An eceden s and consequences o
us on a i ual eam leade
Ca los Fla ian and Miguel Guinalíu
Depa men o Ma ke ing Managemen and Ma ke ing Resea ch,
Uni e si y o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain, and
Pau Jo dan
Depa men o Business Managemen and O ganisa ion, Uni e si y o Za agoza,
Za agoza, Spain and
ESIC Business and Ma ke ing School, Za agoza, Spain
Abs ac
Pu pose –The pu pose o his pape is o examine, among he possible causes, whe he us in he leade is
one o he mos ele an ac o s on he success o a i ual wo k eam by analyzing di e en an eceden s o
he us and i s consequences.
Design/me hodology/app oach –The in luence ha ce ain physical and beha io al cha ac e is ics o he
leade (a ac i eness, empa hy and jus ice) exe on he deg ee o us is e alua ed. On he o he hand, he
in luence o us on he e iciency o he eam, in e ms o o ganiza ional ci izenship beha io and
commi men , is analyzed. To es he model, a su ey was conduc ed on eal wo k eams and he da a we e
analyzed h ough a model o s uc u al equa ions.
Findings –The esul s suppo he hypo heses and consequen ly, he ele ance o us in he leade .
Speci ically, he leade ’s physical and beha io al cha ac e is ics ha e a signi ican e ec on he us in he
leade . This us esul s in g ea e o ganiza ional e iciency.
O iginali y/ alue –Despi e he undispu able g ow h in he numbe o companies using i ual eams, i is
also ue ha many o hese eams ail o pe o m. In his sense, his pape analyzes i ce ain ac o s ela ed o
leade ship can be ele an when in luencing he e iciency o a i ual wo k eam. This pape con ibu es o a
be e unde s anding o he in e nal p ocesses wi hin a i ual eam in o de o maximize he chances o
success in his ype o o ganiza ions.
Keywo ds Leade ship, T us , Jus ice, Empa hy, Vi ual eam, A ac i e
Pape ype Resea ch pape
1. In oduc ion
Vi ual eams a e e e mo e impo an in o ganiza ions and hei g ow h and popula i y
con inues o ise. Howe e , hese eams a e mo e di icul o manage han adi ional eams.
Vi ual eam membe s a e geog aphically dispe sed, hey in e ac elec onically h ough
elema ic ne wo ks, ha e di e se oles and wo k in empo a y sys ems, he e o e he e may
be eam membe s wo king in di e en ime zones ( Ja enpaa and Leidne , 1999). They a e
equen ly sel -managed knowledge-based eams wi h dis ibu ed expe ise and ha can be
o med o dissol ed depending on he speci ic objec i es o he o ganiza ion ( Ja enpaa
e al., 2004). The managemen o hese eams is mo e di icul han o adi ional eams since
in adi ional eams wo king ela ionships a e de eloped na u ally h ough he ace- o- ace
exchange o in o ma ion, howe e , in a i ual eam, whe e communica ion is ca ied ou
h ough elec onic means, eam coo dina ion becomes much mo e complex and
communica ion is less luid. A s udy ca ied ou by OnPoin (2013), ound ha 25 pe cen
Eu opean Jou nal o Managemen
and Business Economics
Vol. 28 No. 1, 2019
pp. 2-24
Eme ald Publishing Limi ed
2444-8494
DOI 10.1108/EJMBE-11-2017-0043
Recei ed 15 No embe 2017
Re ised 28 Ma ch 2018
4 May 2018
Accep ed 6 June 2018
The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a :
www.eme aldinsigh .com/2444-8494.h m
© Ca los Fla ian, Miguel Guinalíu and Pau Jo dan. Published in Eu opean Jou nal o Managemen and
Business Economics. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is published unde he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may ep oduce, dis ibu e, ansla e and
c ea e de i a i e wo ks o his a icle ( o bo h comme cial and non-comme cial pu poses), subjec o
ull a ibu ion o he o iginal publica ion and au ho s. The ull e ms o his licence may be seen a
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
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o i ual eams a e no ully e ec i e, 27 pe cen o s akeholde s in ol ed wi h i ual
eams pe cei e hei o e all pe o mance o be only adequa e o less han adequa e and, in
e ms o pe o mance, 17 pe cen o i ual eams a e a ed as less han adequa e. These
esul s coincide wi h ano he s udy unde aken by MIT Sloan Managemen (2009),
acco ding o which only abou 18 pe cen o he i ual eams s udied achie e a high deg ee
o success. Wha a e he easons ha explain he ailu e o hese i ual eams?
T us is a key ac o in social and economic ela ionships and is he e o e one o he
mos de e minan ac o s o pe o mance wi hin an o ganiza ion (Mackenzie, 2010).
Howe e , in a i ual en i onmen , he adi ional mechanisms by which us is buil may
no wo k (e.g. he lack o ace- o- ace in e ac ion and he absence o non- e bal language
educes he ichness o he communica ion be ween eam membe s). Howe e , i is
p ecisely in his i ual en i onmen whe e us becomes mo e necessa y, since i helps
educe he psychological dis ance be ween eam membe s ( Ja enpaa and Leidne , 1999)
and c ea e a sense uni y in he eam (Wilson e al., 2006).
On he o he hand, a key success ac o o a i ual eam is leade ship (Mo geson e al.,
2010). The li e a u e ecognizes he challenge ha managing a i ual eam poses as compa ed
o managing a adi ional eam (Hoch and Kozlowski, 2014). A i ual leade is someone ha
mus use IT ools such as collabo a i e so wa e and online communica ion ools, o manage a
eam o people who a e geog aphically dispe sed, o mee a speci ic objec i e. These leade s
mus make a g ea e e o o coo dina e he eam’s asks, build ela ionships among eam
membe s and acili a e eam p ocesses (Zigu s, 2003). S udies such as Gilson e al. (2015) ci e
leade ship as one o he mos ele an esea ch opics in he ield o i ual eams.
The s udy o us in he leade is he p ima y objec i e o his esea ch, mo e speci ically o
analyze i s possible an eceden s and consequences wi hin he con ex o a i ual en i onmen .
Al hough he li e a u e highligh s us , bo h be ween eam membe s and in he leade , as one
o he impo an a iables in he e iciency o a i ual eam (Mue hel e al., 2012; Lipnack and
S amps, 2000), he e is a ce ain consensus ega ding he need o e ise adi ional pa e ns o
leade ship in o de o adap hem o wha is a comple ely di e en o ganiza ional eali y.
Howe e , p io esea ch has no eached a clea consensus when i comes o es ablishing
managemen pa e ns o i ual eams and i is s ill no clea ha adi ional con ol
mechanisms can be applied o i ual wo k eams (Bisbe and Si abalan, 2017).
Fo all he abo e, his wo k analyzes he physical and beha io al cha ac e is ics o he
leade ha ha e o be pe cei ed by hei subo dina es in o de o c ea e us among he
membe s o he g oup, as well as he consequences o his us in o ganiza ional e iciency
e e s. Al hough all hese a iables ha e been analyzed in adi ional en i onmen s, he
p esen wo k in ends o b oaden he wo k analyzing hese a iables wi hin a i ual wo k
en i onmen , gi en ha he li e a u e has no analyzed in dep h he cha ac e is ics ha a
i ual leade mus possess in o de o build us in hese ypes o en i onmen s.
To conduc his esea ch, his pape is s uc u ed as ollows: i s , he e is a e iew o he
key a iables o us in he leade . The ollowing sec ion co esponds o he esea ch model
and he o mula ion o he wo king hypo heses. The me hodology used o co obo a e he
hypo heses is hen e iewed and, inally, he las wo sec ions co espond o he esul s and
conclusions o he s udy.
2. Theo e ical and concep ual amewo k.
In he ollowing sec ion, he key a iables used in his s udy a e e iewed, as a e he heo ies
ha unde pin hem.
2.1 T us in he leade
T us is a cons uc o g ea ele ance and consequen ly nume ous de ini ions o us ha e been
pu o wa d, especially a he indi idual le el. Howe e , he as majo i y o hem e ol e a ound
3
Vi ual eam
leade
wo key aspec s (Die z and Den Ha og, 2006). Fi s , he p edisposi ion o us , which e e s o
expec a ions, belie s o a i udes owa d he o he pe son and he in en ion o us hem. Second,
he in en ion o accep some deg ee o ulne abili y de i ed om he isk o us ing he o he
pa y (Molle ing, 2006; Cu as-Pe ez e al., 2017). Along hese lines, one o he concep ualiza ions
mos used in he li e a u e is ha p oposed by Maye e al. (1995), acco ding o which us is he
willingness o a pa y o be ulne able o he ac ions o ano he pa y based on he expec a ion
ha he o he will pe o m a pa icula ac ion impo an o he us o , i espec i e o he abili y
o moni o o con ol ha o he pa y. Fu he mo e, Maye e al. (1995) ake in o accoun h ee
an eceden s on which he us wo hiness o he us ee is e alua ed, abili y, which e e s o he
compe encies and skills o he us ee, bene olence, which e e s o he mo i es and in en ions o
he us ee o a pa icula ac ion; and in eg i y, which is he an eceden o he us ing p ocess
ha e e s o he p inciples go e ning he conduc o he us ee.
In his online con ex , us is acknowledged as one o he mos in luen ial ac o s in
allowing an e icien exchange o in o ma ion and knowledge among eam membe s o be
de eloped (Kim e al., 2008; Guinalíu and Jo dán, 2016). T us plays a key ole in he con ex o
online decision-making, as well as in sus aining he ela ionships wi hin he wo k eam
(Kim e al., 2008). Taking in o accoun he di icul ies o deploying o mal and in o mal con ols
in i ual con ex s, a line o esea ch has emphasized he impo ance o in e pe sonal us o
manage in e dependen asks in o e coming he pi alls caused by dispe sion (e.g. Ja enpaa
and Leidne , 1999; Mue hel e al., 2012; S aples and Webs e , 2008). Howe e , knowledge o
how us wo ks in a adi ional eam canno be ans e ed di ec ly o a i ual con ex due o
he inna e s uc u al cha ac e is ics o he la e . On he one hand, i ual eams ha e a much
highe deg ee o ask in e dependence (Lipnack and S amps, 2000), and on he o he hand,
hie a chy akes on a much mo e ele an ole due o he con inuous coo dina ion ha is
necessa y be ween leade s and subo dina es in a dispe sed con ex (Bell and Kozlowski, 2002).
Fu he mo e, communica ion in a i ual eam is much mo e limi ed since communica ion is
agmen ed, i lacks non- e bal communica ion and he communica ion is no as ich. All his
educes he abili y o build and main ain in e pe sonal us in i ual en i onmen s (Gibson and
Cohen, 2003). In his sense, he In o ma ion Richness Theo y (Da e al., 1987) pos ula es ha
communica ion di e s in ichness depending on he medium used o ansmi i . These au ho s
p esen a hie a chy o le els o communica ion ha e lec s he ichness o hei con en , in o de
o dec easing ichness: ace- o- ace communica ion, elephone, pe sonal documen s such as
e-mails and elec onic documen s. The In o ma ion Richness Theo y sugges s ha di e en
communica ion modes ha e di e en linguis ic abili y o ansmi social cues and capaci y o
elici an immedia e esponse o he message (Sapa i o and Gopalak ishnan, 2009).
2.2 Pe cei ed a ac i eness
P e ious esea ch in he a ea o social psychologyandma ke inghasp o en ha he pe cep ion
o he pe son who deli e s a message has a clea in luence on he e ec i eness o ha message
(Reingen and Ke man, 1993). On he o he hand, he e ec o a ac i eness has d awn he
a en ion o social psychology o many yea s. In he ea ly wo ks o Kelman (1961), i was
a gued ha he a ac i eness o he pe son who deli e s a message is a ele an dimension ha
in luences whe he o no he message is app o ed by he ecei e . S udies measu e
a ac i eness based on subjec i e ankings o people’s physical appea ances (Mocan and
Tekin, 2010; Hame mesh and Ab e aya, 2013). This app oach is consis en wi h s anda d
dic iona y de ini ions o beau y as “ he quali y o agg ega e o quali ies in a pe son o hing ha
gi es pleasu e o he senses o pleasu ably exal s he mind o spi i ”(Hame mesh, 2011, p. 11).
Wi h he objec i e o acknowledging physical a ac i eness as an objec i ely measu able
ai , p e ious esea ch has ocused on he deduc ions made by people conce ning hei
pe cep ion o o he people’s appea ance. A icula ed h ough s e eo ypes such as “Wha is
beau i ul is good”(Dion e al.,1972;Lo enzoe al., 2010), “You can judge he book by i s co e ”
4
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(Yamagishi e al., 2003) o “Beau y Pays: Why A ac i e People a e mo e Success ul”
(Hame mesh, 2011). One o he mos enowned heo ies in he li e a u e on he e ec o physical
a ac i eness is ha o Tho ndike (1920); his heo y acknowledges a “halo e ec ”which e e s
o a cogni i e bias by which he pe cep ion o one pa icula a ibu e o a pe son (in his case,
he a ac i eness o he leade ) in luences he pe cep ion o he es o ha indi idual’s ai s.
Tho ndike (1920) was he i s o demons a e h ough empi ical e idence ha physical
a ac i eness is he a iable ha mos e okes he halo e ec . Physical a ac i eness gi es
people measu able in o ma ion abou he halo e ec , and i is some o he cha ac e is ics o
physical a ac i eness ha bes e oke i . The ole o a ac i eness in e oking he halo e ec is
suppo ed by nume ous s udies. One ecen s udy (Zhao e al., 2015) e ealed ha a ac i eness
can a ec he pe cep ion we ha e o a pe son’s li e, success and pe sonali y.
Fu he mo e, people o en assign posi i e a ibu es o a ac i e people and nega i e
a ibu es o less a ac i e people (Eagly e al., 1991). In his sense, mo e physically
a ac i e people a e usually mo e success ul han una ac i e ones, gi en ha he e is a
belie ha a ac i e people ha e a se ies o mo e posi i e ai s a ibu ed o hem in
compa ison o less a ac i e people (Riggio, 1986). The e ec o physical a ac i eness has
also been s udied in a i ual con ex , speci ically s udies such as Zhao e al. (2015) analyze
whe he indi iduals coo dina e hemsel es di e en ly based on he a ac i eness o an
indi idual in a i ual en i onmen .
2.3 Pe cei ed empa hy
Emo ions a e a undamen al aspec o he psychological unc ioning o human beings.
A ec ion, moods, emo ions and all o he aspec s ela ed o emo ional in elligence ha e
gene a ed a wide deba e in he psychology li e a u e (e.g. Ba e , 2006; Iza d, 1992). F om a
social unc ional poin o iew, emo ions signal ele an in o ma ion ha can be used o
unde s and how o in e ac success ully wi h o he s (Kel ne and K ing, 1998). Likewise,
empa hy can be de ined as an exchange o posi i e and nega i e emo ions ha os e s a
connec ion be ween people (Plu chik, 1980).
Al hough in he li e a u e he e is some deba e conce ning he cons uc o emo ional
in elligence and i s in luence on leade ship, Ashkanasy and Daus (2005) de end he idea ha
he ela ional aspec s o an ac i i y will need o d aw upon he emo ional in elligence o he
pe son in cha ge. The e o e, leade s who ha e g ea e abili y o pe cei e he emo ions o
o he s, and unde s and he impac o hei ac ions, will be mo e likely o play an e ec i e
leade ship ole (Day and Ca oll, 2004). Plu chik (1980) desc ibes empa hy as an exchange o
posi i e and nega i e emo ions ha os e s bonding among people. The concep o empa hy
has also been analyzed in business managemen . Goleman e al. (2002) a gue ha empa hy is
he undamen al compe ence o social awa eness and he condi ion sine qua non o
e ec i eness o all wo k wi hin he company. Fu he mo e, hey a gue ha e ec i e
leade s ha e an impac on hei subo dina es ha leads hem o ha e a s onge emo ional
esponse and g ea e e iciency in hei wo k.
Likewise, he li e a u e acknowledges he ac ha a ac o such as empa hy can be
pe cei ed h ough a i ual en i onmen in which he e is no physical exchange o
in o ma ion. In his sense, s udies such as hose o Ca ie e al. (2015) show ha i is possible
o empa hize ( i ual empa hy) h ough compu e -media ed communica ion. Fu he mo e,
i has been p oposed ha elec onic communica ion en i onmen s, such as social ne wo ks,
can acili a e empa hy h ough easy and equen access o o he people in simila si ua ions
(Caplan and Tu ne , 2007; Guinalíu and Jo dán, 2016).
2.4 Pe cei ed jus ice
The s udy o he pe cep ion o o ganiza ional jus ice has caugh he a en ion o esea che s
and p ac i ione s and has become a ecu ing opic o esea ch wi hin he ields o
5
Vi ual eam
leade
o ganiza ional psychology, human esou ce managemen and o ganiza ional beha io
(C opanzano and G eenbe g, 1997). O e he pas 30 yea s, o ganiza ional jus ice has been a
subjec o social psychology esea ch, mo e speci ically in o ganiza ional con ex s (T e ino
and Wea e , 2001). Pe cep ions o o ganiza ional jus ice cons i u e an impo an heu is ic in
decision making wi hin an o ganiza ion. We can de ine o ganiza ional jus ice as he way in
which employees pe cei e ai ness in he wo kplace. P e ious esea ch has highligh ed
pe cei ed jus ice as a signi ican p edic o o bo h he employees’a i udinal eac ions
(e.g. commi men and us ) and hei beha io al eac ions (Ka ike and Williams, 2009).
O ganiza ional jus ice is bene icial o o ganiza ions in he long- e m in he sense ha i can
os e posi i e employee wo k a i udes and beha io s (Cohen-Cha ash and Spec o , 2001).
In gene al, he li e a u e sugges s ha people wan o be ea ed ai ly and consis en ly, and
his leads hem o us (Amb ose and Schminke, 2003; G eenbe g, 2003). Jus ice is pe cei ed
when leade s a e able o ake in o accoun he poin o iew o hei subo dina es, manage
pe sonal biases and explain he decision-making p ocess, including app op ia e eedback
be ween he pa ies (Whi ene , 1997). Jus ice will inc ease he elling o us be ween leade s and
subo dina es (Bu ke e al., 2007). In addi ion, he pe cep ion o jus ice bene i s he o ganiza ion in
he sense ha employees will be willing o espond wi h be e pe o mance and a be e a i ude.
The ole o pe cei ed jus ice in online en i onmen s has also been s udied in p e ious
li e a u e, o example, wi hin he scope o i ual communi ies, in which use s a e able o
o m hei pe cep ions o jus ice while in e ac ing wi h o he membe s o he communi y
(Chou e al., 2016). Jus ice in an online en i onmen is one o he undamen al pilla s o
las ing and sus ainable ela ionships (Fang and Chiu, 2010).
2.5 O ganiza ional commi men
O ganiza ional commi men can be de ined as he in ensi y wi h which employees
pa icipa e in, and iden i y wi h, an o ganiza ion (Mowday e al., 1982). On he o he hand,
Mowday e al. (1979) desc ibe o ganiza ional commi men as a s ong belie in he goals
and alues o he o ganiza ion and a p edisposi ion o wo k on i s behal . Bishop and Sco
(2000) de ine i as he in ensi y wi h which he membe s o a eam engage and iden i y
wi h hei wo k eam, ha is, i desc ibes he psychological a achmen ha eam
membe s expe ience owa d he eam. Likewise, o ganiza ional commi men has a s ong
link o he a iable us . The e a e nume ous s udies, ollowing he ela ionship
ma ke ing app oach and he commi men - us heo y p oposed by Mo gan and Hun
(1994), which ha e conside ed us as he p ima y an eceden o commi men . Along he
same lines, he wo k o Fla ián and Guinalíu (2006) con i m ha his ela ionship
con inues o be alid in online en i onmen s.
The in e es in he s udy o commi men a he o ganiza ional le el is especially ele an ,
wi h s udies such as hose by Koch and S ee s (1978) and Angle and Pe y (1981), which show
how commi men can in luence he a i udes and beha io s o he o ganiza ion in he
wo kplace. Much o he esea ch in his ield was in ended o es ablish he link be ween
o ganiza ional commi men and employee u no e , a ela ionship ha has ecei ed
conside able empi ical suppo (e.g. Ma hieu and Zajac, 1990). Va ious s udies emphasize
o ganiza ional commi men as an ou pu wi hin a i ual wo k eam along wi h o he
a iables such as e ec i eness and sa is ac ion, a bo h he indi idual and he eam le els
(Dulebohn and Hoch, 2007).
2.6 O ganiza ional ci izenship beha io “OCB”
OCB e e s o he e m ha e lec s he beha io o he di e en membe s o an o ganiza ion,
bu goes beyond pe o ming he no mal unc ions ha each indi idual has assigned.
Acco ding o he de ini ion o O gan (1988), OCB ep esen s he disc e iona y beha io o an
indi idual, which is no di ec ly o explici ly ecognized by he o ganiza ion’s o company’s
6
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o mal ewa d sys em, and u he mo e p omo es e iciency and e ec i eness in he
unc ioning o he o ganiza ion (Bagozzi e al., 2016). La e , O gan (1997) pe ec ed his
de ini ion, concep ualizing i as a o m o o ganiza ional e iciency ha is based on he social
and psychological en i onmen in which he ask pe o mance akes place. Con ex ualizing
his a iable wi hin a i ual en i onmen , nume ous s udies exis ha ha e s udied he
OCB a iable wi hin a i ual con ex , in he cases o bo h i ual communi ies (Yu and Chu,
2007) and i ual wo k eams (C easy and Ca nes, 2017). In all cases his a iable is g ouped
wi hin he a iables o e iciency ha a eam o o ganiza ion achie es.
3. Resea ch model and hypo heses
As discussed ea lie in he de ini ion o us in he leade , he le el o us in a eam leade
is associa ed, in pa , wi h he subo dina es’pe cep ion o a se o pa e ns o beha io
(Di ks and Fe in, 2002). These beha io al pa e ns ha e been analyzed in b oade e ms
h ough a se o belie s ela ed o us ; mo e speci ically Maye e al. (1995) p opose h ee
dimensions o us based on bene olence, abili y and in eg i y. By i ue o his
concep ualiza ion o us , he p esen esea ch model has iden i ied a se ies o an eceden s
o us in a i ual leade , on he one hand based on he physical a ibu es o he leade
and on he o he , on he beha io al cha ac e is ics o he leade . Fu he mo e, he consequences
o us in he leade o a i ual wo k eam ha e also been analyzed. The model conside s
he consequences o us analyzed a a global le el wi hin he g oup, such as OCB and
commi men o he eam. These a iables ake in o accoun he e iciency o he eam
h ough a iables ha e lec he social success o he wo k g oup.
Resea ch in he ield o psychology suppo s he ac ha people ha a e mo e a ac i e
a e mo e likely o possess a wide a ie y o posi i e quali ies (Ha ield and Sp eche , 1986). In
ac , people o en a ibu e posi i e cha ac e is ics o wha is a ac i e, and nega i e
cha ac e is ics wi h ha which lacks a ac i eness (Eagly e al., 1991). The e is abundan
p e ious li e a u e ha acknowledges ha physical a ac i eness plays an impo an ole in
decision making among indi iduals. As p oo , we can ci e ecen s udies ha acknowledge
ha physically a ac i e people pe o m be e in a eas such as job in e iews (Wood and
Eagly, 2012) o poli ical elec ions (Benjamin and Shapi o, 2009). Focusing on he s udy o
leade ship, se e al p e ious s udies ha e subs an ia ed he impo ance o he leade ’sphysical
a ac i eness in he way hey a e pe cei ed by hei subo dina es (e.g. Spisak e al., 2012;
Benjamin and Shapi o, 2009). F aming his hypo hesis in he con ex o a i ual en i onmen ,
we ind a ious s udies ha suppo he impo ance o he physical a ac i eness o he
leade o a i ual eam o communi y when i comes o in luencing subo dina es (Zhao e al.,
2015). In ac , he mo e a ac i e he i ual leade , he be e he is able o ansmi ce ain
posi i e ai s o his subo dina es. This, oge he wi h he need o i ual wo ke s o connec
wi h o he membe s o he wo kg oup, gi en he inna e cha ac e is ics o a dis ibu ed
en i onmen , can acili a e he building o us . Acco dingly, we expec ha mo e physically
a ac i e leade s will be able o gene a e g ea e us among hei subo dina es:
H1. The deg ee o a ac i eness o leade s o i ual wo k eams di ec ly and posi i ely
in luences he us owa d hem.
The wo ks o Maye e al. (1999) and Goleman (1999) s ess he impo ance o emo ional
in elligence and leade ship, wi h empa hy being one o he mos impo an componen s o
emo ional in elligence. Wi hin he li e a u e on eam managemen and leade ship, i is accep ed
ha he e is a ela ionship be ween pe sonal communica ion and he us ha is pe cei ed in
ano he pe son (Zolin e al., 2003). In ac , Feng e al. (2004) a gue ha he g oup’s managemen
should p omo e mechanisms o help membe s o a wo k eam o iden i y wi h each o he ,
adop ing an empa hic a i ude ha helps build us . Fu he mo e, i has been shown ha ce ain
beha io s a e capable o being ansmi ed h ough a i ual en i onmen . While hese conduc s
7
Vi ual eam
leade
may eme ge na u ally in a ace- o- ace en i onmen , i is pe haps mo e di icul ha hey a ise in
a i ual en i onmen due o he dis ance ha exis s be ween membe s o he g oup.
Acco dingly, empa hy can eme ge wi hin a i ual eam h ough he messages exchanged
be ween g oup membe s and he leade (P eece and Ghoza i, 2001) o h ough o he pe cep ions
o he leade ha subo dina es may de elop. Due o his, we expec ha an empa hic i ual
leade will be able o c ea e mo e us . The e o e, we expec ha leade s ha show mo e
empa hy owa d hei subo dina es will esul in hei subo dina es ha ing g ea e us in hem:
H2. The pe cei ed empa hy o he leade s o i ual wo k eams di ec ly and posi i ely
in luences he us in hem.
Jus ice in ol es an e alua i e judgmen conce ning he ea men o a pe son by o he s
(Fu by, 1986). On he o he hand, us and o ganiza ional jus ice a e linked (A yee e al.,
2002), i is expec ed ha ai ea men will imp o e he social exchange ela ionship and,
he e o e, inc ease he le el o us be ween he wo pa ies. When employees pe cei e
ha he in e pe sonal ea men by hei leade has been ai , i is logical ha a deg ee o
us de elops be ween he leade and he subo dina es. Employees can see o ganiza ional
jus ice as a way o leade s o communica e ca e and espec , which could lead o
inc eased us in he leade (Thau e al., 2007). Fu he mo e, p e ious s udies ha e
empi ically con as ed ha o ganiza ional jus ice is posi i ely ela ed o commi men and
us in he o ganiza ion and i s employees (e.g. Alexande and Rude man, 1987; Folge
and C opanzano, 1998). Wi hin a i ual eam and om he pe spec i e o building
ela ionships wi hin he eam, when subo dina es pe cei e ai ness in he esul s o
pe sonal in e ac ions wi h, and conduc o , hei leade hey end o eel mo e a ease in he
eam and hei pe cep ions o he in eg i y, bene olence, and abili y o hei leade
inc ease (Fang and Chiu, 2010). Fo hese easons, we expec ha ai e i ual leade s will
be able o c ea e mo e us :
H3. The pe cei ed jus ice in he leade s o i ual wo k eams di ec ly and posi i ely
in luences he us owa d hem.
Easily obse able ea u es, such as a ac i eness o gende , can be used o ca ego ize
indi iduals based on s e eo ypes ( Jones e al., 1998). In keeping wi h his, he s e eo ype o
“wha is beau i ul is good”is de e mined by he “halo e ec ”(Tho ndike, 1920). The halo
e ec e e s o a cogni i e bias whe eby he pe cep ion o a pa icula ai o an indi idual
(in his case he a ac i eness o he leade ) in luences he pe cep ion o o he ai s o ha
pe son. Along hese lines, Ma hes and Kahn (1975) a gue ha people ha a e mo e
physically a ac i e ha e g ea e empa hic abili y han hose ha a e less a ac i e.
Consequen ly, he pe cep ion o empa hy in he leade may be in luenced by hei deg ee
o a ac i eness. The e o e, he same le el o empa hy would be pe cei ed mo e in ensely
when heleade ismo ea ac i ein heeyeso hesubo dina e.The easonwouldbe ha
he indi idual has in e nalized he idea ha people ha a e mo e a ac i e a e mo e
empa hic, because o he halo e ec . Based on hese a gumen s, he ollowing hypo hesis
is p oposed:
H4. The deg ee o a ac i eness o he leade s o i ual wo k eams di ec ly and
posi i ely in luences he le el o empa hy pe cei ed in hem.
P io esea ch sugges s ha o ganiza ional jus ice has a mo al ounda ion in he sense ha
un ai ea men iola es people’s mo al s anda ds (Folge and C opanzano, 1998). F om
his mo al pe spec i e, i is o be expec ed ha empa hy se e as a way o ansla e hese
mo al no ms in o conc e e ac ions owa d o he indi iduals, since empa hy con ibu es o
widening he numbe o people who a e en i led o ai ea men (Aquino e al., 2005).
Acco ding o Ho man (1987), he ac ha any p inciple o jus ice is applied has in i sel an
8
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empa hic conno a ion, which is explained by he ac ha he pe son who dispenses jus ice
can imagine he consequences o a poo sys em o jus ice wi hin he o ganiza ion, especially
o hose ha a e he mos ulne able. The e o e, he ollowing hypo hesis is p oposed:
H5. The deg ee o empa hy pe cei ed in he leade s o i ual wo k eams di ec ly and
posi i ely in luences he le el o jus ice pe cei ed in hem.
In ecen yea s, us has been conside ed one o he p ima y asse s o os e ing he a i ude
owa d he wo k and he pe o mance o he employees o an o ganiza ion (McE ily and
To o iello, 2011). Wo ke s wi h a highe le el o us in hei leade and hei wo k eam
will end o adop beha io o ien ed owa d he success o he eam (Schoo man e al., 2007),
while also ending o be mo e loyal o hei o ganiza ion and mo e ac i e in decision-making.
Fu he mo e, se e al me a-analyzes ca ied ou by Di ks and Fe in (2002) and McE ily and
To o iello (2011), con i m he posi i e e ec o us in leade s on a a ie y o a i udes in
he wo kplace; among hem is he ela ionship be ween us in he leade and
o ganiza ional commi men , which indica es ha us in he leade usually ansla es in o
s ong o ganiza ional commi men .
In i ual wo k eams, us posi i ely in luences he exchange o in o ma ion and mi iga es
he unce ain y conce ning he beha io o o he s (Mue hel e al., 2012). In ac , i has been ound
ha he posi i e ela ionship be ween in e pe sonal us and eam e ec i eness is s onge as
geog aphic dispe sion and compu e -media ed communica ion inc ease (Mue hel e al., 2012).
By emphasizing he impo ance o us o ensu e he success o a i ual eam, hese eams
expe ience p edic able communica ion pa e ns, posi i e leade ship, en husiasm and an
imp o ed abili y o cope wi h echnical unce ain y. Along hese lines, S aples and Webs e
(2008) show ha us is posi i ely associa ed wi h he ans e o knowledge wi hin a i ual
eam, which esul s in he eam being mo e e ec i e. On he o he hand, i has also been shown
ha us inc eases ask comple ion, commi men o he o ganiza ion and he willingness o
assume addi ional oles wi hin he eam (Long and Si kin, 2006). By i ue o all he abo e, we
can s a e he ollowing wo king hypo hesis:
H6. T us in he leade s o i ual wo k eams di ec ly and posi i ely in luences he
deg ee o commi men wi h he eam.
T us has shown o be an impo an p edic o o ce ain o ganiza ional ou comes, such as
OCB (Van Dyne e al., 2000). OCB is unde s ood as a measu e o o ganiza ional e iciency
based on he social o psychological en i onmen in which wo k is pe o med (O gan,
1977). The us o employees in hei leade is acknowledged in he li e a u e as an
an eceden o OCB. Di e en p e ious s udies (e.g. E u k, 2007) indica e ha in a wo k
con ex whe e he social exchange is o quali y, us acqui es an impo an weigh as an
an eceden o OCB. On he o he hand, Deluga (1994) a gues ha he ac ions o he leade
aimed a s eng hening us among his subo dina es a e di ec ly ela ed o a high le el o
OCB among hem. O he s udies by O gan (1990) a i m ha subo dina es ha e a highe
le el o OCB in si ua ions whe e social exchange acili a es he de elopmen o mu ual
us be ween leade s and subo dina es. Tha is why he close and mo e equen he
ela ionship be ween he leade and he subo dina es, he g ea e he us and he
associa ed OCB will be.
In a i ual en i onmen , us plays a key ole in in e pe sonal ela ionships when
he people a e geog aphically dispe sed, and consequen ly he e is asymme ic
in o ma ion and unce ain y (McKnigh and Che any, 2002). In his ega d, he
in luence o us on ce ain ou comes has been demons a ed, an example being OCB
(Kono sky and Pugh, 1994). I is easonable o assume ha when he e is us among
he eam membe s, one will be mo e willing o pa icipa e in OCB (Pillai e al., 1999).
In addi ion, us is i al o c ea ing a cul u e o knowledge exchange in online eams
9
Vi ual eam
leade
and o ganiza ions (Collie and Biens ock, 2006). The e o e, he ollowing a gumen is se
o h as a wo king hypo hesis:
H7. T us in he leade s o i ual wo k eams di ec ly and posi i ely in luences he
deg ee o OCB o he eam.
O ganiza ional commi men is ecei ing a g ea deal o a en ion in he li e a u e, among o he
easons due o he impo an ole i plays in on- he-job a i udes, such as job sa is ac ion and
employee beha io . The e is a posi i e co ela ion be ween o ganiza ional commi men and
pe o mance (Fu and Deshpande, 2014), no only a he le el o indi idual pe o mance, bu
also a he co po a e le el. Wi h he idea o concep ualizing pe o mance a a global le el
wi hin he company, many au ho s use he a iable OCB o show he impo ance o
o ganiza ional commi men o employee mo i a ion, beha io , and e o (Johnson and Chang,
2006; O gan, 1997). Based on hese a gumen s he inal wo king hypo hesis is s a ed:
H8. The commi men o he eam di ec ly and posi i ely in luences he eam’sdeg eeo OCB.
4. Me hodology
The da a needed o unde ake his s udy we e ob ained h ough a sel -adminis e ed in e ne
su ey o people who ou inely wo k in i ual eams. To accomplish his, a da abase
ex ac ed om he social ne wo k LinkedIn was used. This is a p o essional social ne wo k, so
i is pa icula ly use ul when i is necessa y o il e ce ain p o iles, in ou case, manage s.
Fi s , a da abase o manage s and eam leade s was c ea ed and an in i a ion o pa icipa e in
he esea ch was sen by e-mail. The in i a ion, which was sen o 1,000 indi iduals, included
a ques ion abou hei pa icipa ion in i ual wo k eams. A o al o 320 indi iduals
esponded a i ma i ely o he in i a ion, bu once incomple e ques ionnai es and hose ha
did no wo k in i ual eams we e elimina ed, he sample was educed o 241. The s uc u al
equa ion me hodology was used o analyze he da a. Since his echnique is highly sensi i e o
cases o missing and a ypical da a, an exhaus i e analysis o he da abase was necessa y
be o e p oceeding wi h he p ocess o s a is ical analysis. The sample size is conside ed
adequa e o he s uc u al equa ion me hodology and he model o be es ed (Boomsma, 1982,
1985). Tables I and II show he sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics and he economics sec o s o
he sample used and he esponden s’sec o o ac i i y.
The alida ion p ocess o he scales p oposed o he measu emen o he a iables ha
cons i u e he esea ch model consis ed o se e al phases ha a e desc ibed below. Fi s , he
de elopmen o he measu emen scales was based on a p e ious e iew o he li e a u e
(see Table III). Thanks o his li e a u e e iew, i was possible o o mula e an ini ial
p oposal o scales. Howe e , he scales had o be adap ed o he con ex o he i ual wo k
eams. The objec i e o he adap a ion was o gua an ee ace alidi y; ace alidi y is de ined
as he ex en o which he measu emen scale is ep esen a i e o ha which is in ended o
Sociodemog aphic da a
Sample size 241
Age (unde 20) 2%
Age (be ween 20 and 29) 30%
Age (be ween 30 and 39) 31%
Age (be ween 40 and 49) 29%
Age (o e 50) 8%
Sex (male) 71%
Le el o educa ion (abo e p ima y) 85%
In e ne expe ience (mo e han 5 yea s) 92%
Table I.
Sociodemog aphic da a
10
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hus a o ing cohesion and c ea ing a sense o belonging o he g oup, which is especially
impo an in he case o i ual eams whe e he membe s a e sca e ed and i is mo e
di icul o c ea e a sense o uni y wi hin he eam.
6.1 Implica ions o managemen
As a esul o global compe i ion, o ganiza ions a e inc easingly op ing o knowledge-based
p oduc ion models (Townsend e al., 1998), adop ing inno a i e s a egies o ensu e hei
su i al (Mi ó e al., 2010), and ending owa d mo e lexible and compe ency-based s uc u es
which in ol e an inc ease in knowledge managemen - ela ed ac i i ies and he edis ibu ion
o hei employmen s uc u es in o de o design mo e lexible and e sa ile wo k eams
(Lu ey and Raisinghani, 2001). Acco dingly, companies should be agile in c ea ing i ual
wo k eams o cope wi h he challenges imposed on hem by he compe i i e en i onmen ,
since i ual eams endow o ganiza ions wi h g ea e lexibili y. A he same ime, hey os e
knowledge c ea ion, skills de elopmen and gi e o ganiza ions a wide pe spec i e compa ed
o adi ional wo k eams (G eenbe g e al., 2007). The esul s o his s udy a e in ended o help
o ganiza ions manage hei eams mo e e icien ly, by building us and he eby con ibu ing
o imp o ing he esul s h ough a be e unde s anding o he ac o s ha a ec he
us wo hiness o a eam leade .
The esul s o he model highligh se e al s a egies aimed a building us in he leade .
Fi s , p omo e empa hy be ween leade s and hei subo dina es. Al hough ace- o- ace
in e ac ion be ween leade s and subo dina es i is no common, i ual eams ha e
communica ion ools a ailable o hem (e.g. cha , ideo con e ence, e-mail) ha can be used by
leade s o in e ac wi h hei subo dina es in an empa hic way, ying o pu hemsel es in
hei subo dina e’s posi ion and aking in e es in he p oblems ha hey may ha e in he
cou se o hei wo k. Likewise, i would be ad isable, whene e possible, o ha e an ini ial
ace- o- ace mee ing be ween all eam membe s o sha e i s imp essions; his would also help
o gene a e us ini ially and ein o ce he ollowing us building p ocess. Second, leade s
mus be able o ansmi he pe cep ion ha hey a e ai o hei subo dina es. Vi ual eam
leade s can de elop a sense o jus ice among hei subo dina es by applying he p inciples o
o ganiza ional jus ice, ea ing subo dina es ai ly and consis en ly, aking in o conside a ion
hei subo dina es’poin s o iew, being able o manage pe sonal biases and explaining he
decision-making p ocess, as well as by main aining adequa e eedback loops be ween he
leade and he subo dina es. Fu he mo e, he esul s o his s udy also show ha he mo e
a ac i e leade s a e he ones who gene a e he g ea es us . The e o e, i is ecommended
ha he i ual leade pay maximum a en ion o he isual signals hey gi e o hei
subo dina es h ough elec onic media (e.g. p o ile images) so ha he subo dina es pe cei e
o hei leade s o be as a ac i e as possible and he eby inc ease hei le el o us in hem.
6.2 Limi a ions and u he esea ch
One o he p ima y limi a ions o his esea ch is he ac ha he as majo i y o he indi iduals
who ha e pa icipa ed in i a e Spanish speaking. Al hough he di e si y o he economic sec o s
analyzed makes i possible o es ablish ce ain gene aliza ions om he esul s ob ained,
i would be ad isable o e- alida e he p oposed model wi h a mo e ex ensi e sample o wo k
eams, especially in cul u al e ms. This would con i m he app op ia eness o he ac o s
selec ed as well as hei independence in ela ion o he cul u al con ex .
Ano he possible limi a ion o he s udy e e s o no including some a iables ha could
be ele an in explaining he p ocess o gene a ing us he leade o a i ual eam. The e
a e many a iables ha can in luence he p ocess o c ea ing us in he i ual leade .
Likewise, i is also possible ha o he consequences ela ed o us in he leade ha e no
been included in his s udy. The e o e, a u u e line o esea ch would be o expand he lis
o an eceden s o us by analyzing o he physical and beha io al cha ac e is ics o he
17
Vi ual eam
leade

leade (Van e al., 2017), as well as o include a iables o he pe sonali y o leade himsel in
he analysis (Won Kim and Makana, 2017). As an example, a new u u e esea ch could es
i he gende o he leade and he gende o he esponden ( he same o di e en ) ha e any
in luence on us o i i media es he ela ionship be ween a ac i e and us .
Ano he in e es ing line o esea ch would be o analyze he leade ’s acial ea u es in
o de o analyze hei le els o us wo hiness. A ecen s udy indica es ha hose wi h
emale-looking o happy-looking aces a e pe cei ed o be mo e us wo hy, while
compe i i eness, dominance and kindness a e associa ed wi h speci ic acial ea u es such
as la ge o eheads, p ominen noses and s ong chins (Oli ola e al., 2014).
Some esea ch sugges s ha he p oblems o leade ship in i ual eams lie in he ac ha
he leade s do no possess speci ic skills ha di e om hose equi ed o manage adi ional
eams (Kaywo h and Leidne , 2002). Fu u e esea ch should in es iga e wha speci ic skills a e
needed o lead and manage a i ual wo k eam compa ed o a adi ional eam (Vallejo, 2009)
An in e es ing line o addi ional esea ch could be o analyze he equency o
communica ion be ween he leade and he subo dina es in o de o es ablish anges o
communica ion equency. This could be ope a ionalized as a con ol a iable in he analysis
o he p ima y a iables o he esea ch; us , empa hy, jus ice […] o o he ela ed a iables.
Likewise, i would also be in e es ing o unde ake a media ion and mode a ion analysis
o he a iables o he ac ual model, o o in oduce new a iables in o he model in o de o
b oaden exis ing knowledge. The new a iables could include a iables ela ed o he leade
(e.g. leade ship s yle), ai s o he subo dina e (e.g. isk a e sion, ex o e sion) o o he
wo k a mosphe e o he i ual eam (e.g. s ess le el).
Finally, his esea ch has only aken in o accoun whe he o no a wo k eam pe o ms i s
unc ions i ually, howe e , i is possible ha , depending on he eam, he i uali y o he
wo k may be mo e o less in ense and may be combined wi h ace- o- ace mee ings o o he
me hods o collabo a i e wo king. The e o e, an in e es ing u u e line o esea ch would be o
analyze how us in he leade de elops depending on he deg ee o i uali y o he eam.
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Co esponding au ho
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