MÈTODE 139
MONOGRAPH
ISSN: 2174-3487. eISSN: 2174-9221.
Mè ode Science S udies Jou nal, 11 (2021): 139–145. Uni e si y o Valencia.
Submi ed: 02/12/2019. App o ed: 16/06/2020.
h ps://doi.o g/10.7203/me ode.11.16195
DIET, DRUGS, AND THE BRAIN
A e ul a-p ocessed oods a ga eway o addic ion?
m. ca men blanco-gandía, maca ena gonZáleZ-Po illa and ma a od ígueZ-a iasm. ca men blanco-gandía, maca ena gonZáleZ-Po illa and ma a od ígueZ-a ias
Foods ha a e ich in a s and suga s a e pleasu able because hey s imula e ou ewa d ci cui s,
he same ci cui s ha a e ac i a ed by d ugs. In a con ex in which unheal hy die s and d ug abuse
a e common om adolescence, i is impo an o in es iga e hei consequences. This a icle
e iews he ela ionship be ween especially as y ood, ou b ain’s ewa d sys em, and d ug use.
S udies wi h animal models ha e p o en ha an in e mi en high- a die du ing adolescence
inc eases he consump ion o cocaine and e hanol. Mo eo e , ecen esea ch has shown he
undamen al ole o he die in he de elopmen and ea men o addic ions.
Keywo ds: high- a die , suga , pleasu e, addic ion, d ugs.
■ AN INNATE PREFERENCE THAT MAKES US
FATTER
Ea ing is no only essen ial o su i al; i is also one o
he main pleasu es o humans. In he las ew decades,
he incidence o obesi y has d ama ically inc eased in
de eloped coun ies. So much so ha i is commonly
e e ed o as he wen y- i s cen u y epidemic (James,
2008). To y o e e se his end
and educe i s impac on he
economy and heal hca e sys em,
he numbe o basic and applied
s udies has inc eased in pa allel.
The main ac o s con ibu ing o
he inc ease o obesi y cases in ou
socie y a e a highe consump ion
o ul a-p ocessed oods and
a educ ion in calo i ic needs,
esul ing om an inc easingly
seden a y li es yle. Fo mos o
ou e olu iona y his o y, humans
ha e no ea en abundan ly, and
ha e occasionally su e ed om
hunge . Ou body de eloped in a con ex o nu i ional
sca ci y and conside able ene gy expendi u e, in which
an inna e p e e ence o high-calo ie oods ( a and
suga ) imp o ed he chance o su i al du ing pe iods
o amine. Howe e , his e olu iona y adap a ion is no
e y ad an ageous in oday’s socie y, whe e ood is
e e -p esen and access o i is gua an eed (Gold, 2011).
To answe why we ea – and mos impo an ly, why
we o e ea – i is essen ial o dis inguish be ween he
homeos a ic and hedonic signals egula ing ood in ake.
On he one hand, ea ing a meal ich in a , suga s, and
ca bohyd a es p o ides some o he nu ien s necessa y
o he co ec unc ioning o ou body and is, a he
same ime, e y pleasan . The homeos a ic con ol
o ou ood in ake is go e ned
by he ene ge ic and me abolic
balance and is ac i a ed by a
de ici in calo ic in ake o ene gy
ese es. The hedonic pa hway,
howe e , does no depend on
nu i ional needs, and p e ails
o e he homeos a ic pa hway,
leading us o consume e en when
sa ed. This pa hway depends on
he b ain’s ewa d pa hway and is
esponsible o ou inding high-
a and high-suga oods mo e
pala able.
Ou «pleasu e ea ing» is
mainly egula ed by he mesolimbic pa hway in he
b ain’s ewa d sys em, a neu al ci cui gene a ing and
p o iding pleasu e in ela ion o some expe iences. All
basic li e main enance ac i i ies ( eeding, sleeping, and
ep oducing) a e pleasu able because hey p oduce
a elease o dopamine in he nucleus accumbens,
he main axis o he ewa d sys em. This is a highly
«Ou body de eloped
in a con ex o nu i ional
sca ci y and conside able
ene gy expendi u e, in which
an inna e p e e ence o high-
calo ie oods imp o ed
he chance o su i al du ing
pe iods o amine»
140 MÈTODE
MONOGRAPH
Good o ea
success ul e olu iona y mechanism aimed a
ensu ing su i al, because i will lead us o epea
he beha iou s we na u ally ind pleasu able.
Ea ing, o cou se, is one o hese inhe en ly
ewa ding ac i i ies. Today, hanks o ad ances
in neu oimaging echniques, we can obse e
wha happens in he b ain in i o when we ea
oods wi h high a o suga con en . Func ional
magne ic esonance s udies show ha , in heal hy
humans wi h a no mal weigh , consuming
high- a o high-suga ood causes a elease
o dopamine in he mesolimbic pa hway.
Fu he mo e, o he ood- ela ed s imuli like
pho og aphs associa ed wi h ood consump ion,
ce ain loca ions, emo ional s a es, o people, can
also ac i a e b ain a eas ela ed o he ewa d
sys em (Volkow e al., 2013).
■ TASTY FOOD, DRUGS, AND THE BRAIN
Beyond indi idual p e e ence, we a e much mo e
likely o binge on junk ood han on ege ables
and legumes. Po en ially addic i e subs ances,
like cocaine and o he d ugs, a e o en he esul
o manipula ions and e ining p ocesses ha
boos hei addic i e p ope ies. This e ining
p ocess is compa able o ha o ul a-p ocessed
oods (I land e al., 2009). We can ind many
high-suga (honey has up o 85 % suga con en )
and high- a oods in na u e (such as hazelnu s, a
61 %), bu he combina ion o high concen a ions
o bo h nu ien s in he same p oduc is a e.
Howe e , in he cu en con ex , he ood indus y
has paid close a en ion o an e olu iona y
he i age ha pushes us owa ds highly p ocessed
oods, so hey can o e a i icially as y oods
ha a e e y pleasu able o ou pala e, bu no a all
bene icial o ou heal h.
The consequences o con inuously enjoying as y
ood a e no limi ed o being o e weigh o su e ing
om obesi y and o he associa ed condi ions (diabe es,
a e ioscle osis, hype ension, e c.). S imula ing ou
ewa d sys em epea edly wi h wa es o dopamine
modi ies he unc ioning o ou b ain in a simila
way o he ac ion o d ugs. Bu , as wi h subs ance
abuse, he me e inc ease in dopamine elease canno
explain he di e ence be ween no mal ood in ake and
compulsi e and excessi e consump ion.
P e ious s udies poin o dopamine as a modula o
o eeding beha iou and o he ein o cing e ec s
o high- a ood. Howe e , he opioid and he
endocannabinoid sys ems play a c ucial ole in
his in e ac ion (Kelley & Be idge, 2002). While
Ou cu en nu i ional con ex is adically di e en om he
one in which ou b ain was con igu ed. While consuming high- a
oods was in equen o ou ances o s and in ol ed a signi ican
ene gy expendi u e, his ype o ood is abundan and accessible
oday.
«We mus conside he a iable
o nu i ional habi s when looking in o
he po en ial o de elop an addic ion
and o i s ea men »
Lyza Dange
MÈTODE 141
MONOGRAPH
Good o ea
he opioid sys em is connec ed o hedonic
ood p ope ies and modula es he elease
o dopamine when ood is consumed, he
endocannabinoid sys em is mo e closely
connec ed o homeos a ic con ol o he in ake
and a posi i e eedback o he consump ion
o high- a ood a he han ca bohyd a es o
suga . In ac , s udies in animal models ha e
ound changes in he gene exp ession o opioid
and cannabinoid ecep o s depending on he
ype o access o high- a ood (binging o
con inuously ea ing), as is he case wi h abuse
d ugs (Blanco-Gandía, Can a co ps, e al., 2017;
Blanco-Gandía, Ledesma e al., 2017; Mahle e
al., 2007; Volkow e al., 2013).
Th ee dis inc s ages can be dis inguished
in he de elopmen o addic ion: he escala ion
in consump ion (and excessi e consump ion a
speci ic imes, o binge ea ing), dependence on
he subs ance and, inally, c a ing and elapse
in consump ion. Simila o addic i e p ocesses,
he mode a e desi e o consume ul a-p ocessed
ood can become an excessi e and compulsi e
pa e n, accompanied by c a ing and e en
abs inence symp oms om ce ain componen s,
such as suga . O e ime, d ug abuse causes
pe manen b ain changes, and he indi idual is
s ill ulne able o elapse e en a e a p olonged
pe iod o abs inence. In ac , his ag ees wi h he
commonly accep ed de ini ion o addic ion as a
ch onic mul i ac o ial disease cha ac e ised by
a loss o con ol and elapse o subs ance abuse
(Koob & Volkow, 2010).
Thus, as is he case wi h o he subs ances,
se e al phases ha e been desc ibed in he
esea ch o as y ood and binge ea ing,
including he «like» phase and he «wan » phase
(Hoebel e al., 2009). «Liking» is ela ed o he hedonic
componen (Be idge, 2009), while «wan ing» is
connec ed o he psychological p ocess ha p o ides
a ele an s imulus and mo i a es us owa ds he
consump ion o some hing pleasan . Fo people who
binge ea , hey i s consume because hey like he
subs ance; hen, li le by li le, he c a ing o as y
oods s a s in esponse o nega i e emo ional s a es.
Finally, his con inued beha iou s imula es he ewa d
sys em and u ns he ewa d in o a need a he han
p e e ence (wan , a he han like), he eby g adually
de eloping he addic i e p ocess (Robinson &
Be idge, 2008). The e is a concu en lea ning p ocess
ha gene a es s imuli associa ed wi h he ewa d
and which an icipa es o p edic s he pleasu able
esponse. As a consequence, he indi idual will eel
A special, high- a (a leas 45 %) and high-suga eed is used o
s udy he e ec o he so-called ca e e ia die on oden s. Mice
p e e o consume his ood a he han wha we would conside
a balanced die .
Maca ena González
142 MÈTODE
MONOGRAPH
Good o ea
an u gen need o consume again o
ob ain pleasu e, hus comp omising
hei decision-making abili y (Be idge,
2009). In addic ion models o abuse
d ugs, his hijacking o he ewa d
sys em p og essi ely p io i ises
consump ion o e any basic need.
I is a ecognised ac in diagnos ic
manuals such as he DSM-5 (Diagnos ic
and S a is ical Manual o Men al
Diso de s) and ICD-11 (In e na ional
Classi ica ion o Diseases) ha
addic ions a e no limi ed o chemical
subs ances. Any daily ac i i y ha
p oduces pleasu e can lead o addic i e
beha iou s ( o example, gambling).
Bu , can we include he consump ion o
ul a-p ocessed ood in his de ini ion
o addic ion? Scien i ic consensus has
s ill no been eached on his ma e , bu some au ho s
ha e sugges ed ha one can ge addic ed o ce ain
compounds in ood (such as suga , o ins ance), while
o he s sugges ha we should ocus on he ac o
ea ing (Fle che & Kenny, 2018).
In oday’s socie y, bo h d ug use and junk ood
consump ion a e widesp ead, especially among he
adolescen popula ion. Adolescence is a c i ical
de elopmen pe iod ha b ings many changes
a he physiological, cogni i e, beha iou al, and
psychosocial le els. In he adolescen b ain, he
p e on al co ex esponsible o decision-making,
planning, and inhibi o y con ol is s ill imma u e, so
impulsi e and isky beha iou is mo e equen a his
s age. Du ing his li e s age, excessi e consump ion
o junk ood, combined wi h la ge amoun s o alcohol,
a e common, especially du ing he weekend (Bise o
Pons e al., 2012).
In a con ex in which inco ec ea ing habi s a e
equen and d ug use is widesp ead om an ea ly age,
he causal ela ionships be ween hem, as well as hei
in e ac ions and consequences, mus be s udied. We
mus conside he a iable o nu i ional habi s when
looking in o he po en ial o de elop an addic ion and
i s adequa e ea men .
■ GATEWAY THEORY
Bo h d ug addic ion and binge ea ing diso de s ha e
high como bidi y le els (Swanson e al., 2011) and
a e cha ac e ised by a loss o con ol in ela ion o
consump ion beha iou , dependence, and c a ings.
In ac , s udies in humans indica e ha we a e much
mo e likely o de elop one o hese diso de s when
ano he diso de has al eady been diagnosed (Flo es-
F esco e al., 2018); in bo h cases he e a e al e a ions
in appe i e and sa ie y, as well as sel -des uc i e and
impulsi e beha iou s.
Because abuse d ugs and he consump ion o ul a-
p ocessed oods ac on he same b ain mechanisms,
we wonde i excessi e and ch onic consump ion o
ce ain high- a and high-suga oods can s imula e he
ewa d sys em, inc easing ulne abili y o d ug use.
Conside ing hese ela ionships, he ga eway heo y
has been p oposed o ood and subs ance abuse. This
heo y sugges s ha compulsi e ea ing could acili a e
he de elopmen o o he maladap i e beha iou s
such as d ug abuse (Blanco-Gandía, Can a co ps e al.,
2017; Degenha d e al., 2009; Puhl e al., 2011).
Among all he ac o s con ibu ing o inc easing
ulne abili y o d ug use, he nu i ional s a e is
al eady ecognised as a c i ical ac o . Addic ion
s udies ca ied ou in animal models ha e made
g ea ad ances in elucida ing his in e ac ion. They
ha e examined he ype o die (wha we ea ) and he
The main ac o s con ibu ing o he inc ease in obesi y cases in
ou socie y is he highe consump ion o ul a-p ocessed oods
and he educ ion in calo ic needs esul ing om an inc easingly
seden a y li es yle.
«Po en ially addic i e subs ances,
likecocaine and o he d ugs, a e o en
he esul o manipula ions and e ining
p ocesses ha boos hei addic i e
p ope ies»
F eepik
MÈTODE 143
MONOGRAPH
Good o ea
pa e n o consump ion (how we ea i ), as well as
how bo h o hem modula e he de elopmen o d ug
addic ion (A ena e al., 2004). In ou labo a o y, we
obse ed ha binging on high- a ood can s imula e
he ewa d sys em, making mice mo e ulne able o
cocaine and alcohol consump ion (Blanco-Gandía,
Can a co ps e al., 2017; Blanco-Gandía, Ledesma e
al., 2017). T ans e ed o an expe imen al labo a o y
se ing, binge ea ing consis s o
sho pe iods o ime (be ween
one and wo hou s) ha a e
epea ed in e mi en ly ( h ee
imes a week, o ins ance)
du ing which he animal has
access o la ge amoun s o as y
ood, de ined as a ood i em ha
is pleasu able o he specimen
(in ou s udies, i is a high- a
–a ound 45 % – and high-suga
eed).
To check he e ec s ha his ood has on d ug
consump ion, we compa ed he beha iou o mice
ha had been ed wi h di e en die s om an ea ly
age. We used wo o he main models o e alua ing
he ein o cing e ec o d ugs: condi ioned place
p e e ence and he sel -adminis a ion pa adigm.
Fo he condi ioned place p e e ence, we used a
box wi h wo di e en compa men s wi h di e en
colou s (whi e/black) and ex u es (smoo h/ ough),
sepa a ed by a neu al in e media e
compa men . Fo ou days, each
mouse ecei ed a dose o alcohol o
cocaine in one o hese compa men s
o make hem associa e he ewa ding
e ec o he d ug wi h ha pa icula
se ing. The e o e, his model e alua es
he in luence o en i onmen al cues
associa ed wi h he consump ion
o each pa icula d ug. In hese
expe imen s, we obse ed ha he
animals ha binged on as y ood
du ing hei adolescence spen mo e
ime in he compa men whe e hey
ecei ed he d ug.
The sel -adminis a ion pa adigm
is he e e ence p ocedu e in oden s
o e alua ing he ewa d alue
o a d ug. In his model, mice a e
ained o ob ain he subs ance by
pe o ming an ope an beha iou – in
ou case, a nose poke. Immedia ely
a e pe o ming he ask, he d ug is
in used o ewa d he beha iou . In
his way, he animal g adually lea ns he associa ion
and epea s he beha iou o ob ain he subs ance. In
a se ies o expe imen s, we obse ed ha animals
in e mi en ly exposed o high- a ood o wo-hou
pe iods consumed mo e alcohol han hose ha had a
balanced die .
The esul s sugges ed ha his ype o ood could
be enhancing hei sensi i i y o o he s imuli, and we
decided o s udy i he same was
ue o cocaine. As expec ed,
he animals who had binged
on a since adolescence also
sel -adminis e ed mo e cocaine.
Simila ly, when we made he
ask equi ed o ob ain he d ug
mo e di icul (by inc easing he
numbe o equi ed nose pokes),
hese animals showed mo e
mo i a ion o ecei e he d ug
(Blanco-Gandía e al., 2018).
No only did hey consume mo e, bu hey also wo ked
ha de o ge i .
Bu was he c i ical ac o ha inc eased he
consump ion o e hanol and cocaine he ood i sel ,
o he way in which i was consumed? To answe
his ques ion, we s udied ano he g oup o mice
wi h con inued access o he high- a die . A e wo
mon hs, hese mice we e signi ican ly hea ie and
pe ec ly ep esen ed he animal obesi y and me abolic
«All basic li e main enance
ac i i ies ( eeding,
sleeping, and ep oducing)
a e pleasu able because
hey cause he elease
o dopamine»
Wikipedia

144 MÈTODE
MONOGRAPH
Good o ea
synd ome model. Howe e , hey did
no show inc eased sensi i i y o d ugs
(Blanco-Gandía, A acil-Fe nández e al.,
2017). Meanwhile, o he s udies ha e
shown ha con inued access o a and
suga can be an al e na i e ewa d and
dec ease he ein o cing e ec s o d ugs
(Blanco-Gandía, A acil-Fe nández e al.,
2017; Wellman e al., 2007).
The e o e, hese s udies sugges ha
he way as y ood is consumed is mo e
impo an han i s composi ion. When
epea edly exposed o binge ea ing,
animals escala ed he consump ion o
his ype o ood, ea ing mo e and mo e
despi e being sa ed, hus, dis ega ding
hei homeos a ic sa ie y signals. This
p oduces neu oadap a ions in he ewa d
sys em ha ha e consequences no only
on ea ing beha iou , bu also on he
modula ion o hei esponse o d ugs and
hei ulne abili y o addic ion.
■ FINAL REMARKS
We mus be awa e ha he ype o ood
and he way we ea i a e de e mining
ac o s no only o ou physical heal h,
bu also o ou b ain unc ioning and
hus, ou men al heal h. Child en and
adolescen s a e he main a ge o he p ocessed ood
indus y, which has been spending money o yea s o
make hei p oduc s e en mo e appealing ( o example,
wi h gi s, lashy colou s, o ca oon cha ac e s in hei
comme cials). This makes i almos impossible o
a oid being exposed o ul a-p ocessed ood a c i ical
neu ode elopmen al s ages.
Ou s udies p o e ha die plays a undamen al
ole in bo h he acquisi ion and ea men o addic ion.
Resea ch esul s o da e highligh he ac ha
exposu e o high- a and high-suga ood in ea ly
yea s lea es a ma k on he b ain ewa d sys em. I ,
mo eo e , hese unc ional and s uc u al changes
occu du ing c i ical de elopmen al pe iods, he
impac on he ewa d sys em will be pe manen and
hese adolescen s could u n in o adul s whose b ain
ewa d sys em is unbalanced and who a e mo e
ulne able o he ein o cing e ec o d ugs.
I is impo an o no e ha he s udies men ioned
in hese ex s we e pe o med in labo a o y animal
models and so hei ex apola ion o humans equi es
cau ion. E en hough p e ious neu oimaging s udies
in humans indica e ha binge ea ing ac i a es he same
Child en and adolescen s a e he main a ge o he p ocessed
ood indus y, which has been spending money o yea s o make
hei p oduc s e en mo e appealing ( o example, wi h gi s,
lashy colou s, o ca oon cha ac e s in hei comme cials).
«Simila o addic i e p ocesses,
he mode a e desi e o consume ul a-
p ocessed ood can become an excessi e
and compulsi e pa e n»
Lucía Sapiña
Mike Moza - Flick
MÈTODE 145
MONOGRAPH
Good o ea
neu al ne wo ks unde lying addic ion
–albei o a lesse ex en han d ugs
(Small e al., 2003; Volkow e al., 2008)–
u he clinical esea ch is equi ed o
suppo his da a.
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M. CARMEN BLANCO-GANDÍA. PhD in Psychology and enu e- ack
1 p o esso in he a ea o e olu iona y and educa ional psychology in he
Depa men o Psychology and Sociology a he Uni e si y o Za agoza
(Spain). She holds a mas e ’s deg ee in Resea ch, T ea men and Associa ed
Pa hologies in D ug Addic ion and is a membe o he Psychobiology o
D ug Dependence Resea ch Uni o he Uni e si y o Valencia (Spain). He
scien i ic ca ee ocuses on s udying he ole o die in cocaine and alcohol
abuse.  mcblancogandia@uniza .es
MACARENA GONZÁLEZ-PORTILLA. G adua e in Psychology, wi h
a mas e ’s deg ee in Basic and Applied Neu oscience. She cu en ly holds
an FPU g an a he Depa men o Psychobiology, in he Psychobiology o
D ug Dependence Resea ch Uni a he Uni e si y o Valencia (Spain). He
esea ch add esses he neu o-in lamma o y e ec s o high- a die s and
alcohol abuse in adolescen s.  maca ena.gonzalez@u .es
MARTA RODRÍGUEZ-ARIAS. Full P o esso o Psychobiology in he
Facul y o Psychology a he Uni e si y o Valencia (Spain). He esea ch
ac i i y ocuses on s udying he neu obiological bases o d ug addic ion,
especially o cocaine and alcohol. She has published o e 130 pape s in
scien i ic jou nals and manages many collabo a ion p ojec s wi h he P incipe
Felipe Resea ch Cen e, Pompeu Fab a Uni e si y, and Monash Uni e si y,
among o he ins i u ions. Some o he mos impo an wo ks add ess he
impac o s ess in d ug abuse and, mo e ecen ly, he ole o die as a
ulne abili y ac o in he de elopmen o addic ion.
 ma a. od iguez@u .es