applied
sciences
A icle
An h opome ic P o iles in Table Tennis Playe s: Analysis o
Sex, Age, and Ranking
F ancisco P adas 1,2 , Ana de la To e 2, Luis Ca asco 2,3, Diego Muñoz 4, Ja ie Cou el-Ibáñez 5,*
and JoséAn onio González-Ju ado 2,6


Ci a ion: P adas, F.; de la To e, A.;
Ca asco, L.; Muñoz, D.;
Cou el-Ibáñez, J.; González-Ju ado,
J.A. An h opome ic P o iles in Table
Tennis Playe s: Analysis o Sex, Age,
and Ranking. Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/app11020
876
Recei ed: 7 Decembe 2020
Accep ed: 15 Janua y 2021
Published: 19 Janua y 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Depa men o Musical, Plas ic and Co po al Exp ession, Facul y o Human Sciences and Educa ion,
Uni e si y o Za agoza, 50009 Za agoza, Spain; anp ad@uniza .es
2Resea ch G oup T aining, Physical Ac i i y and Spo s Pe o mance (ENFYRED), Uni e si y o Za agoza,
50009 Za agoza, Spain; 678853@uniza .es (A.d.l.T.); [email p o ec ed] (L.C.); [email p o ec ed] (J.A.G.-J.)
3Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Spo , Facul y o Educa ion Sciences, Uni e si y o Se illa,
41004 Se illa, Spain
4Depa men o Musical, Plas ic and Co po al Exp ession, Facul y o Spo Sciences,
Uni e si y o Ex emadu a, 10003 Cáce es, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
5Depa men o Physical Ac i i y and Spo , Facul y o Spo Sciences, Uni e si y o Mu cia, Mu cia,
30720 San Ja ie , Spain
6Depa men o Spo and Compu e Sciences, Facul y o Spo Sciences, Uni e si y Pablo de Ola ide,
41013 Se illa, Spain
*Co espondence: cou [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Table ennis has ecen ly e ol ed owa ds a mo e spec acula spo inc easing ma ch-play
demands and he in ensi y and speed o ac ions by egula ions and equipmen modi ica ion. Since
hese changes can al e he body composi ion and pe o mance, his s udy aimed o analyze he
di e ences in an h opome ic a ibu es o 495 able ennis playe s (288 men, 207 women) acco ding
o sex, age, and anking. Playe s we e classi ied acco ding o sex, age ca ego ies (Senio , Unde -18,
Unde -15, Unde 13, and Unde 11), and anking posi ion. An h opome y measu emen s included
eigh skin olds’ hicknesses (biceps b achii, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, abdominal,
high, and medial cal ), ou gi hs (biceps b achii elaxed and con ac ed, high, and cal ), and
h ee b ead hs (biepicondyla emu , biepicondyla hume us, and bis iloyd w is ) o de e mine a
mass, lean mass, bone, c oss sec ional a ea (CSA) o a m, leg, and high, and soma o ype. Resul s
e ealed ha able ennis playe s p esen ed di e ences in body mass composi ion, an h opome y,
and soma o ype acco ding o sex and age ca ego y and anking. I seems con i med ha egula
able ennis p ac ice du ing he childhood is associa ed wi h a heal hy body composi ion s a us,
ha appea s o be main ained ac oss olde ages i keeping he p ac ice. Senio able ennis playe s
showed a a mass <20% and lean mass ~45% in men and ~37% in women. A new con ibu ion is
ha highe lean mass in he uppe limbs was associa ed wi h highe anking posi ion (i.e., be e
pe o mance), endomo phic soma o ypes we e nega i e ela ed o pe o mance, and ec omo phic
p o iles seems mo e e ec i e, which sugges he po en ial in luence o mo phologic changes in able
ennis compe i ion pe o mance.
Keywo ds: acke spo s; mo phology; body ype; aining; spo pe o mance
1. In oduc ion
Physical demands and echnical skills in acke spo s such as able ennis a e de-
penden on he an h opome ic and body ype cha ac e is ics [
1
,
2
]. An op imal body
composi ion o a gi en acke spo discipline is essen ial o de elop a success ul spo i e
ca ee [
3
–
5
]. Fu he mo e, an h opome ic and body composi ion a ibu es play an im-
po an ole in he iden i ica ion o alen in acke spo s [
6
,
7
] and pa icula ly in able
ennis [
8
,
9
]. Since body composi ion is modi iable by p ac ice, a numbe o s udies ha e
sough o desc ibe skele al and mo phological changes as a esul o aining in di e en
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/app11020876 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876 2 o 10
spo s disciplines and s ages o ma u a ion [
10
–
12
]. Howe e , in o ma ion abou how body
ype di e s h oughou o ma i e s ages in able ennis and i s in luence on pe o mance is
e y limi ed.
Table ennis has ecen ly e ol ed owa ds a highly demanding spo inc easing ma ch-
play in ensi y and he speed o ac ions [
13
,
14
]. As a esul , he e is an inc easing in e es
in examining o wha ex en mode n able ennis has al e ed young and senio playe s’
skills, mo phology, and condi ioning [
5
,
15
–
19
]. None heless, esea che s ha e ailed o
yield conclusi e esul s due o insu icien sample size, he e ogenei y o playe s’ le el, lack
o women’s da a, and he absence o pe o mance ou comes o make compa isons [
20
].
Thus, a comp ehensi e knowledge o an h opome ic and bio ype p o iles in mode n able
ennis playe s is lacking. Speci ically, da a abou young playe s be ween 10 and 17 yea s
old a e ala mingly sca ce [15].
Recen s udies ha e examine he bene i s o s eng h aining in eli e and high-le el
able ennis playe s [
16
,
21
]. Speci ically, eigh -week ballis ic and powe aining inc eased
uppe and lowe muscles s eng h, endu ance, and agili y bu we e no e ec i e in changing
body composi ion [
16
]. Howe e , he ac ha body composi ion was unal e ed is no
necessa ily a nega i e esul , gi en ha hese playe s possibly al eady had an op imal
bio ype o pe o m highly in able ennis. Thus, u he da a on body composi ion and
soma o ype in men and women able ennis playe s om a ange o ages a e equi ed o
assis coaches and esea che s in in e p e ing hei esul s. Likewise, in o ma ion abou he
exis ing (o no ) ela ionship be ween body composi ion and pe o mance anking posi ion
will help in making be e decisions acco dingly.
In o de o ill his gap in he li e a u e, he aim o his s udy was o de e mine he
di e ences in an h opome ic a ibu es o able ennis playe s acco ding o sex, age, and
anking. Based on p e ious s udies, we hypo hesized ha high-le el able ennis playe s
would showed a simila soma o ype, being p edominan ly mesomo phic in men [
17
,
19
,
22
]
and endomo phic in women [
17
,
22
]. Likewise, al hough he ela ionship be ween anking
posi ion and body composi ion has no been ully examined, ea lie s udies sugges ed ha
body cons i u ion migh no be a c ucial ac o in achie ing op esul s in able ennis [
19
].
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Sample
A o al o 495 high-le el, Spanish men and women ennis playe s (288 men, 207 women)
olun ee ed o pa icipa e in his s udy. Playe s we e e alua ed du ing echnical mee ings
o he Royal Spanish Table Tennis Fede a ion om 2014 o 2016 seasons. The sample was
classi ied acco ding o he Royal Spanish Table Tennis Fede a ion in i e playing ca ego ies:
Unde -11 (7 o 10 yea s, n= 135; 80 men and 55 women), Unde -13 ( om 11 o 12 yea s,
n= 166; 85 men and 81 women), Unde -15 ( om 13 o 14 yea s, n= 78; 55 men and
23 women), Unde -18 ( om 15 o 17 yea s, n= 76; 44 men and 32 women), and om Senio
(olde 18 yea s, n= 40; 24 men and 16 women). Inclusion c i e ia o pa icipa ing we e o
be among he op-50 Na ional anking, be ac i e, ollow a aining ou ine including o e
8 h o aining a week, and egula ly compe ing in na ional and in e na ional ou namen s.
Playe s who su e ed inju ies in he las 6 mon hs ha al e ed hei aining and compe i ion
ou ine we e excluded. W i en pa en al o gua dian in o med consen was ob ained om
unde -age pa icipan s be o e assessmen . Each pa icipan also signed in o med consen .
Measu es we e aken o ensu e con iden iali y acco ding o he p inciples o he Decla a ion
o Helsinki. The E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Za agoza (ID:19/2010) e iewed
and app o ed he s udy.
2.2. An h opome ic Measu emen s
An h opome ic measu emen s we e pe o med acco ding o guidelines ou lined
by he In e na ional Socie y o Ad ancemen o Kinan h opome y (ISAK) [
23
]. Body
mass and s a u e we e collec ed using a po able s adiome e connec ed o a scale (SECA,
Hambu g, Ge many). S a u e was eco ded o he nea es 0.1 cm. Body mass was eco ded
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876 3 o 10
o he nea es 0.1 kg. An h opome ic measu emen s we e collec ed by he same expe-
ienced e alua o using a speci ic equipmen including a skin old callipe (Hol ain L d.,
C ymych, UK) eco ded o he nea es 0.2 mm, and a lexible an h opome ic s eel ape
(Hol ain L d.,C ymych, UK) eco ded o he nea es 0.1 cm. Eigh skin olds’ hicknesses
(biceps b achii, iceps, subscapula , iliac c es , sup aspinal, abdominal, high, and medial
cal ), ou gi hs (biceps b achii elaxed and ensed, high, and cal ), and h ee b ead hs
(biepicondyla emu , biepicondyla hume us, and bis iloyd w is ) we e measu ed. Body
mass index (BMI) was calcula ed om body mass (kg) and s a u e (m
2
) ela ionship. Soma-
o ype p o iles (endomo phic, mesomo phic, and ec omo phic) we e de e mined acco ding
o he Ca e and Hea h [
24
] me hod. Body composi ion was es ima ed om speci ic
equa ions [
25
–
30
] o calcula e he a mass, lean mass and bone densi y. C oss sec ional
muscle a ea (CSA) we e es ima ed om Hemys ield e al. equa ions [
31
]. Ranking posi ion
was ob ained om he Spanish Royal Table Tennis Fede a ion da abase wi h pe mission,
conside ing he anking posi ion a he momen o he measu emen .
2.3. S a is ical Analysis
Mean, S anda d De ia ion, and 95% Con idence In e al (95% CI) o he mean we e
calcula ed o each a iable. Le ene’s es was used o es o equali y o a iances.
Two-way ANCOVA was used o iden i y he main and in e ac ion e ec s o sex, age,
and anking posi ion on mo phological cha ac e is ics. Pea son co ela ion was used
o de e mine he ela ionship o anking posi ion. E ec sizes (ES) we e es ima ed by
Hedge’s g o unequal samples [
32
]. ANOVA wi h Bon e oni co ec ion was used o
iden i y di e ences be ween age and ca ego ies in men and women able ennis playe s,
applying he Welch-Sa e hwai ’s obus es when unequal a iances exis ed. E ec sizes
(ES) we e es ima ed by Pa ial E a Squa ed [
32
]. Le el o signi icance was se a p< 0.05.
S a is ical calcula ions we e pe o med using a cus om Mic oso Excel sp eadshee , he
SPSS .21 (IBM Co p., A monk, NY, USA) and MedCalc .18.2.1 (MedCalc So wa e b ba,
Os end, Belgium).
3. Resul s
Mo phological cha ac e is ics o ennis playe s o sex and age a e p esen ed in
Table 1. O e all, able ennis playe s showed he ollowing body composi ion a ibu es: Fa
mass: Men = 12.3
±
5.3%, Women = 21.4
±
5.3%; bone: Men = 16.2
±
3.2%,
Women = 15.2
±
2.3%; lean mass: Men = 48.5
±
8.2%, Women = 41.7
±
6.7%. The e ec s
o sex, age, and anking a e shown in Table 2. Changes in mo phological cha ac e is ics
we e highly in luenced by age (ES om 0.11 o 0.51), sex (ES om 0.01 o 0.27) and sex*age
in e ac ions (ES om 0.02 o 0.26).
O e all, anking was a ec ed by s a u e and uppe -limbs CSA wi h a small e ec
(ES=0.01). The in luence o he anking posi ion inc eased when in e ac ing wi h he sex
and especially wi h he age. Body composi ion (bone, a , and lean mass) we e he mos
ela ed a iables wi h he anking posi ion when in e ac ing wi h age (ES om 0.02 o
0.03). In men, be e - anking posi ions we e associa ed wi h highe lean mass in Unde -15
( = 0.34, P= 0.012) and Unde -18 ( = 0.44, P= 0.003), and lowe a mass in Unde -18
( = 0.65, P< 0.001). In women, anking posi ion imp o ed wi h highe lean mass
( = 0.26, P= 0.020) and bone ( = 0.24, P= 0.032) in Unde -13. G ea e uppe a m gi h
sligh ly accoun ed o a be e anking posi ion, especially in gi ls in he Unde -11 ( = 0.29,
P= 0.032) and Unde -13 ( = 0.23, P= 0.035) g oups.
Figu e 1depic s he soma o ype dis ibu ion o high-le el able ennis playe s ac-
co ding o sex and age ca ego ies. Men playe s desc ibed a p edominan ly mesomo phic
soma o ype, while women showed an endomo phic and cen al end. Howe e , endo-
mo phic soma o ype was highly associa ed wi h a wo se anking posi ion in boys in he
Unde -18 ( = 0.57 P= 0.001) g oup, while be e playe s p esen ed a mo e ec omo phic
soma o ype ( = 0.33 P= 0.001).
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876 4 o 10
Table 1. Mo phological cha ac e is ics o high-le el able ennis playe s o sex and age (n = 495).
Unde 11 Unde 13 Unde 15 Unde 18 Senio
M (SD) 95% IC M (SD) 95% IC M (SD) 95% IC M (SD) 95% IC M (SD) 95% IC
S a u e (cm) Women 1.40 (0.1) 1.39–1.42 1.54 (0.1) 1.52–1.55 1.62 (0.1) 1.59–1.65 1.62 (0.1) 1.62–1.66 1.65 (0.1) 1.62–1.69
Men 1.42 (0.1) 1.40–1.43 1.50 (0.1) 1.49–1.51 1.64 (0.1) 1.66–1.74 1.72 (0.1) 1.72–1.77 1.75 (0.1) 1.72–1.78
Body mass (kg) Women 35.4 (6.1) 33.8–37.0 44.8 (8.5) 42.9–46.7 52.6 (7.8) 49.2–55.9 57.3 (7.6) 54.6–60.1 56.9 (5.3) 54.1–59.7
Men 35.6 (6.5) 34.2–37.1 42.7 (8.9) 40.8–44.6 53.1 (10.7) 50.2, 56.0 66.5 (9.1) 63.7–69.3 70.3 (9.4) 66.4–74.3
BMI (kg/m2)Women 18.0 (2.8) 17.2–18.7 18.9 (2.9) 18.3–19.5 20.1 (2.7) 19.0– 21.3 21.3 (2.4) 20.4–22.2 20.8 (1.3) 20.1–21.5
Men 17.7 (2.5) 17.1–18.2 18.9 (3.0) 18.2–19.5 19.7 (2.9) 18.9–20.5 21.8 (2.5) 21.1–22.6 22.8 (2.4) 21.8–23.8
A m elax (cm) Women 21.2 (3.3) 20.3–22.1 23.0 (3.3) 22.2–23.7 24.5 (2.5) 23.4–25.6 25.9 (2.3) 25.0–26.7 25.5 (1.7) 24.5–26.5
Men 21.3 (3.0) 20.6–22.0 22.7 (2.9) 22.1–23.3 24.9 (2.7) 24.2–25.7 28.1 (2.3) 27.4–28.8 29.8 (2.4) 28.7–30.8
A m ense (cm) Women 22.9 (3.4) 22.0–23.8 24.5 (3.1) 23.8–25.2 26.1 (2.2) 25.1–27.0 27.6 (2.1) 26.8–28.3 27.2 (1.6) 26.3–28.1
Men 22.5 (2.8) 21.9–23.1 24.0 (2.7) 23.4–24.6 26.6 (2.8) 25.8–27.4 30.0 (2.3) 29.3–30.7 31.7 (2.7) 30.6–32.9
CSA A m (cm) Women 16.1 (9.4) 13.6–18.7 21.3 (7.8) 19.6–23.1 23.4 (5.4) 21.1–25.7 26.7 (6.9) 24.3–29.2 23.2 (5.4) 20.1–26.3
Men 14.3 (6.2) 12.9–15.7 16.8 (6.3) 15.5–18.2 25.7 (8.7) 23.4–28.1 37.4 (8.7) 34.8–40.0 52.2 (10.3) 47.8–56.5
CSA Leg (cm) Women 42.2 (13.2) 38.7–45.8 55.5 (14.0) 52.4–58.5 61.0 (14.2) 54.9–67.2 67.1 (8.3) 64.1–70.1 69.5 (11.3) 63.0–76.1
Men 47.9 (9.7) 45.7–50.0 52.7 (11.6) 50.2–55.3 66.0 (16.7) 61.5–70.5 81.6 (13.3) 77.5–85.6 90.8 (14.1) 84.9–96.8
CSA Thigh (cm) Women 81.7 (19.5) 76.5–87.0 103.4 (23.3) 98.2–108.6 133.3 (33.7) 118.7–147.9 130.2 (22.1) 122.2–138.1 136.4 (22.1) 123.7–149.2
Men 86.3 (16.5) 82.6–89.9 98.4 (20.2) 94.0–102.8 121.1 (32.7) 112.2–129.9 161.4 (28.2) 152.8–170.0 172.1 (27.5) 160.5–183.7
Bone (%) Women 14.8 (1.9) 14.3–15.3 14.1 (2.1) 13.6–14.6 17.6 (2.1) 16.7–18.5 16.2 (2.0) 15.5–16.9 16.5 (1.2) 15.8–17.2
Men 15.6 (2.0) 15.2–16.1 14.0 (3.9) 13.2–14.8 18.8 (2.1) 18.3–19.4 17.7 (2.1) 17.0–18.3 16.6 (1.3) 16.0–17.1
Fa mass (%) Women 21.2 (6.1) 19.5–22.9 20.8 (5.3) 19.6–22.0 22.5 (4.9) 20.3–24.6 23.0 (4.2) 19.1–22.2 20.6 (2.6) 19.1–22.2
Men 11.3 (5.0) 10.2–12.4 13.3 (6.6) 11.9–14.7 12.1 (4.7) 10.8–13.3 12.6 (5.2) 11.0–14.2 10.9 (3.0) 9.6–12.2
Lean mass (%) Women 45.8 (7.3) 43.8–47.7 43.0 (5.6) 41.8–44.2 37.5 (4.2) 35.7–39.3 36.3 (3.8) 35.0–37.7 36.7 (2.5) 35.2–38.1
Men 54.3 (6.9) 52.7–55.8 49.5 (8.5) 47.6–51.3 44.8 (6.7) 43.0–46.6 43.0 (5.8) 41.2–44.8 44.2 (3.9) 42.5–45.9
Endomo ph Women 3.6 (1.6) 3.1–4.0 3.6 (1.5) 3.3–3.9 4.2 (1.4) 3.6–4.8 4.2 (1.2) 3.8–4.7 4.1 (0.6) 3.7–4.4
Men 2.9 (1.3) 2.6–3.2 3.4 (1.5) 3.1–3.7 3.1 (1.3) 2.8–3.5 3.2 (1.4) 2.8–3.6 2.7 (0.9) 2.3–3.1
Mesomo ph Women 4.0 (1.2) 3.7–4.4 3.9 (1.4) 3.6–4.2 3.5 (1.1) 3.0–3.9 3.7 (1.1) 3.3–4.1 3.5 (1.1) 2.9–4.1
Men 4.4 (1.1) 4.1–4.6 4.8 (2.6) 4.3–5.4 4.0 (1.3) 3.7–4.4 4.3 (1.3) 3.9–4.7 4.7 (1.2) 4.2–5.2
Ec omo ph Women 2.9 (1.6) 2.5–3.3 3.3 (1.5) 3.0–3.7 3.2 (1.3) 2.6–3.7 2.7 (1.0) 2.4–3.1 3.0 (0.8) 2.5–3.4
Men 3.2 (1.4) 2.9–3.5 3.1 (1.4) 2.8–3.4 3.5 (1.4) 3.1–3.9 3.0 (1.3) 2.6–3.4 2.6 (1.1) 2.1–3.1
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876 5 o 10
Table 2.
E ec s o sex, age, anking, and hei in e ac ions on mo phological cha ac e is ics o able ennis playe s o sex
and age (n = 495).
Va iable
Be ween-Subjec s’ Main E ec s Be ween-Subjec s’ In e ac ion E ec s
Sex Age Ranking Sex*Age Sex*Ranking Age*Ranking
PES PES PES PES PES PES
S a u e (cm) 0.036 * 0.01 <0.001 * 0.51 0.026 * 0.01 <0.001 * 0.11 0.012 * 0.01 0.109 0.02
Body mass (kg) 0.113 0.01 <0.001 * 0.38 0.146 <0.01 <0.001 * 0.07 0.015 * 0.01 0.019 * 0.02
BMI (kg/m2)0.697 <0.01 <0.001 * 0.09 0.477 <0.01 0.194 0.01 0.124 <0.01 0.072 0.02
A m elax (cm) 0.088 0.01 <0.001 * 0.18 0.056 0.01 <0.001 * 0.04 0.044 * 0.01 0.695 <0.01
A m ense (cm) 0.092 0.01 <0.001 * 0.22 0.040 * 0.01 <0.001 * 0.06 0.031 * 0.01 0.614 0.01
CSA A m (cm) <0.001 * 0.06 <0.001 * 0.28 0.011 * 0.01 <0.001 * 0.26 0.109 0.01 0.578 0.01
CSA Leg (cm) <0.001 * 0.05 <0.001 * 0.26 0.131 <0.01 <0.001 * 0.07 0.776 <0.01 0.252 0.01
CSA Thigh (cm) 0.004 * 0.02 <0.001 * 0.33 0.106 0.01 <0.001 * 0.08 0.577 <0.01 0.326 0.01
Bone (%) 0.009 * 0.01 <0.001 * 0.23 0.496 <0.01 0.044 * 0.02 0.472 <0.01 0.031 * 0.02
Fa mass (%) <0.001 * 0.27 0.437 0.01 0.761 <0.01 0.022 * 0.02 0.268 <0.01 0.005 * 0.03
Lean mass (%) <0.001 * 0.14 <0.001 * 0.11 0.872 <0.01 0.672 0.00 0.152 <0.01 0.015 * 0.03
Endomo ph <0.001 * 0.06 0.703 <0.01 0.703 <0.01 0.026 * 0.02 0.131 <0.01 0.038 * 0.02
Mesomo ph 0.028 * 0.01 0.395 0.01 0.828 <0.01 0.531 0.01 0.186 <0.01 0.065 0.02
Ec omo ph 0.421 <0.01 0.083 0.02 0.736 <0.01 0.213 0.01 0.594 <0.01 0.142 0.01
* Signi ican e ec (ANOVA p< 0.05). ES: E ec size (Pa ial e a squa ed).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 10
ma o ype, while women showed an endomo phic and cen al end. Howe e , endomo -
phic soma o ype was highly associa ed wi h a wo se anking posi ion in boys in he Un-
de -18 ( = 0.57 P = 0.001) g oup, while be e playe s p esen ed a mo e ec omo phic so-
ma o ype ( = 0.33 P = 0.001).
Figu e 1. Soma o ype dis ibu ion o high-le el able ennis playe s acco ding o sex and age ca ego ies. Clea ma ke s
indica e indi idual da a o each playe . Da k ma ke s ep esen he mean alues o a gi en ca ego y. E o ba s a e
s anda d de ia ions.
MESOMORPH
ENDOMORPHY ECTOMORPHY
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Women (Unde -11) Men (Unde -11) Mean Women Mean Men
A) UNDER-11
MESOMORPH
ENDOMORPHY ECTOMORPHY
MESOMORPH
ENDOMORPHY ECTOMORPHY
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Women (Unde -18) Men (Unde -18) Mean Women Mean Men
MESOMORPH
ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Women (Senio ) Men (Senio ) Mean Women Mean Men
MESOMORPH
ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Women (Unde -13) Men (Unde -13) Mean Women Mean Men
B) UNDER-13
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Women (Unde -15) Men (Unde -15) Mean Women Mean Men
C) UNDER-15
D) UNDER-18
E) SENIOR
ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH
Figu e 1.
Soma o ype dis ibu ion o high-le el able ennis playe s acco ding o sex and age ca ego ies. Clea ma ke s
indica e indi idual da a o each playe . Da k ma ke s ep esen he mean alues o a gi en ca ego y. E o ba s a e
s anda d de ia ions.

Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876 6 o 10
4. Discussion
The pu pose o his s udy was o de e mine he di e ences in an h opome ic a -
ibu es o high-le el able ennis playe s acco ding o sex, age, and anking. The main
esul s showed ha : (i) Table ennis playe s p esen ed di e ences in body mass compo-
si ion, an h opome y, and soma o ype acco ding o sex, age, and anking posi ion; (ii)
soma o ype was p edominan ly mesomo phic in men and endomo phic in women; (iii)
a mass was <12–15% in men, wi h some pa icula di e ences among ca ego ies while
women emained cons an ly <22–25%; (i ) be e anking posi ions we e associa ed wi h
highe lean mass in boys Unde -15 and Unde -18, lowe a mass in boys Unde -18, and
highe lean mass and bone in gi ls Unde -13; ( ) g ea e uppe a m gi h sligh ly accoun ed
o a be e anking posi ion, especially in gi ls Unde -11 and Unde -13; and ( i) endomo -
phic soma o ype was highly associa ed wi h wo se anking posi ions in boys Unde -18,
while be e playe s p esen ed a mo e ec omo phic soma o ype. These da a p o ide use ul
in o ma ion o coaches abou how body ype di e s h oughou o ma i e s ages in able
ennis and i s in luence on pe o mance.
I seems con i med ha egula able ennis p ac ice du ing he childhood is associa ed
wi h a heal hy body composi ion s a us, ha appea s o be main ained ac oss olde ages
i keeping he p ac ice. These esul s a e in line wi h p e ious s udies [
17
,
22
] and lead o
sugges ha egula able ennis p ac ice would likely con ibu e o diminish he excess o
a mass ac oss child en. This is ele an conside ing ha insu icien physical ac i i y has
aised he le els o unheal hy body composi ion, o e weigh , and obesi y among child en
in ecen yea s [
33
]. Fu he mo e, physically ac i e child en will be mo e likely o main ain
a heal hy li es yle du ing he adul hood [
34
]. Thus, ou esul s sugges ha able ennis
could be an e ec i e s a egy o encou age child en and adolescen s unde aking egula
physical ac i i y o op imal heal h [35].
Ano he in e es ing inding is ha highe lean mass in he uppe -limbs and non-
endomo phic soma o ype seem o be associa ed wi h be e pe o mance. These imp o e-
men s seem o be a consequence o he high-in ensi y demands du ing a able ennis a a
high le el o compe i ion [
36
,
37
]. Howe e , in o de o each his in ensi y, child en a e
equi ed o ha e an op imal and enjoyable lea ning p ocess ocused on engagemen o
a oid ea ly abandonmen [
35
]. Fu u e longi udinal s udies would be equi ed o obse e
he e olu ion on body composi ion om young o olde ages and con i m whe he high
muscle mass o young playe s could lead o u u e success in hei u u e s ages.
Senio able ennis playe s p esen ed a pe cen age o a mass below 20% and a muscle
mass ~45% in men and ~37% in women. These esul s a e in line p e ious s udies examin-
ing smalle samples [
16
,
38
] and con i m ha egula able ennis p ac ice led o a heal hy
body composi ion in he adul hood, in e ms o low a mass (12% o 20% in men and
20% o 30% in women) and muscle mass >33–35% in women and >36–39% in men [
39
–
41
].
O e all, a mass alues we e lowe han hose obse ed in o he spo disciplines [
42
].
Compa ed o o he acke spo s, high-le el able ennis playe s showed lowe a mass
han eli e senio padel [
3
,
43
], and close o eli e badmin on [
44
–
46
], squash [
47
,
48
], and
ennis playe s [
49
,
50
]. Fu he mo e, able ennis playe s p esen ed a sho e s a u e han
o he acke spo s disciplines [
3
,
46
,
51
,
52
]. This pa icula p o ile can be a ibu able o he
explosi e na u e o he able ennis compe i ion, cha ac e ized by apid and cons an mo e-
men s [
20
]. Table ennis playe s equi ed conside able lowe -limb muscles ac i i y [
53
] o
be able o pe o m b ie explosi e mo emen s, change di ec ion apidly, and e ec i ely
hi he ball du ing decisi e s okes such as o ehand smash and o ehand op in epea ed
occasions du ing a game [
14
]. Hence, high a mass alues would impai pe o mance by
limi ing he speed o mo emen while inc easing he isk o knee inju y [
54
]. Acco dingly,
ecen in es iga ions ha e demons a ed posi i e sho - e m adap a ions in physical and
skills pe o mance a e speci ic s eng h and ballis ic aining o inc ease muscle s eng h
and main ain a low a mass in eli e playe s [
16
,
21
]. Likewise, i seems well es ablished ha
able ennis pe o mance mos ly elies on pe cep ual and mo o skills [
9
,
13
]. Ou esul s
con ibu e o he exis ing knowledge by iden i ying a po en ial in luence o mo phologic
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876 7 o 10
changes in able ennis compe i ion pe o mance. Fu he mo e, a mo e ec omo phic soma-
o ype was ela ed o be e anking in unde 18 playe s. This pa icula inding could be
explained by he po en ial biomechanical and echnical- ac ical ad ance o alle playe
wi h longe wingspan, being able o e u n a g ea e numbe o balls (i.e., co e ing a wide
playing a ea a ound he able) and p obably able o p oduce mo e o ce when hi ing
he ball [
55
]. Fu u e s udies a e howe e needed o con i m hese bene i s o pa icula
soma o ype in able ennis pe o mance.
Table ennis playe s exhibi ed a simila soma o ype, being p edominan ly mesomo -
phic in men and endomo phic in women. This is in line wi h p e ious indings [
17
,
19
,
22
],
which seems o indica e a po en ial ad an age o hese ypes o body cons i u ion in
high-le el ennis playe s. In pa icula , ea lie s udies in young able ennis playe s sug-
ges ed ha soma o ype migh no be a decisi e ac o ha di ec ly in luences compe i i e
success [
19
]. Al hough he body composi ion canno be conside ed a unique ac o o
pe o mance, he exis ing di e ences he ein obse ed may cons i u e a i s impo an
app oach o iden i y wha could make a able ennis playe s and ou among o he s [
8
,
9
].
In his sense, echnical- ac ical skills and speed o mo emen could be media ed by highe
muscle mass (i.e., highe s eng h and o ce p oduc ion) and lowe a mass (i.e., lowe
ene gy expendi u e and be e mo emen economy), chie ly in able ennis conside ing
i s ballis ic na u e and high coo dina i e demands [
17
,
56
,
57
]. None heless, he ole o an
op imal physical condi ioning o achie ed highe anking posi ions in able ennis du ing
o ma i e s ages needs o be u he examined. Likewise, u u e s udies should con i m
his hypo hesis and likely iden i y whe eas a good ank posi ion in young age could lead
o u u e success.
This wo k has some impo an s eng hs such as he size o he sample, being he
la ges s udy conduc ed in high-le el able ennis playe s o da e, and he no el y o he
in o ma ion, p esen ing o he i s ime a comp ehensi e analysis o body composi ion
and soma o ype acco ding o sex, ca ego y, and anking. None heless, es ima ions o body
composi ion can no ably a y depending on he pa icula me hod used, hus compa isons
wi h o he an h opome ic equa ions o echnology-based me hods such as bioimpedance
o Dual-ene gy X- ay abso p iome y (DEXA) should be made wi h cau ion. Fu he mo e,
his s udy has po en ial limi a ions ha should be add essed in u u e esea ch. The c oss-
sec ional na u e o he esea ch limi s he unde s anding o he di ec ion o he di e ences
in body composi ion be ween sex, ages, and anking posi ion. In addi ion, he ac ha all
pa icipan s we e high-le el playe s limi s ou abili y o iden i y wea he he body com-
posi ion may accoun o pe o mance in low-le el able ennis playe s. Mo eo e , he lack
o po en ial co a ia es (e.g., playing s yles o blade and ubbe ma e ials) encou ages u u e
s udies o cla i y he media ion ole o body composi ion and pe o mance in able- ennis.
5. Conclusions
Table ennis playe s p esen ed mo phological di e ences acco ding o sex, age ca e-
go y, and anking posi ion. O e all, able ennis playe s exhibi ed <20% a mass, and lean
mass ~45% in men and ~37% in women. Soma o ype was p edominan ly mesomo phic
in men and endomo phic in women. Highe lean mass in he uppe limbs appea ed o
be associa ed wi h be e pe o mance in able ennis playe s. Endomo phic soma o ypes
we e nega i ely ela ed o pe o mance, while ec omo phic p o iles seems mo e e ec i e.
These esul s could sugges he impo ance o muscle mass in able ennis playe s du ing
o ma i e s ages.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, A.d.l.T., F.P., D.M., and J.C.-I.; me hodology F.P., A.d.l.T.,
and J.A.G.-J.; in es iga ion, A.d.l.T., F.P., L.C., and J.A.G.-J., o mal analysis, D.M., J.C.-I., F.P., and
J.A.G.-J.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, F.P., J.C.-I., L.C., and J.A.G.-J.; w i ing— e iew and
edi ing, F.P., J.C.-I., and A.d.l.T.; All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o
he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 876 8 o 10
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
The s udy was conduc ed acco ding o he guidelines o
he Decla a ion o Helsinki, and app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o Uni e si y o Za agoza (ID:
19/2010, da a o app o al: 15 Decembe 2010).
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in
he s udy
.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho . The da a a e no publicly a ailable due o p i acy.
Acknowledgmen s:
We hank he playe s who pa icipa ed in he s udy and hei pa en s and
coaches o hei collabo a ion. We also hank he Royal Spanish Table Tennis Fede a ion and he
esea ch g oup T aining, Physical Ac i i y and Spo s Pe o mance (ENFYRED) o he Uni e si y o
Za agoza o hei ac i e collabo a ion in his s udy.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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