ions ela ed o p o ec ing onesel om con ac ing he
illness, p e en ing he sp ead o he disease, o p o ec ing o he s (Banke & Pa k,
2020). In addi ion o hese ypes o p o ec ing beha io s, such as physical dis ancing,
hygiene beha io s, and wea ing a mask, Zick eld e al. (2020) included p osocial
beha io s when assessing heal h-p o ec i e beha io s in esponse o he COVID-19
ou b eak. They jus i y he in eg a ion o p osocial beha io s in his assessmen because
hey ha e conside ed all hose p o ec i e beha io s as p osocial in he long un. Thus, in
hei iew, adop ing hese beha io s is in e wined, assuming ha heal h-p o ec i e
beha io s such as physical dis ancing and hygiene p edic p osociali y. O he au ho s,
howe e , ook a di e en app oach, di e en ia ing he adop ion o hese measu es mo e
clea ly by showing a dis inc pa e n o mo i a ions. Fo example, Li e al. (2020) ha e
demons a ed ha heal h-p o ec i e and p osocial beha io s, al hough posi i ely e-
la ed, we e weakly co ela ed.
On he o he hand, while in es iga ing p osociali y among collec i is and indi-
idualis ic coun ies, Zi enko e al. (2021) ound ha heal h-p o ec i e beha io s such
as wea ing a mask we e chosen by hose coun ies mainly o sel -ca e easons. Simila
findings we e eached by Banke and Pa k (2020) when analyzing he adop ion o
heal h-p o ec i e beha io s esul ing om media messages. They conclude ha he
adop ion o heal h-p o ec i e measu es was mo e equen when a sel - ocused ame
(“p o ec you sel ”) was used in media messages when compa ed wi h p osocial ame
messages such as “p o ec you communi y”. Also wo h men ioning a e he s udies
showing ha he pe cei ed public h ea abou he i us was mo e s ongly associa ed
wi h p e en ion in en ions han he pe cei ed pe sonal h ea (Jo dan e al., 2020;Lake
e al., 2021).
O he esea che s ocused on he psychological ac o s behind he indi idual e-
sponses o p e en i e measu es (Ha mann & Mülle , 2022;Zajenkowski e al., 2020),
namely pe sonali y ai s. These s udies e idence he posi i e ela ion be ween con-
sciousness and neu o icism wi h isk a oidance, ag eeableness wi h p osociali y
(Wilkowski e al., 2006), and mo e compliance wi h go e nmen al es ic ions
(Zajenkowski e al., 2020). Ha mann and Mülle (2022) also ound ha p e en ion
egula o y ocus was essen ial in adhe ing o and egula ing p e en i e beha io
besides ag eeableness. Like Vaughn e al. (2020), hese au ho s applied he egula o y
ocus heo y o how people espond o COVID-19, dis inguishing p omo ion om
p e en ion egula o y ocus.
Howe e , he au ho s analyzed hese a iables as disposi ional ac o s, no di -
e en ia ing he public heal h p e en i e p ac ices in ac i e p o ec i e measu es and
social-a oidance esponses. This dis inc ion may be ele an i we conside he
con empo a y e ision o he ein o cemen sensi i i y heo y (RST; G ay &
McNaugh on, 2003), which explains how mo i a ional sys ems become ac i e in
unce ain y o goal conflic si ua ions. This heo y dis inguishes wo mo i a ional
sys ems. The beha io al inhibi ion sys em (BIS) usually in ol es mo ing away om
he h ea wi h a oidan o isola ion esponses. The o he is he beha io al app oach
sys em (BAS), which co esponds o de ensi e figh esponses owa ds goal
Fon es e al. 3
achie emen . Thus, people migh adhe e di e en ly o public heal h and social
measu es depending on hei endency owa ds a oidance/isola ion o app oach/ac i e
esponses.
A ecen s udy by Bacon and Co (2020), wi h da a collec ed in he fi s wa e o he
pandemic, has shown ha bo h app oach- and a oidance- ela ed pe sonali y ai s we e
significan p edic o s o beha io s due o he conce ns abou he co ona i us disease.
Some people isola ed hemsel es o cope wi h hei ea s, whe eas o he s a emp ed o
elie e unce ain y h ough app oach beha io s, ac i ely ac ing when acing a h ea o
e-es ablish hei e e yday li e. In addi ion, hese ai s can also ela e o di e en
p e e ences o di e en o ms o social suppo and p osocial beha io s (Bacon &
Co , 2020).
The Role o Social Suppo and Resilience on Heal h-P o ec i e and P osocial
Beha io s
The posi i e e ec o social suppo on adop ing heal h-p o ec i e beha io s has been
s udied be o e and du ing he cu en pandemic. P io s udies ha e shown ha social
suppo may lead o engagemen in heal h-p o ec i e beha io s and encou agemen and
may inc ease sel -es eem and sense o sel -wo h (B own & Bond, 2008;Von Ah e al.,
2004). I has been ound, o example, ha suppo om amily has a posi i e ela-
ionship wi h g ea e adop ion o gene al heal h p ac ices (Ga c´
ıa-Huidob o e al.,
2012), and suppo om pee s can p edic p ecau iona y beha io s (Hu dle, 2001).
Social suppo was a posi i e esou ce du ing he pandemic, which may con ibu e o
adop ing esponsible beha io s such as heal h-p o ec i e sel -ca e beha io s and o he
ecommended ac ions o mi iga e he sp ead o COVID-19 (Co al-Ve dugo e al.,
2021). In addi ion, he pe cep ion o a posi i e and close in e pe sonal en i onmen ,
d i en by social suppo , impac ed he sense o belonging, which may also p omo e
al uis ic beha io s (de Guzman e al., 2012;Guo, 2017).
In con as , social exclusion nega i ely impac ed p osocial beha io s (Twenge e al.,
2007). Mo e ecen ly, he ela ion be ween social suppo and p osociali y has been
ound o also depend on he indi idual in eg a ion in he ne wo k plus he app aisal o
he expe ienced social suppo (D agese , 2021) and o he indi idual ac o s, such as
esilience.
Resilience e e s o he capabili y o adap and deal posi i ely in ad e se si ua ions
(Fle che & Sa ka , 2013;Oli ei a & Machado, 2011) and has been ound o p edic
men al heal h and subjec i e well-being (Liu e al., 2013;Yu & Zhang, 2007). Ac-
co ding o he isk- esilience model (Mas en, 2001), he ocus on ad e se ou comes is
enhanced in he ace o ad e si y. Howe e , esilien indi iduals seem o u n nega i e
in o posi i e ou comes (Yildi im & A slan, 2020). In he cu en con ex , esilience has
been ound o display a p o ec i e unc ion in educing he nega i e e ec o ea o
COVID-19 (Seçe e al., 2020) and inc easing subjec i e well-being and psychological
heal h (Yildi im & A slan, 2020).
4Psychological Repo s 0(0)
Simila ly, Kimhi e al. (2020) ound a nega i e co ela ion be ween esilience and a
sense o dange , aligned wi h he ela ions be ween esilience and isk pe cep ion
(McCleskey & G uda, 2021;Yildi im & A slan, 2020).
Howe e , esul s also sugges ha he posi i e associa ion be ween expe ience o
ea and pe cei ed isk can be help ul, as i may lead o engagemen in p e en i e
beha io s o being in ec ed by he co ona i us. These beha io s include adop ing social
dis ancing and sel -ca e measu es such as handwashing (Ha pe & Rhodes, 2022;
Vacondio e al., 2021;Yildi im & A slan, 2020). O e all, he abo e findings migh
c ea e some ambigui y abou he ole o esilience in he adop ion o p e en i e be-
ha io s: on he one hand, esilience is nega i ely ela ed o isk pe cep ion, sense o
h ea , dange , and ea , whe eas, on he o he hand, hese a iables a e posi i ely
co ela ed wi h heal h-p o ec i e beha io s.
Social suppo and esilience a e also ela ed. B on enb enne ’s bioecological heo y
(B on enb enne , 1992) explained he ela ionship be ween social suppo and esil-
ience by s a ing ha indi iduals’well-being depends on how indi iduals ac and eac
o o he s and on he quali y o hei ela ionships wi h ei he amily membe s o
neighbo s (Boon e al., 2012). The benefi s o social suppo ha e been ex ensi ely
s udied in heal h p omo ion, coping abili ies, and quali y o li e in bo h heal hy and sick
people (E iksson & Linds ¨
om, 2008;Giebel e al., 2021). Social suppo has been
conside ed an essen ial p o ec i e ac o o p omo e esilience in challenging heal h
con ex s (Fe ei a e al., 2018) and ollowing ca as ophic e en s (Hou e al., 2020;
Rod iguez-Llanes e al., 2013). I helps o edefine ad e se li e e en s o be less
h ea ening (Sippel e al., 2015) and wi h posi i e e ec s (on esilience) obse ed e en
1 yea a e a na u al ca as ophe (Liu e al., 2013).
Mo eo e , social suppo and esilience p o ed o media e he ela ionship be ween
cogni i e emo ion egula ion and acu e s ess esponses (Cai e al., 2017). Mo e e-
cen ly, some s udies conduc ed du ing he pandemic highligh ed he ole o social
suppo as a con ibu o o highe esilience le els (Hou e al., 2020;Killgo e e al.,
2020;Mei e al., 2021). Killgo e e al. (2020) ound ha social suppo om amily,
iends, and lo ed ones was associa ed wi h g ea e esilience du ing he lockdown.
D agese (2021) also suppo ed his, iden i ying pe cei ed social suppo as a po en ial
esilience ac o .
Ou s udy will in es iga e he ole o he abo e psychosocial cons uc s as p edic o s
o heal h-p o ec i e and helping beha io s du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. We will
explo e he unde lying s uc u e o he measu e o he heal h-p o ec i e beha io and
in es iga e whe he i will, in u n, p edic helping beha io s. As p edic o s o hese
beha io al ou comes, we will include social and indi idual a iables such as social
suppo and esilience, which will be examined as independen p edic o s and com-
ponen s in a se ial media ion model.
In addi ion, we will conside he coun y o esidence as a po en ial mode a o due o
he con ex ual di e ences be ween he wo coun ies ha we e he ocus o ou s udy:
B azil and Po ugal. The go e nmen al posi ions abou he pandemic may influence he
popula ion’s beha io s di e en ly, including p osocial p ecau iona y beha io (Li
Fon es e al. 5

e al., 2020), which may also a ec he di e en diagnosed cases and mo ali y a es due
o COVID-19 in hese wo coun ies.
Fo his eason, we s udied wo coun ies ha adop ed e y di e en s a egies
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. In B azil, he ede al go e nmen did no decla e a
s a e o eme gency a he beginning o he ou b eak. In he ace o he inc easing
numbe s o in ec ed indi iduals, only some o he s a e go e nmen s dec eed ex ended
and manda o y social dis ancing. Howe e , ha did no occu uni o mly in his coun y
(Ribei o, 2020). In con as , he fi s s a e o eme gency in Po ugal was decla ed
(Dec ee n.
o
2 - A/2020, 2020), imposing es ic ions, con ainmen , and p e en i e
measu es (Nunes, 2020). In addi ion, acco ding o he “FM Global Resilience Index”
(FM Global, 2021), hese wo coun ies also di e in esilience, wi h Po ugal being
posi ioned in 27 h place in he anking (76.8) and B azil in 61s place (52.1).
Objec i es
Gi en ha social suppo , esilience, and p osocial beha io we e significan ly co -
ela ed o well-being measu es du ing he pandemic (Zhao e al., 2019), his s udy
in ends o shed ligh on he ac o s and mechanisms ha can p edic and con ibu e o
explaining heal h-p o ec i e and helping beha io . Thus, ou s udy has he ollowing
aims: (1) explo e he s uc u e o he heal h-p o ec i e beha io s ha eme ged du ing
he COVID-19 ou b eak by conside ing ha he adop ion o ac i e heal h-p e en i e
p ac ices such as hose ela ed o hygiene measu es, may be dis inc om he a oidan
beha io s ela ed o social dis ancing ecommenda ions; (2) examine how social
suppo and pe sonal esilience p edic heal h-p o ec i e beha io s, which in u n
p edic helping beha io s; and (3) examine he po en ial mode a ion o he coun y
whe e pa icipan s we e li ing a he ime he s udy was conduc ed.
We will examine he abo e ela ionships by he ollowing analy ical models (Figu e
1and Figu e 2). As can be seen, he fi s model will es social suppo and esilience as
independen p edic o s o helping beha io , wi h ac i e p o ec i e beha io s and
a oidan beha io s wi h dis inc media ing p ocesses. In he second model, esilience
and indi iduals’p o ec i e beha io s (di e en ia ing ac i e om a oidan beha io s)
media e he ela ionship be ween social suppo sequen ially and helping beha io s
sequen ially.
Me hod
Pa icipan s
F om an ini ial sample o 1729 pa icipan s, we emo ed om he analyses hose who
had missing alues in ou main a iables (n= 631), ailed he a en ion check (n= 272),
and had esidency ou o Po ugal o B azil (n= 48). Ou final sample is composed o
1072 pa icipan s, being 72.6% emale (n= 778) and 27.1% male (n= 291). The
emaining h ee pa icipan s e e o hei gende as “o he .”Pa icipan ’s ages anged
6Psychological Repo s 0(0)
be ween 18 and 80 yea s (M= 38.08, SD = 12.74), wi h 52.6% li ing in Po ugal (n=
564) and 47.4% in B azil (n= 508).
Measu es and P ocedu e
A e app o al o he p ojec by he local e hics commi ee, a su ey was conduc ed
online ia he Qual ics pla o m be ween 7 and 22 Ap il 2020 and sha ed ia social
ne wo ks (Facebook, Ins ag am, Wha sApp, LinkedIn) and email. The su ey s a ed
wi h in o med consen and ook 15 minu es o comple e on a e age. We selec ed he
Figu e 1. Model 1 ep esen ing social suppo and esilience as independen p edic o s o
helping beha io h ough p o ec i e beha io s.
Figu e 2. Model 2 ep esen ing esilience and p o ec i e beha io s sequen ially media ing he
ela ionship be ween social suppo and helping beha io .
Fon es e al. 7
mos ele an scales and educed o ma s when app op ia e o educe he pa icipan ’s
bu den in esponding o a long su ey.
Fo esilience, we used he Po uguese e sion o he subscale pe sonal compe ence
o he Resilience Scale (9 i ems) (Oli ei a & Machado, 2011). The Resilience Scale was
o iginally de eloped by Wagnild and Young (1993) and co esponded o he indi idual´
s belie s abou hei compe ences (e.g., “My belie in mysel ge s me h ough ha d
imes”;“When I’minadi ficul si ua ion, I can usually find my way ou o i ”). We
asked he pa icipan s o espond o his scale while conside ing he pandemic con ex .
Al hough he o iginal esponse o ma has a 7-poin scale, we used a 4-poin scale (1 =
s ongly disag ee o 4 = s ongly ag ee) based on Johns’(2005) sugges ion ha
omi ing he midpoin can imp o e he alidi y o he scale, especially when he opic
may ela e o social desi abili y. This esilience subscale has shown accep able in e nal
eliabili y (C onbach’sαand McDonald’sω= .86) in ou s udy.
To e alua e Social Suppo , we used he eigh -i em o modified Medical Ou comes
S udy Social Suppo Su ey (mMOS-SS) scale (Mose e al., 2012) wi h he i ems o
he Po uguese e sion o his scale (Alonso Fachado e al., 2007). Pa icipan s we e
asked o indica e o wha ex en hey would ha e he a ailabili y o someone o suppo
hem. Suppo was classified as ins umen al/ angible (4 i ems, e.g., “ o help you i you
we e confined o bed?”;“ o ake you o he doc o i you need i ?”) and emo ional (4
i ems; e.g., “ o ha e a good ime wi h?; “ o u n o o sugges ions abou how o deal
wi h a pe sonal p oblem?”). In ou s udy, in e nal eliabili y was e y good o he
o e all social suppo sco e (C onbach’sα= .92; McDonald’sω= .93). The mean
sco es we e compu ed, wi h highe sco es indica ing a highe pe cep ion o suppo
om o he s du ing he pandemic.
As a way o e alua e heal h-p o ec i e beha io s, pa icipan s we e asked o indica e
how o en hey engaged in 13 beha io s since he COVID-19 ou b eak. Mos i ems
we e aken om he “p ecau iona y beha io ”measu e de eloped by Li e al. (2020).
Howe e , his measu e did no include all i ems (e.g., “change a ace mask egula ly”)
because hey we e no ecommended in he ini ial s ages o he pandemic in he an-
alyzed coun ies. Responses we e gi en on a 5-poin scale (1 = ne e o 5 = always). As
we we e adap ing hese heal h-p o ec i e beha io s o di e en coun ies, we an an
Explo a o y Fac o Analysis using he P incipal Axis Fac o ex ac ion me hod and
Oblimin o a ion on he 13 p ecau iona y heal h-p o ec i e beha io s o explo e he
unde lying ac o s uc u e. We decided o conduc his explo a o y analysis because we
expec ed dis inc pa e ns o heal h-p e en i e p ac ices in esponse o go e nmen
ecommenda ions. Resul s sugges ed a wo- ac o solu ion wi h an eigen alue highe
han 1.00 (see Table 1). One o he ac o s was named ac i e p o ec i e beha io s
(APB). Fac o APB agg ega ed eigh i ems desc ibing ac i e beha io s and ocusing on
indi idual ac i i ies ha pa icipan s could do o p o ec ion (e.g., “I moni o pe sonal
physical heal h”;“I am awa e o my hygiene”;“I wash my hands”). The o he ac o
was designa ed as a oidan p o ec i e beha io s (AVB). I agg ega ed fi e i ems
desc ibing a oidance o social con ac s and ela ed passi e beha io , including educed
mobili y o indi iduals. All fi e i ems we e in line wi h he social dis ancing sa e y
8Psychological Repo s 0(0)
ecommenda ions sha ed by local au ho i ies o p e en he con agion by he co o-
na i us (e.g., “I a oid going o public es ablishmen s”;“I s ay a home as long as
possible”;“I a oid ace- o- ace con ac wi h o he people”). These wo ac o s a e
sligh ly posi i ely co ela ed ( = .22, p= .001), indica ing hei ela i ely indepen-
dence, and showed su ficien in e nal consis ency (C onbach’sα= .68 and McDonald’s
ω= .65 o ac i e p o ec ing beha io s; C onbach’sα= .68 and McDonald’sω= .69 o
a oidan beha io s). The mean sco es we e compu ed o each dimension, wi h highe
sco es indica ing highe ac i e o highe a oidan p o ec i e beha io s o con o m wi h
he ecommenda ion measu es du ing he pandemic.
To e alua e helping beha io in en ion, pa icipan s we e asked abou hei will-
ingness o pa icipa e in a se o fi e p osocial beha io s ela ed o he COVID-19
pandemic du ing he ollowing weeks. These fi e i ems we e also aken om Li e al.
(2020) and p e iously used in Oli ei a e al. (2021) (e.g., “Dedica e ime, dona e money
o supplies o cha e ed o ganiza ions o ele an ins i u e”,“Elucida e o he s abou he
ways o deal wi h he cu en pandemic”,“De o e ime o deli e goods and/o ood o
o he s”), and we e e alua ed on a 5-poin scale. The scale anged om 1 (Ne e ) o5
(Ve y o en). The mean sco es we e also compu ed, gi en he accep able in e nal
eliabili y o his measu e (C onbach’sα= .70; McDonald’sω= .69). Highe sco es
indica e highe in en ions o help o he s du ing he pandemic.
Sociodemog aphic and heal h in o ma ion included gende , educa ion le el,
na ionali y, coun y o esidence, and cu en pe cei ed heal h condi ion. The i ems
o measu e heal h condi ions we e adap ed om he Po uguese e sion o he
Eu opean Social Su ey (2018). Pa icipan s we e asked o espond o he i em “How
Table 1. Fac o Loadings o Heal h-P o ec i e Beha io s.
I ems Fac o 1 Fac o 2 Uniqueness
I moni o pe sonal physical heal h .65 .07 .60
I am awa e o my pe sonal hygiene .54 .05 .69
I moni o he physical heal h o people a ound me .53 .03 .71
I wash my hands .46 .08 .76
I y o main ain a balanced die .44 .03 .81
I use a p o ec i e ace mask .36 .02 .88
I use alcohol-based liquids .35 .02 .88
I y o ge enough sleep .31 .08 .88
I a oid going o public es ablishmen s .04 .68 .55
I a oid mo ing o a ec ed egions .02 .55 .70
I s ay a home as long as possible .01 .60 .64
I a oid ace- o- ace con ac wi h o he people .14 .49 .71
I a oid a eling using public anspo s .001 .45 .80
Eigen alues 2.26 1.15
No e. P incipal axis ac o ing ex ac ion me hod was used in combina ion wi h oblimin o a ion.
Fon es e al. 9
ac i e p o ec i e beha io s posi i ely, bu no he a oidan beha io s. This sugges s
ha a s onge belie in own’s compe ence p edic s adhe ence o ac i ely displaying
p ecau iona y hygiene and sel -p o ec ion measu es o ace he pandemic, which, in
u n, also inc eases hei willingness o help o he s. In con as , highe esilience was
no ela ed o a oidan and socially es ic i e beha io s. Looking a he co ela ion
be ween esilience and a oidan beha io s, e en hough non-significan , i p esen s an
in e se di ec ion. Somehow, his in e se di ec ion migh be explained by he p o ec i e
unc ion o esilience o educe he nega i e e ec o ea o COVID-19 (Seçe e al.,
2020), adding in o ma ion abou he p e iously men ioned ambigui y abou he ole o
esilience in he adop ion o p e en i e beha io s. As an indi idual belie abou
compe ence, esilience migh educe he nega i e e ec o ea by impelling o ac ion,
as e idenced in ou s udy, h ough adop ing p o ec i e beha io s, bu no h ough
a oidan beha io s.
In ac , acco ding o wha Bacon and Co (2020) ha e shown, hose who end o
isola e o a oid h ea s also end o exp ess g ea e ea o po en ial con amina ion.
Thus, we migh a gue ha his ea o con amina ion may lead o he limi a ion o social
con ac s o he minimum necessa y, which we claim could limi p osocial mo i a ions,
a leas he ac ions ha imply pe sonal con ac .
F om Social Suppo o Helping Beha io s
Ou esul s ha e shown ha pe cei ed social suppo is ela ed o helping beha io s.
Al hough he di ec e ec is small, hese esul s a e consis en wi h p io findings
indica ing ha social suppo p omo es al uis ic beha io s (de Guzman e al., 2012;
Guo, 2017). We migh a gue ha du ing such a challenging con ex as he cu en
pandemic, which somehow impac ed all indi iduals, he same ela ion is ound, and
al uis ic beha io s migh be mo e ac i a ed. In addi ion, we ound ha he ela ion
be ween social suppo and helping beha io s is se ial media ed by esilience and ac i e
p o ec i e beha io s. We will u he analyze each pa h o ou model.
Fi s , as expec ed, social suppo significan ly p edic ed p o ec i e beha io s. E en
hough he go e nmen called o he need o p ac ice “social dis ancing”(al hough he
meaning seems o be “physical dis ancing”), social suppo was e ealed as a con-
ibu o o he adhe ence o esponsible and p ecau iona y beha io s. This finding is
consis en wi h ecen findings showing he impo ance o social suppo as a esou ce
by con ibu ing o esponsible p o ec ion beha io s du ing he pandemic (Co al-
Ve dugo e al., 2021;Pa lo i´
c e al., 2022).
In e es ingly, he ela ion be ween social suppo and p o ec i e beha io s was
s a is ically significan o ac i e and passi e p o ec i e beha io s, he wo ypes o
p o ec i e beha io s ha eme ged in ou s udy. This esul is somehow aligned wi h he
ecen li e a u e men ioning ha posi i e en i onmen al ac o s s imula e esponsible
ac ions, such as p ecau iona y beha io s, agains COVID-19 (Co al-Ve dugo e al.,
2021).
16 Psychological Repo s 0(0)

Second, we also ound ha highe social suppo was ela ed o g ea e esilience
le els, consis en wi h p io s udies (Hou e al., 2020;Liu e al., 2013;Rod iguez-
Llanes e al., 2013;Sippel e al., 2015). De eloping social ela ions and pe cei ing o
ecei e social suppo seem o s eng hen pe sonal compe encies o manage challenging
si ua ions, highligh ing he impo ance o c ea ing a eliable social suppo ne wo k o
inc ease he sha ing o eelings and p oblems (Killgo e e al., 2020;Mei e al., 2021).
As ecen ly men ioned by Hou e al. (2020, p. 9), “indi iduals wi h highe le els o
social suppo belie e ha i hey had o ace a s ess ul e en du ing he pandemic, hey
could ge he help needed, seeing hemsel es as mo e p epa ed o deal wi h some
ad e si y, meaning mo e hei esilience ein o ced.”. In ou s udy, social suppo was
s eng hened as a p edic o o esilience because he bes fi o he es ed models is
ound when esilience is used as a se ial media o . In his case, esilience is conside ed
as opposed o being an independen p edic o , and i demons a es he specific ole o
social suppo in building esilience in he pandemic con ex .
Thi dly, he ela ionship be ween esilience and ac i e p o ec i e beha io illus a es
ha esilience is no only an impo an ai ha helps indi iduals o e come di ficul
momen s and a a iable ha can p omo e engagemen in ac i e beha io o o e come
he challenge, in his case, ac i e p o ec i e beha io . In con as , esilience nega i ely
p edic s passi e/a oidan p o ec i e beha io , sugges ing ha hose who pe cei e
hemsel es as mo e esilien do no engage in a oidan beha io by isola ing hem-
sel es. These findings, which sugges ha esilience is ela ed o adop ing p oac i e bu
no a oidan beha io s, ollow and complemen he BIS/BAS classifica ion applied o
he pandemic con ex by Bacon and Co (2020). Ou findings a e also consis en wi h
he defini ion o esilience, cha ac e ized by pe sonal ai s such as pe sis ence, op-
imism, and s eng h ha acili a e indi iduals’posi i e adap a ion o nega i e con ex s
(Zhao e al., 2019). In his way, he findings con ibu e o esol ing he p e iously
iden ified dilemma ega ding he ole o esilience: ei he in con ibu ing o he e-
duc ion o isk pe cep ion (McCleskey & G uda, 2021;Yildi im & A slan, 2020),
making he e en pe cei ed as less ca as ophic (Sippel e al., 2015) and consequen ly
influencing he adop ion o less p o ec i e beha io s o as con ibu ing o be e be-
ha io al adap a ion when dealing wi h challenging si ua ions (Fle che & Sa ka , 2013;
Oli ei a & Machado, 2011). Ou findings suppo his second di ec ion and expand he
defini ion o esilience as he abili y o ac i ely find ways o be e cope wi h ad e si y,
in his case, by ac i ely adop ing p o ec i e beha io s. This way, esilience ein o ces
he p o ec i e ole o well-being (Liu e al., 2013;Yu & Zhang, 2007) and p omo es
ac i e p o ec i e beha io s. Consequen ly, esilience ein o ces he in en ion o help
o he s due o he p edic i e na u e o he dynamic p o ec i e beha io s in p osociali y
(helping beha io ) analyzed ea lie .
Fou h, he p edic i e ole o esilience in helping beha io s is enhanced, e idencing
ha esilience implies se e al app oaches o ace he pandemic obs acle. These ap-
p oaches a e no jus ela ed o he psychological way o acing cons ain s bu also
ex e nalized in di e en beha io s o figh he h ea , ei he h ough he engagemen in
ac i e p o ec ion beha io s o he suppo o o he s who migh need help.
Fon es e al. 17
Finally, we a fi m ha his suppo cycle can unc ion as a i uous ci cle, as hose
who ecei e mo e social suppo a e also mo e likely o p o ide mo e suppo o o he s
(de Guzman e al., 2012;Guo, 2017).
We conside his esul significan in he COVID-19 pandemic, whe e social dis-
ancing was ecommended, which could ha e ansla ed in o less access o social
suppo and less willingness o help o he s. No ably, he coun y o esidence was no a
mode a o o he model, sugges ing ha indi idual di e ences a o ing hese p ocesses
occu ed despi e he eali y o he coun y and he es ic i e measu es imposed.
Limi a ions and Fu u e S udies
This s udy canno be seen wi hou limi a ions. The fi s limi a ion ela es o he
conclusions’gene aliza ion wi h a sample collec ed in only wo coun ies. Addi ionally,
since we adminis e ed he su ey o he pa icipan s elec onically, we could no each
he popula ion who do no ha e access o he In e ne . Howe e , we conside ha he
la ge sample size and he di e en eali ies ha hose coun ies we e li ing in can
somehow compensa e o ha e ec . Also, being a c oss-sec ional s udy wi h da a
collec ed a he beginning o he pandemic, we cap u ed jus he fi s e ec s, wi h
educed li e a u e and missing essen ial ac o s such as accina ion. Fu u e s udies
should in es in collec ing da a in se e al momen s and analyzing i some a iables
emain s able o su e some changes. I would also be in e es ing o u u e s udies o
in es iga e he ole o some pe sonali y ai s in he model, he same way we es ed
social suppo and esilience. Fu u e s udies should analyze how pe sonali y ai s
p edic helping beha io s, namely ag eeableness and mo i a ional p edisposi ions,
such as BIS and BAS. Since ou s udy was ocused on indi idual ac i i ies ha
pa icipan s could do o p o ec ion, we could no concep ualize he wo dimensions as
app oach e sus a oidance, which would be an in e es ing analysis. Simila ly, we
belie e sel -e ficacy, as esilience, also able o be de eloped h ough in e en ions,
could be analyzed as bo h an e ec o social suppo and a p edic o o helping
beha io s.
Conclusions and P ac ical Implica ions
The ele ance o gi ing and ecei ing social suppo has been ex ensi ely explo ed in
he li e a u e in “no mal”con ex s bu pa icula ly in such challenging con ex s as he
cu en pandemic. One impo an conclusion is ha he wo ypes o p o ec i e be-
ha io s ecommended by local go e nmen s a e dis inc . Ac i e p o ec i e beha io s
like hygiene, wea ing masks, and o he ac ions di ec ed o p o ec heal h p edic ed
p osocial beha io s, whe eas a oidan beha io s ela ed o social dis ancing ecom-
menda ions did no . This esul sugges s ha al hough he a oidan beha io s we e
conside ed ele an o educing he sp ead o COVID-19, hey did no con ibu e o
unde aking ac ions ha would benefi o he s mo e di ec ly. This ac could ha e
happened because social dis ancing was a p ecau iona y ecommenda ion imposed
18 Psychological Repo s 0(0)
wi h he confinemen leading indi iduals o significan ly change hei usual beha io ,
conside ing o he s as a po en ial h ea , ha ing implica ions o p osociali y. Based on
ou findings, we can conclude abou he posi i e and significan con ibu ion o social
suppo , esilience, and ac i e p o ec i e beha io s o p osociali y, du ing he fi s
qua an ine. Resilience and ac i e p o ec i e beha io s simul aneously media e he
ela ion be ween social suppo and helping beha io s, as well as hei significan di ec
e ec s. Wo h men ioning is he ole o esilience in his model. Al hough i is con-
side ed a s able indi idual cha ac e is ic, i can also be de eloped h ough in e en ions
(Albo e al., 2020). Acco ding o ou model, he de elopmen o esilience is c ucial
no jus o enhance he coping mechanisms o indi iduals unde challenging con ex s
bu also o a o he adop ion o p o ec i e beha io s and posi i ely p edic he in-
di idual’s willingness o help o he s in imes o need. Resilience also played an es-
sen ial ole in he explana o y mechanisms o he di e ence be ween ac i e and
a oidan p o ec i e beha io s, wo claimed e ec i e ways o mi iga ing he ad e se
e ec s o he pandemic, in pa icula in p edic ing ac i e p o ec i e beha io s, bu no
he adhe ence o a oidan p o ec i e beha io s.
Based on ou findings, we claim ha au ho i ies should ein o ce he need o adop
p o ec i e beha io s in which he pe son displays a mo e ac i e ole. This is no only
because hese p ecau iona y beha io s a e ele an o heal h p o ec ion bu also
because adhe ence o hese heal h p ac ices seems mo e s ongly ela ed o helping
o he s han adop ing p ac ices o social dis ancing and a oidance.
Las ly, we conclude ha social suppo is beneficial o indi iduals, no jus because i
helps cope wi h he ad e si ies h ough esilience enhancemen bu also o he
possibili y o leading o he adop ion o p o ec i e and helping beha io s. These esul s
emphasize he ele ance o cons uc ing mo e collabo a i e and socially suppo i e
en i onmen s among es ic ed ci cles like amily and iends and expanding in o mo e
comp ehensi e ne wo ks. We also belie e ha social suppo and p osociali y a e no
jus ela ed bu migh c ea e a i uous ci cle o suppo , whe e bo h esilience and
p o ec i e beha io s a e in ol ed.
Au ho s’con ibu ions
All au ho s ead and app o ed he final manusc ip .
A.Fon es: Concep ualiza ion, Da a cu a ion, Me hodology, P ojec adminis a ion, Visuali-
za ion, W i ing - o iginal d a , and W i ing - e iew & edi ing; C.Pe ei a: Concep ualiza ion,
Da a cu a ion, Fo mal analysis, Me hodology, Valida ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing - o iginal d a ,
and W i ing - e iew & edi ing. S.Menezes, A.Soa es, P. Almeida, G. Gisella.: Concep ualiza ion,
In es iga ion, Resou ces, and W i ing - e iew & edi ing. P. A iaga: Concep ualiza ion, Da a
cu a ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, P ojec adminis a ion, Resou ces, Supe ision, W i ing -
o iginal d a , and W i ing - e iew & edi ing.
Fon es e al. 19
Decla a ion o Conflic ing In e es s
The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial conflic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship,
and/o publica ion o his a icle.
Funding
The au ho (s) ecei ed no financial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his
a icle.
E hics app o al
The ques ionnai e and me hodology o his s udy was app o ed by he Resea ch E hics
commi ee o ISCTE (30/2020).
Consen o pa icipa e/publica ion
In o med consen was ob ained om all indi idual pa icipan s included in he s udy.
A ailabili y o da a and ma e ial
The da ase s gene a ed du ing and/o analyzed du ing he cu en s udy a e a ailable om he
co esponding au ho on easonable eques .
ORCID iDs
And ea Fon es h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3984-6754
Pa ´
ıcia A iaga h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5766-0489
Re e ences
Albo , C. S., Wozniak, J. R., McGlinch, B. P., Wall, M. H., Gold, B. S., & Vinog ado , S. (2020).
Ba le buddies: Rapid deploymen o a psychological esilience in e en ion o heal h ca e
wo ke s du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. Anes hesia & Analgesia,131(1), 43–54. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1213/ANE.0000000000004912
Alonso Fachado, A., Mon es Ma inez, A., Menendez Villal a, C., & Pe ei a, M. G. (2007).
Adap ação cul u al e alidação da e são Po uguesa Ques ion´
a io Medical Ou comes S udy
Social Suppo Su ey (MOS-SSS) [Cul u al adap a ion and alida ion o he medical
ou comes s udy social suppo su ey ques ionnai e (MOS-SSS)]. Ac a Medica Po uguesa,
20(6), 525–534. h ps://www.ac amedicapo uguesa.com/ e is a/index.php/amp/a icle/
iewFile/894/568
Bacon, A. M., & Co , P. J. (2020). Co ona i us (COVID-19) in he Uni ed Kingdom: A
pe sonali y-based pe spec i e on conce ns and in en ion o sel -isola e. B i ish Jou nal o
Heal h Psychology,25(4), 839–848. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/bjhp.12423
Banke , S., & Pa k, J. (2020). E alua ing p osocial COVID-19 messaging ames: E idence om
afield s udy on Facebook. Judgmen and Decision Making 15(6), 1037–1043. h ps://doi.
o g/10.2139/ss n.3684901
20 Psychological Repo s 0(0)
Boon, H. J., Co ell, A., King, D., S e enson, R. B., & Milla , J. (2012). B on enb enne ’s
bioecological heo y o modelling communi y esilience o na u al disas e s. Na u al
Haza ds,60(2), 381–408. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11069-011-0021-4
B on enb enne , U. (1992). Ecological sys ems heo y. In R. Vas a (Ed.), Six heo ies o child
de elopmen : Re ised o mula ions and cu en issues (pp. 187–249). Jessica Kingsley
Publishe s.
B own, L. J., & Bond, M. J. (2008). An examina ion o he influences on heal h-p o ec i e
beha io s among Aus alian men. In e na ional Jou nal o Men’s Heal h,7(3), 274–287.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3149/jmh.0703.274
By ne, B. (2012). S uc u al equa ion modeling wi h Mplus basic concep s, applica ions, and
p og amming. Rou ledge.
Cai, W., Pan, Y., Zhang, S., Wei, C., Dong, W., & Deng, G. (2017). Rela ionship be ween
cogni i e emo ion egula ion, social suppo , esilience and acu e s ess esponses in
Chinese soldie s: Explo ing mul iple media ion model. Psychia y Resea ch,256,71–78.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.psych es.2017.06.018
Cap a a, G. V., Alessand i, G., & Eisenbe g, N. (2012). P osociali y: The con ibu ion o ai s,
alues, and sel -e ficacy belie s. Jou nal o Pe sonali y and Social Psychology,102(6),
1289–1303. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/a0025626
Co al-Ve dugo, V., Co al-F ´
ıas, N. S., F ´
ıas-A men a, M., Lucas, M. Y., & Peña-To es, E. F.
(2021). Posi i e en i onmen s and p ecau iona y beha io s du ing he COVID-19 ou b eak.
F on ie s in Psychology,12, 624155. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2021.624155
de Guzman, M. R. T., Jung, E., & Anh Do, K. (2012). Pe cei ed social suppo ne wo ks and
p osocial ou comes among La ino/a you h in he Uni ed S a es. Re is a In e ame icana de
Psicolog´
ıa,46(3), 413–424. h ps://www. edalyc.o g/pd /284/28425871010.pd
D agese , J. (2021). Social suppo . In G. Haugan & M. E iksson (Eds.), Heal h p omo ion in
heal h ca e –Vi al heo ies and esea ch (pp. 137–144). Sp inge In e na ional Publishing.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-63135-2_11
E iksson, M., & Linds ¨
om, B. (2008). A salu ogenic in e p e a ion o he O awa Cha e . Heal h
P omo ion In e na ional,23(2), 190–199. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/heap o/dan014
Eu opean Social Su ey. (2018). ESS Round 9 Sou ce ques ionnai e. Uni e si y o London.
h ps://www.eu opeansocialsu ey.o g/docs/ ound4/fieldwo k/sou ce/ESS4_sou ce_main_
ques ionnai e.pd
Fe ei a, C., Guanilo, M. E. E., Sil a, D. M. G. V. D., Gonçal es, N., Boell, J. E. W., & Maye ,
B. L. D. (2018). A aliação de espe ança e esiliˆ
encia em pessoas em a amen o hemo-
dial´
ı ico. Re is a de En e magem da UFSM,8(4), 702–716. h ps://doi.o g/10.5902/
2179769230592
Fle che , D., & Sa ka , M. (2013). Psychological esilience: A e iew and c i ique o defini ions,
concep s, and heo y. Eu opean Psychologis ,18(1), 12–23. h ps://doi.o g/10.1027/1016-
9040/a000124
Flo es, E. C., Ca ne o, A. M., & Baye , A. M. (2014). Social capi al and ch onic pos - auma ic
s ess diso de among su i o s o he 2007 ea hquake in Pisco, Pe u. Social Science &
Medicine,101,9–17. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.012
Fon es e al. 21

FM Global Resilience Index. (2021). h ps://www. mglobal.com/ esea ch-and- esou ces/ ools-
and- esou ces/ esilienceindex (Accessed 31 July 2021).
F anzen, A., & W¨
ohne , F. (2021). Co ona i us isk pe cep ion and compliance wi h social
dis ancing measu es in a sample o young adul s: E idence om Swi ze land. Plos One,
16(2), A icle e0247447. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0247447
Ga c´
ıa-Huidob o, D., Puschel, K., & So o, G. (2012). Family unc ioning s yle and heal h:
Oppo uni ies o heal h p e en ion in p ima y ca e. B i ish Jou nal o Gene al P ac ice,
62(596), A icle e198–e203. h ps://doi.o g/10.3399/bjgp12X630098
Giebel, C., Lo d, K., Coope , C., Shen on, J., Cannon, J., Pul o d, D., Shaw, L., Gaughan, A.,
Te low, H., Bu cha d, S., Limbe , S., Callaghan, S., Whi ing on, R., Roge s, C.,
Komu a elli, A., Rajagopal, M., Eley, R., Wa kins, C., Downs, M., & Gabbay, M. (2021). A
UK su ey o COVID-19 ela ed social suppo closu es and hei e ec s on olde people,
people wi h demen ia, and ca e s. In e na ional Jou nal o Ge ia ic Psychia y,36(3),
393–402. h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/gps.5434
G ay, J. A., & McNaugh on, N. (2003). The neu opsychology o anxie y: An enqui y in o he
unc ions o he sep o-hippocampal sys em. Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1093/acp o :oso/9780198522713.001.0001
Guo, Y. (2017). The influence o social suppo on he p osocial beha io o college s uden s: The
media ing e ec based on in e pe sonal us . English Language Teaching,10(12), 158–163.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5539/el . 10n12p158
Ha pe , C. A., & Rhodes, D. (2022). Ideological esponses o he b eaking o COVID-19 social
dis ancing ecommenda ions. G oup P ocesses & In e g oup Rela ions. Ad ance online
publica ion. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/13684302221074546
Ha mann, M., & Mülle , P. (2022). Accep ance and adhe ence o COVID-19 p e en i e
measu es a e shaped p edominan ly by conspi acy belie s, mis us in science and ea –A
compa ison o mo e han 20 psychological a iables. Psychological Repo s. Ad ance
online publica ion. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/00332941211073656
Hou, T., Zhang, T., Cai, W., Song, X., Chen, A., Deng, G., & Ni, C. (2020). Social suppo and
men al heal h among heal h ca e wo ke s du ing co ona i us disease 2019 ou b eak: A
mode a ed media ion model. Plos One,15(5), A icle e0233831. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/
jou nal.pone.0233831
Hu dle, D. E. (2001). Social suppo : A c i ical ac o in women’s heal h and heal h p omo ion.
Heal h & Social Wo k,26(2), 72–79. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/hsw/26.2.72
Johns, R. (2005). One size doesn’ fi all: Selec ing esponse scales o a i ude i ems. Jou nal o
Elec ions, Public Opinion & Pa ies,15(2), 237–264. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/
13689880500178849
Jo dan, J., Yoeli, E., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Don’ ge i o don’ sp ead i : Compa ing sel -
in e es ed e sus p osocial mo i a ions o COVID-19 p e en ion beha io s [P ep in ].
PsyA Xi . h ps://doi.o g/10.31234/os .io/yuq7x
Killgo e, W. D. S., Taylo , E. C., Cloonan, S. A., & Dailey, N. S. (2020). Psychological esilience
du ing he COVID-19 lockdown. Psychia y Resea ch,291, 113216. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1016/j.psych es.2020.113216
22 Psychological Repo s 0(0)
Kimhi, S., Ma ciano, H., Eshel, Y., & Adini, B. (2020). Resilience and demog aphic cha ac-
e is ics p edic ing dis ess du ing he COVID-19 c isis. Social Science & Medicine,265,
113389. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113389
Lake, J., Ge ans, P., Sneddon, J., A well, K., Bo e ill, L., & Lee, J. A. (2021). We’ e all in his
oge he , bu o di e en easons: Social alues and social ac ions ha a ec COVID-19
p e en a i e beha io s. Pe sonali y and Indi idual Di e ences,178, 110868. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110868
Li, S., Wang, Y., Xue, J., Zhao, N., & Zhu, T. (2020). The impac o COVID-19 epidemic
decla a ion on psychological consequences: A s udy on ac i e Weibo use s. In e na ional
Jou nal o En i onmen al Resea ch and Public Heal h,17(6), 2032. h ps://doi.o g/10.
3390/ije ph17062032
Li le, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shaha , G., & Widamon, K. F. (2002). To pa cel o no o
pa cel: Explo ing he ques ion, weighing he me i s. S uc u al Equa ion Modeling,9(2),
151–173. h ps://doi.o g/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
Liu, Q., He, F., Jiang, M., & Zhou, Y. (2013). Longi udinal s udy on adolescen s’psychological
esilience and i s impac ac o s in 5.12 ea hquake-hi a eas. Jou nal o Hygiene Resea ch,
42(6), 950–959.
Mas en, A. S. (2001). O dina y magic: Resilience p ocesses in de elopmen . Ame ican Psy-
chologis ,56(3), 227–238. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
McCleskey, J., & G uda, D. (2021). Risk- aking, esilience, and s a e anxie y du ing he COVID-
19 pandemic: A coming o (old) age s o y. Pe sonali y and Indi idual Di e ences,170,
110485. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110485
Mei, S. T. L., Ni, A. O. Z., Si agu u, S. A/L., & Cong, C. W. (2021). Social suppo , esilience,
and happiness in esponse o COVID-19. Jou nal o Cogni i e Sciences and Human
De elopmen ,7(1), 134–144. h ps://doi.o g/10.33736/jcshd.2882.2021
Miles, A., Andiappan, M., Upenieks, L., & O anidis, C. (2021). Using p osocial beha io o
sa egua d men al heal h and os e emo ional well-being du ing he COVID-19 pandemic: A
egis e ed epo p o ocol o a andomized ial. Plos One,16(1), e0245865. h ps://doi.o g/
10.1371/jou nal.pone.0245865
Mose , A., S uck, A. E., Silliman, R. A., Ganz, P. A., & Clough-Go , K. M. (2012). The eigh -
i em modified medical ou comes s udy social suppo su ey: Psychome ic e alua ion
showed excellen pe o mance. Jou nal o Clinical Epidemiology,65(10), 1107–1116.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2012.04.007
Mu h´
en, L. K., & Mu h´
en, B. (2019). Mplus use ’
s guide (8 h Ed.). Mu h´
en & Mu h´
en.
Nunes, R. R. (2020). Minis a da Sa´
ude diz que medidas de con enção se ão necess´
a ias a ´
e
ha e acina [Minis e o Heal h says con ainmen measu es will be necessa y un il he e is
a accine] Di´
a io de No ´
ıcias.h ps://www.dn.p /pais/mais-34-mo es-e-598-casos-de-
co id-19-em-po ugal-nas-ul imas-24-ho as-12061197.h ml (Accessed 12 Ap il 2020).
Oli ei a, M. F., & Machado, T. S. (2011). T adução e alidação da Escala de Resiliˆ
encia pa a
es udan es do ensino supe io [T ansla ion and alida ion o he scale o Resilience o
S uden s o Highe Educa ion]. An´
alise Psicológica,29(4), 579–591. h ps://doi.o g/10.
14417/ap.105
Fon es e al. 23
Oli ei a, R., Bald´
e, A., Madei a, M., Ribei o, T., & A iaga, P. (2021). The impac o w i ing
abou g a i ude on he in en ion o engage in p osocial beha io s du ing he COVID-19
ou b eak. F on ie s in Psychology,12, 588691. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2021.588691
ONU News. (2020). Co id 19 ´
e o maio desafio des a e a, diz Gu e es `
a assembleia da OMS
[Co id 19 is he bigges challenge o his e a, said Gu e es o he WHO assembly].h ps://
news.un.o g/p /s o y/2020/05/1713872 (Accessed 18 May 2020).
Pa lo i´
c, T., Aze edo, F., Kous a , D., Riaño-Mo eno, J., Magli´
c, M., Gkinopoulos, T.,
Donnelly-Kehoe, P., Pay´
an-Gómez, C., Huang, G., Kan o owicz, J., Bi el, M., Sch¨
onegge ,
P., Cap a o, V., San ama ´
ıa-Ga c´
ıa, H., Yucel, M., Ibanez, A., Ra hje, S., We e , E., &
Ba el, J. (2022). P edic ing a i udinal and beha io al esponses o COVID-19 pandemic
using machine lea ning. PNAS Nexus,1(3), pgac093. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/pnasnexus/
pgac093
P e e baum, B., & No h, C. S. (2020). Men al heal h and he Co id-19 pandemic. New England
Jou nal o Medicine,383(6), 510–512. h ps://doi.o g/10.1056/NEJMp2008017
Ribei o, J. R. (2020, Ap il 29). Co id-19: No pa´
ıs onde o con ´
agio ´
e mais ´
apido, o P esiden e
esponde: “Eda
´
ı?”[Co id-19: In a coun y whe e he con agion is sp eading as e , he
P esiden esponds: “So wha ?”].P
´
ublico. h ps://www.publico.p /2020/04/29/mundo/
no icia/co id19-bolsona o-lamen a-mo os-b asil-nao- az-milag es-1914325
Rod iguez-Llanes, J. M., Vos, F., & Guha-Sapi , D. (2013). Measu ing psychological esilience o
disas e s: A e e idence-based indica o s an achie able goal? En i onmen al Heal h,12(1),
115. h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/1476-069X-12-115
Seçe ,
˙
I., Ulas
¸, S., & Ka aman- ¨
Ozlü, Z. (2020). The e ec o he ea o COVID-19 on heal hca e
p o essionals’psychological adjus men skills: Media ing ole o expe ien ial a oidance and
psychological esilience. F on ie s in Psychology,11, 561536. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/
psyg.2020.561536
Sippel, L. M., Pie zak, R. H., Cha ney, D. S., Mayes, L. C., & Sou hwick, S. M. (2015). How
does social suppo enhance esilience in he auma-exposed indi idual? Ecology and
Socie y,20(4), 1–10. h ps://doi.o g/10.5751/ES-07832-200410
Twenge, J. M., Baumeis e , R. F., DeWall, C. N., Cia occo, N. J., & Ba els, J. M. (2007). Social
exclusion dec eases p osocial beha io . Jou nal o Pe sonali y and Social Psychology,
92(1), 56–66. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.56
Vacondio, M., P iolo, G., Dicke , S., & Bonini, N. (2021). Wo y, pe cei ed h ea and media
communica ion as p edic o s o sel -p o ec i e beha io s du ing he COVID-19 ou b eak in
Eu ope. F on ie s in Psychology,12, 577992. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2021.577992
Vaughn, L. A., Ga ey, C. A., & Chalachan, R. D. (2020). Need suppo and egula o y ocus in
esponding o COVID-19. F on ie s in Psychology,11, 589446. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/
psyg.2020.589446
Von Ah, D., Ebe , S., Ngam i oj, A., Pa k, N., & Kang, D.-H. (2004). P edic o s o heal h
beha io s in college s uden s. Jou nal o Ad anced Nu sing,48(5), 463–474. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03229.x
Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. (1993). De elopmen and psychome ic e alua ion o he esilience
scale. Jou nal o Nu sing Measu emen ,1(2), 165–178.
24 Psychological Repo s 0(0)
Wilkowski, B. M., Robinson, M. D., & Meie , B. P. (2006). Ag eeableness and he p olonged
spa ial p ocessing o an isocial and p osocial in o ma ion. Jou nal o Resea ch in Pe -
sonali y,40(6), 1152–1168. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.j p.2005.12.004
Yildi im, M., & A slan, G. (2020). Explo ing he associa ions be ween esilience, disposi ional
hope, p e en i e beha io s, subjec i e well-being, and psychological heal h among adul s
du ing ea ly s age o COVID-19. Cu en Psychology,41(8), 5712–5722. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1007/s12144-020-01177-2
Yu, X., & Zhang, J. (2007). Fac o analysis and psychome ic e alua ion o he Conno -Da idson
Resilience Scale (CD RISC) wi h Chinese people. Social Beha io and Pe sonali y,35(1),
19–30. h ps://doi.o g/10.2224/sbp.2007.35.1.19
Zajenkowski, M., Jonason, P.K., Lenia ska, M., & Kozakiewicz, Z. (2020). Who complies wi h
he es ic ions o educe he sp ead o COVID-19? Pe sonali y and pe cep ions o he
COVID-19 si ua ion. Pe sonali y and Indi idual Di e ences,166, 110199. h ps://doi.o g/
10.1016/j.paid.2020.110199
Zhao, J. L., Cai, D., Yang, C. Y., Shields, J., Xu, Z. N., & Wang, C. Y. (2019). T ai emo ional
in elligence and young adolescen s’posi i e and nega i e a ec : The media ing oles o
pe sonal esilience, social suppo , and p osocial beha io . Child & You h Ca e Fo um,
49(3), 431–448. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10566-019-09536-2
Zick eld, J. H., Schube , T. W., He ing, A. K., G ahe, J., & Faasse, K. (2020). Co ela es o
heal h-p o ec i e beha io du ing he ini ial days o he COVID-19 ou b eak in No way.
F on ie s in Psychology,11, 564083. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2020.564083
Zi enko, M., Ko nilo a, T., Qiuqi, Z., & Izmailo a, A. (2021). Pe sonali y egula ion o decisions
on physical dis ancing: C oss-cul u al compa ison (Russia, Aze baijan, China). Pe sonali y
and Indi idual Di e ences,170, 110418. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110418
Fon es e al. 25