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Cultural and creative ecosystems in medium-sized cities: Evolution in times of economic crisis and pandemic

Escalona-Orcao, A.; Navarro-Pérez, M.; Sáez-Pérez, L.A.; Escolano-Utrilla, S.; Sánchez-Valverde, B.; Pinillos-García, M.; Barrado-Timón, D.A. · 2021

Abstract

This article seeks to forecast the short-and medium-term impacts of the coronavirus pandemic on the cultural and creative ecosystems of the 81 cities in Spain with between 50, 000 and 100, 000 inhabitants. Data on employment in nine sectors (per NACE Rev. 2) support the characterization of cultural ecosystems based on their dynamism, specialization, and propensity to form clusters (thanks to the co-location of certain sectors, meant to generate inter-sectoral spillovers and cross-sector synergies). The applied methodology consists of comparing these three attributes during and following the 2008 financial crisis. Then, any changes observed are interpreted in light of arguments from the COVID-19 literature, and from our own analysis, in order to assess the probability of recurrence (or nonrecurrence) during the current pandemic. Throughout this process, the metropolitan or non-metropolitan position of cities is taken into consideration. A first conclusion is that, as in the financial crisis, the behavior of ecosystems during the pandemic will be asymmetric. Secondly, metropolitan and non-metropolitan cities will maintain their distinctive sectoral specializations. Non-metropolitan cities appear to be more vulnerable for their strong connection to creative sectors most affected by the pandemic, although some can take advantage of good cultural supply and proximity to metropolitan centers. Metropolitan cities seem more secure, thanks to the higher presence of less vulnerable sectors (due to elevated and accelerating digitization). Nevertheless, most functional clusters were diminished during the financial crisis, and it seems unlikely that sectoral co-locations will re-emerge in a post-pandemic scenario as a business strategy, at least in the short term. Beyond these forecasts, we recommend dealing with certain structural failures of these ecosystems, especially the vulnerability and precariousness of most cultural and creative companies and workers. Escalona-Orcao, A.; Barrado-Timón, D.A.; Escolano-Utrilla, S.; Sánchez-Valverde, B.; Navarro-Pérez, M.; Pinillos-García, M.; Sáez-Pérez, L.A.

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Cultural and creative ecosystems in medium-sized cities: Evolution in times of economic crisis and pandemic

Author: Escalona-Orcao, A.; Navarro-Pérez, M.; Sáez-Pérez, L.A.; Escolano-Utrilla, S.; Sánchez-Valverde, B.; Pinillos-García, M.; Barrado-Timón, D.A.
Year: 2021
DOI: 10.3390/su13010049
Source: https://zaguan.unizar.es/record/99161/files/texto_completo.pdf
sus ainabili y
A icle
Cul u al and C ea i e Ecosys ems in Medium-Sized Ci ies:
E olu ion in Times o Economic C isis and Pandemic
Ana Escalona-O cao 1,* , Diego A. Ba ado-Timón2, Se e ino Escolano-U illa 1, Belén Sánchez-Val e de 3,
Ma ic uz Na a o-Pé ez 4, Ma iola Pinillos-Ga cía4and Luis An onio Sáez-Pé ez 5


Ci a ion: Escalona-O cao, A.; Ba ado-
Timón, D.A.; Escolano-U illa, S.;
Sánchez-Val e de, B.; Na a o-Pé ez,
M.; Pinillos-Ga cía, M.; Sáez-Pé ez, L.A.
Cul u al and C ea i e Ecosys ems in
Medium-Sized Ci ies: E olu ion in
Times o Economic C isis and Pandemic.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49. h ps://
dx.doi.o g/10.3390/su13010049
Recei ed: 6 No embe 2020
Accep ed: 21 Decembe 2020
Published: 23 Decembe 2020
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu-
al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims
in published maps and ins i u ional
a ilia ions.
Copy igh : © 2020 by he au ho s. Li-
censee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This
a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed
unde he e ms and condi ions o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY)
license (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
1Depa amen o de Geog a ía y O denación del Te i o io, Ins i u o Uni e si a io de Ciencias Ambien ales,
Uni e sidad de Za agoza, 50009 Za agoza, Spain; se e ino@uniza .es
2
Depa amen o de Geog a ía, Uni e sidad Au ónoma de Mad id, 28049 Mad id, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
3
Depa amen o de Mé odos Es adís icos, Uni e sidad de Za agoza, 50009 Za agoza, Spain; belens @uniza .es
4Depa amen o de Economía Aplicada, Uni e sidad de la Rioja, 26006 Log oño, Spain;
ma ic uz.na a [email p o ec ed] (N.-P.M.); [email p o ec ed] (P.-G.M.)
5Depa amen o de Es uc u a e His o ia Económica y Economía Pública, Uni e sidad de Za agoza,
50005 Za agoza, Spain; lasaez@uniza .es
*Co espondence: aescalon@uniza .es; Tel.: +34-876-553-901
Abs ac :
This a icle seeks o o ecas he sho - and medium- e m impac s o he co ona i us
pandemic on he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems o he 81 ci ies in Spain wi h be ween 50,000
and 100,000 inhabi an s. Da a on employmen in nine sec o s (pe NACE Re . 2) suppo he
cha ac e iza ion o cul u al ecosys ems based on hei dynamism, specializa ion, and p opensi y o
o m clus e s ( hanks o he co-loca ion o ce ain sec o s, mean o gene a e in e -sec o al spillo e s
and c oss-sec o syne gies). The applied me hodology consis s o compa ing hese h ee a ibu es
du ing and ollowing he 2008 inancial c isis. Then, any changes obse ed a e in e p e ed in
ligh o a gumen s om he COVID-19 li e a u e, and om ou own analysis, in o de o assess
he p obabili y o ecu ence (o non ecu ence) du ing he cu en pandemic. Th oughou his
p ocess, he me opoli an o non-me opoli an posi ion o ci ies is aken in o conside a ion. A i s
conclusion is ha , as in he inancial c isis, he beha io o ecosys ems du ing he pandemic will
be asymme ic. Secondly, me opoli an and non-me opoli an ci ies will main ain hei dis inc i e
sec o al specializa ions. Non-me opoli an ci ies appea o be mo e ulne able o hei s ong
connec ion o c ea i e sec o s mos a ec ed by he pandemic, al hough some can ake ad an age o
good cul u al supply and p oximi y o me opoli an cen e s. Me opoli an ci ies seem mo e secu e,
hanks o he highe p esence o less ulne able sec o s (due o ele a ed and accele a ing digi iza ion).
Ne e heless, mos unc ional clus e s we e diminished du ing he inancial c isis, and i seems
unlikely ha sec o al co-loca ions will e-eme ge in a pos -pandemic scena io as a business s a egy,
a leas in he sho e m. Beyond hese o ecas s, we ecommend dealing wi h ce ain s uc u al
ailu es o hese ecosys ems, especially he ulne abili y and p eca iousness o mos cul u al and
c ea i e companies and wo ke s.
Keywo ds:
cul u al ecosys ems; c ea i e ecosys em; medium-sized ci ies; economic c isis; pandemic;
COVID-19; Spain
1. In oduc ion
Since he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic, mos na ional and in e na ional
o ganiza ions ha e wa ned o he nega i e impac ha he heal h c isis could ha e on
cul u al and c ea i e ac i i ies. Indeed, his pandemic and he measu es aken o minimize
i s impac , mos no ably he p olonged con inemen o popula ions and educ ions in he
use o public spaces and cul u al enues, ha e o en led o d as ic declines and e en o al
losses o income o cul u al and c ea i e en e p ises. The lockdown measu es o ced
a gene al hal in p oduc ion, he closu e o cinemas, and he cancella ion o es i als, ilm
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49. h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.3390/su13010049 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 2 o 24
ai s, and ma ke s. The cul u al and c ea i e sec o s we e among he i s o lock down and
will be among he las o eopen [1].
Ce ain sec o s o cul u al ac i i y such as museums, lib a ies, o public hea e s
ha e bene i ed om ins i u ional aid, bu his has no p e en ed he majo i y om acing
signi ican budge de ici s. Wi h ega d o he emaining sec o s, in pa icula small
companies and he independen p o essionals ( eelance s) ha comp ise hem, he clea
isk o bank up cy [
2
] is s ill p esen , due o delays in p omised aid and new ou b eaks o
he disease, which keep p oduc ion and p og amed ac i i ies om esump ion.
The possibili y o nea - o al bank up cy o a la ge pa o he cul u al sec o is, in some
ci ies, a dis u bing p ospec , om an economic as well as a socio-cul u al pe spec i e, in-
so a as his sec o is la gely no ed o cons i u ing pa o he local iden i y and quali y
o li e [
3
] and o i s con ibu ion o u ban de elopmen and he well-being o he popula-
ion [
4
–
7
]. Fo his eason, cul u e and especially cul u al capi al has been o yea s included
among he essen ial componen s o wha has been called ”comp ehensi e weal h” [
4
,
8
].
Impo an public ac o s o en de end hese ideas. Tibo Na acsis, EU Commissione o
Educa ion, Cul u e, You h and Spo , has ema ked ha cul u e and c ea i i y ep esen
“powe ul ools o b ing people close oge he , build a sense o communi y, and encou -
age ci izens o be ac i e membe s o socie y” [
9
] (p. 7). Lea ing behind he mos agile
aspec s o his sec o could cause i epa able economic and social damage, and he e o e
he challenge has become o de elop inclusi e and sus ainable c ea i e economies [
10
] ha
can alle ia e he nega i e impac s o COVID-19 in he sho e m and help o iden i y new
medium- e m oppo uni ies o nume ous public, p i a e, and nonp o i ac o s in ol ed in
cul u al and c ea i e p oduc ion [2].
Wi h he aim o making a use ul con ibu ion om ou disciplines (human geog aphy
and economics) and a eas o esea ch specializa ion (geog aphy, economics, and local
impac s o cul u e and c ea i i y), we ocus ou a en ion in his a icle on he cul u al and
c ea i e ecosys ems o medium-sized ci ies, in o de o assess he impac s le eled agains
hem by he p io economic c isis and o es ablish possible scena ios o he cu en one,
de i ed om he ongoing s a e o ala m. We do his while assuming he ”ecological” na u e
o cul u al and c ea i e ac i i ies de eloped in ( hese) ci ies, in he sense ha hey ope a e
h ough in e connec ions and in e dependencies o esou ces o a ious ypes [
10
–
12
]. We
also ake in o conside a ion ha he ecosys ems o hese medium-sized ci ies ha e sco ed
e y posi i ely in ecen e alua ions o hei cul u al and c ea i e pe o mance [
9
,
13
].
Addi ionally, as ound by Ba ado e al. in a p e ious esea ch by membe s o his g oup
on medium-sized Spanish ci ies, hese a e specialized ecosys ems, al hough specializa ions
di e depending on a ci y’s me opoli an o non-me opoli an loca ion [
13
–
15
]. I has
also been de ec ed ha cul u al companies and jobs in hese ecosys ems belong o di e se
sec o s [
16
,
17
], making i possible o demons a e ha he o ma ion o hubs, o unc ional
clus e s, is no exclusi e o la ge ci ies [
11
]. Howe e , as is ypical in his sec o , mos
ecosys ems comp ise high p opo ions o small companies and non-s anda d o ms o
wo k [2,18,19].
In his wo k, we p opose o answe he ollowing ques ions:
(1) How migh he co ona i us pandemic and i s a e ma h ul ima ely a ec he beha io
o he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems in medium-sized ci ies?
(2)
How migh he pandemic al e cul u al and c ea i e specializa ions in hei ecosys-
ems?
(3)
Wha expec a ions does he pandemic aise in ecosys ems in e ms o unc ional
clus e ing?
These h ee ques ions seem ele an o he ex en ha hey e e o ace s ha a e ex-
p essi e o he s eng h o hose ecosys ems; i has been shown ha ci ies which pe o m be -
e in cul u al and c ea i e ac i i ies also enjoy be e socioeconomic
pe o mance [20–22]
.
As an objec o analysis, we ha e selec ed he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems o 81 Spanish
ci ies wi h be ween 50,000 and 100,000 inhabi an s, along wi h da a pe aining o nine
di e en cul u al and c ea i e sec o s. Fi s , we ca y ou a sys ema ic compa ison o he
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 3 o 24
dynamics, specializa ions, and le els o clus e ing o hese ecosys ems in he yea s 2012
and 2018 (conside ed exp essi e o he peak and inal yea s o he inancial c isis). Nex ,
we seek o es ablish he impac s ha he cu en pandemic migh concei ably gene a e on
he same h ee aspec s, gi en he changes obse ed du ing he ecen inancial c isis, he
conside a ion o ends poin ed ou by a ious au ho s in ela ion o he cu en pandemic,
and empi ical e alua ion o he exposu e o ecosys ems o ce ain isks and oppo uni ies
highligh ed in he li e a u e. This s a egy seems app op ia e because, al hough he wo
c ises s em om di e en causes, some o hei e ec s a e simila such as aus e i y and
budge cu s, unemploymen , and alling demand [
23
]. In addi ion, c ises end o de elop
along p e-exis ing channels, e ealing s uc u al weaknesses ha ha e been obscu ed and
pe pe ua ed by sho - e m policies employed o ace p io global c ises [18].
The analysis unde aken leads us o ob ain he ollowing esul s:
(a)
In he sho e m, he pandemic will ha e e ec s ha a e di e en ia ed acco ding o
sec o s and ci ies.
(b)
In he medium e m, he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems o medium-sized ci ies will
main ain hei cha ac e is ic specializa ions, which migh esul in isks o oppo uni-
ies, depending on he pa icula specializa ion.
(c)
In he long e m, e ec s will end owa d he consolida ion o mo e s uc u ed and
inclusi e cul u al ecosys ems.
These o ecas s s ike us as in e es ing o se e al easons. In he i s place, we con i m
asymme ical impac s om he pandemic in he ci ies s udied, acco ding o he na u e o
hei cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems. Second, we show how he cul u al dynamics o
he ecosys ems in a pos -pandemic scena io will con inue o be associa ed wi h pa icula
geog aphical con ex s, mos speci ically in e ms o hei me opoli an o non-me opoli an
loca ion. Thi d, we insis on he necessi y o inclusi e and sus ainable cul u al policies
aimed a p omo ing he ypes o ins i u ional and p o essional change, also conside ed
necessa y by a ious au ho s o a pos -COVID-19 e a [
2
,
10
,
24
]. Finally, i should be no ed
ha his wo k imp o es he knowledge on he geog aphy o cul u al and c ea i e ac i i ies
in medium-sized ci ies, gene ally ma ginalized by esea ch ocused on la ge ci ies.
The s uc u e o he pape is as ollows: In Sec ion 2, we p esen ou pos ula es on he
na u e o hese ecosys ems and he impac o he wo ecen c ises, inancial, and heal h;
in Sec ion 3, he me hods employed a e desc ibed, he empi ical ma e ials a e p esen ed,
and he ci ies unde s udy a e in oduced, wi h explana ions o de e mina ions made o
es ablishing le els o specializa ion and clus e ing in hei cul u al ecosys ems, as well as
hei p ospec s du ing he pandemic, and he impac - isk indexes p epa ed om ou own
unpublished indica o s a e also explained; Sec ion 4con ains he esul s o ou analysis o
he dynamics, specializa ions, and clus e ing o he cul u al ecosys ems s udied du ing he
inancial c isis, along wi h ou o ecas s on he impac s o he pandemic a ound he same
h ee aspec s; he ex ends wi h some p ospec i e conside a ions, including he likelihood
ha he pandemic may pe mi he iden i ica ion and pu sui o new oppo uni ies, in o de
o mo e c ea i e economies owa d a mo e inclusi e and sus ainable u u e [10].
2. Theo e ical F amewo k and Backg ound In o ma ion
2.1. The Na u e o Cul u al and C ea i e Ecosys ems in Medium-Sized Ci ies and Thei A ibu es
o Specializa ion and Clus e ing
The ecological o sys emic na u e o c ea i e and cul u al ac i i ies in ci ies is implici
in he Cul u al and C ea i e Ci ies Moni o [
25
], a ool ecen ly de ised (2017) by he Eu opean
Commission o e alua e he pe o mance o ci ies h ough he syn hesis o 29 desc ip i e
indica o s o nine ele an a eas o dimensions. Dimensions ange om hose ela ed o
”cul u al ib ancy”, e e ing o he local cul u al supply and he demand i gene a es [
26
],
o hose ha exp ess he weigh o he ”c ea i e economy” h ough ecip ocal ela ionships
be ween cul u e and c ea i i y (on he one hand) and he u ban economy (on he o he
hand), in e ms o jobs and inno a ion [
27
], o o he indica o s conce ning he ”enabling
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 4 o 24
en i onmen ” o med by equi emen s a o ing he de elopmen o cul u al places and
hei economies.
The specializa ion con e ed by he signi ican concen a ion o companies and jobs
in some speci ic sec o s and phases o he p oduc ion chain [
13
] is a common a ibu e
o ecosys ems in medium-sized ci ies [
15
,
28
]. Fo his wo k, i is impo an o conside
ha such specializa ion may di e i he ci ies conside ed a e me opoli an o no [
6
,
16
,
17
].
The concep o ”bo owed size”, coined by Alonso o explain how he ci ies ha make up
la ge me opoli an complexes “ha e access o agglome a ion bene i s o la ge neighbo ing
ci ies” [
29
,
30
], a o s he specializa ion o me opoli an ecosys ems in sec o s ha bene i
om economies o agglome a ion, such as p in ing o a chi ec u e, o hose linked o
audio isual and digi al cul u e. The non-me opoli an ci ies, o hei pa , enjoy he aspec
o ”cen ali y”, i.e., a Ch is alle ian concep ha o esees o hese ci ies a g ea e p o ision
o se ices due o he wide ma ke s hey se e. This cen ali y is enhanced when ci ies also
pe o m unc ions as e i o ial capi als, wi h a disp opo iona e p esence o public sec o
ac i i y. The e o e, non-me opoli an ecosys ems ypically specialize in sec o s demanded
by he public sec o o ins i u ional ac i i ies (g aphic indus ies, compu e ac i i ies,
p ess, and ad e ising), as well as in he pe o ming a s sec o , he c a s sec o , and hose
linked o he managemen o he i age [14,15,31].
Clus e ing supposes ha cul u al companies and employmen wi hin ecosys ems be-
long o di e en sec o s, oge he o ming unc ional clus e s o hubs [
16
,
17
]. Acco ding o
Lazze e i e al. [
32
], his phenomenon has been a ibu ed o an abili y o i ms, especially
in non adi ional c ea i e sec o s (audio isual, p og aming, ad e ising and p omo ion,
and o he p o essional ac i i ies), o gain om in e -sec o al spillo e s, as well as se endip-
i ous c oss-sec o syne gies, he so-called ”u baniza ion economies” [
33
]. The a ini ies
be ween non adi ional sec o s lead o colocaliza ion, including wi h adi ional c ea i e
sec o s such as he pe o ming a s. In any case, his is a e y signi ican a ibu e o
ecosys ems, since hese clus e s a e associa ed wi h high a es o inno a ion and eco-
nomic g ow h [
4
,
15
,
28
,
31
]. In ela ion o he ypical co-loca ion o ”non adi ional” sec o s,
i should be aken in o accoun ha such sec o s a e imme sed in equen changes o hei
business models, h ough he imp o emen o hei connec ions wi h global p oduc ion
chains and a gene alized end in digi iza ion [
6
,
7
,
34
,
35
], which will undoub edly a ec
hei loca ional s a egies.
2.2. Conside a ions on he Impac o C ises (Financial and Heal h) on Cul u al and C ea i e
Ecosys ems
Despi e hei dis inc o igins, he 2008 c isis and he pandemic a e simila in ha ing
gene a ed unemploymen and d ops in demand in he cul u al sec o , as well as simila
eac ions o s a es and go e nmen s [
2
,
19
,
23
]. Addi ionally, asymme ic beha io o he
cul u al and c ea i e sec o s has been obse ed in bo h c ises. Fo ecas s ad anced a he
beginning o he inancial c isis p edic ed job losses and business closu es in ac i i ies sell-
ing se ices o goods o o he c ea i e o non-c ea i e sec o s [
33
]. Ne e heless, he di es
o ou looks we e no ully me , while some sec o s pe o med be e han expec ed [
19
,
33
].
In he case o COVID-19, es ima ed da a o he USA [
36
], up o July 2020, al eady showed
a disp opo iona e incidence o he pandemic in he pe o ming a s sec o , wi h job and
income losses o 50% and 27%, espec i ely. Wi h ega d o he Eu opean Union, ex ao di-
na y job losses ha e been likewise con i med in he pe o ming a s and, mo e gene ally,
in all sec o s equi ing a el and physical p esence [
24
]. The asymme ic impac o he
pandemic on he cul u al and c ea i e sec o s is o pa icula in e es , making possible an
explana ion (in he case o he inancial c isis) and a p edic ion (in he case o he pandemic)
o speci ic beha io s in ci ies and egions acco ding o he p e e en ial sec o al linkages o
hei ecosys ems.
Du ing he inancial c isis, acco ding o Mon al o e al. [
24
], he be e pe o mance o
some sec o s was a ibu ed o demand o cul u e emaining s ong despi e a igh ening
o amily budge s, indica ing ha “cul u e and a s a e esilien componen s o ad anced
economies’ ac i i ies, a he han being me ely ‘ ills’” [
33
] (p. 26). In ela ion o he
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 5 o 24
pandemic, he si ua ion is mo e nuanced, i.e., he need o social dis ancing, and i s e ec
on enue-based sec o s; he g ea e demand o digi al solu ions o online con en , which
could bene i sec o s and pla o ms o e ing p oduc s and se ices o ha ype; he g ea e
o lesse necessi y o he good o se ice p oduced, and possible changes in he habi s o
consume s o cul u al goods ha migh ake place du ing mon hs o con inemen ; o he
deg ee o physical a endance ha p o ision o he good o cul u al se ice equi es [
2
,
24
].
The li e a u e on he impac o he inancial c isis on he specializa ion o ecosys ems
is scan . Only limi ed e idence p o ided by a ew au ho s du ing ha c isis poin ed o he
pe sis ence o egional di e ences in he way c ea i e indus ies began o esu ace [
33
].
Acco ding o his a gumen , he ecosys ems o medium-sized ci ies, whe he in eg a ed
in o me opoli an a eas o no , should ha e main ained hei di e ences o specializa ion
du ing he inancial c isis. The e o e, ou hypo hesis is ha hey migh be expec ed o
do likewise pos pandemic. In o e ing his hypo hesis, we base ou expec a ion on he
alidi y o some ci ies o he e ec s o ”bo owed size” and ”cen ali y” explained abo e.
Rega ding he impac s o he wo c ises, inancial and heal h, on he clus e ing
o ecosys ems, a iumphan ise was obse ed du ing he o me in new and digi al
economies, bo h om he supply side ( acili a ing he decen aliza ion o p oduc i e c e-
a ion) and om he demand side (making digi al cul u al con en inc easingly global) [
2
,
35
].
Speci ically, he gene alized digi iza ion o ce ain sec o s, he a i al o la ge mul ina ional
pla o ms, he possibili y o use s o upload cul u al con en ha could be comme cially
exploi ed, he g ow h o ideo game de elope s and publishe s, and he inc ease in p o-
duc ion o ideo games we e signi ican de elopmen s al eady unde way on he e e o
he pandemic. We shall examine he e ec s o such p ocesses on he ecosys ems s udied
he e. Meanwhile, a ious au ho s coincide in poin ing ou ha he pandemic cons i u es
an occasion o es ablish mo e s uc u ed, dense, and inclusi e cul u al ecosys ems [
2
,
18
].
Demand o his would be jus i ied, as he pandemic has e ealed ailu es in he sus ain-
abili y o c ea i e economies. The c ea i e indus ies end o consis o ela i ely small and
e en mic o en e p ises, mo e ulne able o sho - e m demand luc ua ions and wi hou
easy access o inance [
33
]. One can ce ainly app ecia e, bo h in he la ge losses o jobs
du ing he pandemic [
2
,
36
,
37
] and in hose o he inancial c isis [
19
,
33
], he e ec s o high
s uc u al agmen a ion ypical o some sec o s composed o lexible p oduc ion ne wo ks
and di e se labo s uc u es [
38
]. Indeed, acco ding o Mon al o e al. [
24
], 32% o wo ke s
in he Eu opean Union in he a ea o cul u e a e sel -employed, a alue much highe han
he o e all a e age (14%). I is also wo h men ioning he in e ela ionships inhe en o
hese sec o s, which o en sell hei p oduc s (goods o se ices) o o he c ea i e sec o s
wi h simila cha ac e is ics. All o his would jus i y wha has been desc ibed as he domino
e ec o he pandemic on he economy o cul u al p oduc ion chains [
37
], al hough he
high agmen a ion and in o mal na u e o many ac i i ies make i di icul o speci y he
scope o ha e ec and o quan i y he o al losses su e ed [
24
]. Likewise, he size o
companies can be decisi e when designing inno a i e p ojec s, o when limi ing hei
abili y o pa icipa e in ini ia i es ha can a ac he ex ao dina y esou ces ha eco e y
plans will make a ailable. (The p epa a ion o his wo k coincides wi h he publica ion o
a new ini ia i e, REACT-EU, se o complemen he cohesion aid o membe s a es h ough
a budge o 55 billion eu o, o be made a ailable o di e se sec o s om ou ism o cul u e.
No should we lose sigh o op ions ha he cul u al sec o may enjoy i able o link i sel
o p oposals o egional p io i y, such as digi iza ion o ”G een Eu ope”).
The da a, he e, ep esen a good example o he need o s eng hen i ms in he cul u al
and c ea i e sec o s, d i ing s uc u al changes wi hin sec o s and in he condi ions o
hei wo ke s. Addi ionally, new medium- e m oppo uni ies o he nume ous public as
well as p i a e and nonp o i ac o s in ol ed in cul u al and c ea i e p oduc ion need o be
iden i ied [
2
]. As one possible measu e, a ious au ho s ecommend aking ad an age o
he ac ha he ecosys ems o many medium-sized ci ies enjoy high densi ies o esou ces
and o cul u al places pe inhabi an . These esou ces could os ensibly suppo he de elop-
men o ou ism and cul u al p oximi y se ices, ocused on he immedia e en i onmen , as

Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 6 o 24
well as on o he ci ies and egions. Wi h his app oach, i would be possible o compensa e
o losses o isi o s om o he sou ces, and inno a ions would be s imula ed ha would
a o he compe i i eness o ecosys ems in he medium and long e ms [2,24].
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. The Cul u al and C ea i e Ecosys ems: Ci ies, Sec o s, and Da a o Analysis
The 81 Spanish ci ies wi h popula ions be ween 50,000 and 100,000 comp ise a e y
he e ogeneous g oup, demog aphically as well as in socioeconomic e ms (income and
unemploymen ) and geog aphic loca ion (whe he hey se e as a egional o p o incial
capi al (15 o he o al sample) o as a ou is des ina ion, inland, o coas al (22 o al)),
as e lec ed in Table 1. Among hese, a e se en ci ies ha ha e been decla ed by UNESCO
as Wo ld He i age Si es (San iago de Compos ela, Sego ia, Á ila, Toledo, Cuenca, Cáce es,
and Mé ida), along wi h well-known ou is des ina ions on he Medi e anean coas
(Es epona, Fuengi ola, and Benido m) and Cana y Islands (San Ba oloméde Ti ajana).
Table 1. Cha ac e is ics o he ci ies s udied (2019).
Cha ac e is ic (Sou ce) Ca ego ies Numbe o Ci ies %
Popula ion (1)
<65,000 28 34.5
65,000–80,000 29 35.8
>80,000 24 29.6
Income pe inhabi an (2)
<€10,000 33 40.7
€10,000–€15,000 41 50.2
>€15,000 7 8.6
Unemploymen le el (4)
<10% 16 19.7
10–20% 37 45.6
>20% 28 34.5
Rank (p o incial capi al) NO 66 81.4
YES 15 18.5
Me opoli an loca ion NO 49 60.4
YES 32 39.5
Tou is des ina ion NO 59 72.8
YES 22 22.1
Sou ces 1 and 2, Ins i u o Nacional de Es adís ica; 3, Minis e io de Hacienda, Sec e a ia de Es-
ado de Hacienda, Sec e a ia Gene al de Financiación Au onómica y Local; 4, Se icio Público de
Empleo Es a al.
Among he geog aphical ac o s ha need highligh ing is whe he a ci y is loca ed
wi hin o ou side o any o he 15 main me opoli an a eas o he coun y ( hese i een a eas
a e Mad id, Ba celona, Valencia, Se illa, Bilbao, Málaga, Za agoza, Palma de Mallo ca,
Las Palmas de G an Cana ia, Mu cia, Alican e, San a C uz de Tene i e, Vigo, La Co uña,
and O iedo-Gijón), his being a signi ican ac o o he con igu a ion o cul u al ecosys-
ems in his u ban model, acco ding o he scien i ic li e a u e [
13
]. Thus, as shown in
Figu e 1, wi hin he 81 ci ies, we ind 32 in eg a ed in o me opoli an a eas, while 49 ci ies
a e loca ed ou side me opoli an each, in a eas o low demog aphic densi y.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 7 o 24
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 24
Co uña, and O iedo-Gijón), his being a signi ican ac o o he con igu a ion o cul u al
ecosys ems in his u ban model, acco ding o he scien i ic li e a u e [13]. Thus, as shown
in Figu e 1, wi hin he 81 ci ies, we ind 32 in eg a ed in o me opoli an a eas, while 49
ci ies a e loca ed ou side me opoli an each, in a eas o low demog aphic densi y.
Figu e 1. Loca ions o he ci ies s udied. Sou ce, au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
In o de o es ablish a p o ile o hese 81 ecosys ems, we ha e selec ed nine cul u al
and c ea i e ac i i ies o sec o s, all o which a e included in he Sa elli e Accoun on Cul-
u e in Spain (Minis e io de Educación, Cul u a y Depo e, 2008). These ac i i ies and hei
headings, acco ding o he Eu opean Classi ica ion o Economic Ac i i ies o he Eu opean
Communi y (NACE Re . 2), a e collec ed in Table 2.
Table 2. Codes and cul u al and c ea i e ac i i ies analyzed in he s udy.
Code NACE Classi ica ion Ac i i ies
18 P in ing and ep oduc ion o eco ded media
58 Publishing ac i i ies
59 Mo ion pic u e, ideo and ele ision p og am p oduc ion, sound eco ding, and music publishing ac i i ies
60 P og aming and b oadcas ing ac i i ies
62 Compu e p og aming, consul ancy and ela ed ac i i ies
73 Ad e ising and ma ke esea ch
74 O he p o essional, scien i ic and echnical ac i i ies, including pho og aphic ac i i ies
90 C ea i e, a s, and en e ainmen ac i i ies
91 Lib a ies, a chi es, museums, and o he cul u al ac i i ies
Sou ce, Eu os a .
This selec ion oughly coincides wi h ha adop ed in nume ous in es iga ions on he
geog aphy o he cul u al and c ea i e sec o s [34,36]. Ne e heless, when in e p e ing he
ini ial da a and he esul s, i is necessa y o ake in o accoun ha in o ma ion om NACE
is de icien in measu ing a isanal and cul u al ac i i ies, as well as hose linked o cul u al
in as uc u e and o public agencies ele an o he c ea ion and consump ion o cul u e.
Fo each o he nine sec o s we ha e ob ained employmen da a p o ided by “A iliados
en al a a la Segu idad Social” s a is ics (Minis y o Labo and Social Secu i y). The chosen
Figu e 1. Loca ions o he ci ies s udied. Sou ce, au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
In o de o es ablish a p o ile o hese 81 ecosys ems, we ha e selec ed nine cul u al
and c ea i e ac i i ies o sec o s, all o which a e included in he Sa elli e Accoun on
Cul u e in Spain (Minis e io de Educación, Cul u a y Depo e, 2008). These ac i i ies and
hei headings, acco ding o he Eu opean Classi ica ion o Economic Ac i i ies o he
Eu opean Communi y (NACE Re . 2), a e collec ed in Table 2.
Table 2. Codes and cul u al and c ea i e ac i i ies analyzed in he s udy.
Code NACE Classi ica ion Ac i i ies
18 P in ing and ep oduc ion o eco ded media
58 Publishing ac i i ies
59
Mo ion pic u e, ideo and ele ision p og am p oduc ion, sound
eco ding, and music publishing ac i i ies
60 P og aming and b oadcas ing ac i i ies
62 Compu e p og aming, consul ancy and ela ed ac i i ies
73 Ad e ising and ma ke esea ch
74 O he p o essional, scien i ic and echnical ac i i ies, including
pho og aphic ac i i ies
90 C ea i e, a s, and en e ainmen ac i i ies
91 Lib a ies, a chi es, museums, and o he cul u al ac i i ies
Sou ce, Eu os a .
This selec ion oughly coincides wi h ha adop ed in nume ous in es iga ions on he
geog aphy o he cul u al and c ea i e sec o s [
34
,
36
]. Ne e heless, when in e p e ing
he ini ial da a and he esul s, i is necessa y o ake in o accoun ha in o ma ion om
NACE is de icien in measu ing a isanal and cul u al ac i i ies, as well as hose linked
o cul u al in as uc u e and o public agencies ele an o he c ea ion and consump ion
o cul u e. Fo each o he nine sec o s we ha e ob ained employmen da a p o ided by
“A iliados en al a a la Segu idad Social” s a is ics (Minis y o Labo and Social Secu i y).
The chosen a iable includes o al employmen in each sec o , whe he sala ied employed
o sel -employed. The ci y o which he jobs a e assigned is he place o esidence o
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 8 o 24
he wo ke s, and no necessa ily ha o he companies in which hey wo k. The da a
has he e been collec ed o he yea s 2012 and 2018, in o de o iden i y any changes in
he specializa ions o he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems o ci ies du ing he inancial
c isis, and o enable he de ec ion o ends ha may con inue h ough he pandemic and
subsequen yea s.
We ha e also handled da a om six indica o s ob ained by ou eam [
21
,
22
] among
he 29 p oposed by he Eu opean Union in he a o emen ioned Cul u al and C ea i e Ci ies
Moni o ool [
9
,
20
]. (The weigh ed sum o he 29 indica o s p o ides he C3 index ha syn-
hesizes he cul u al and c ea i e pe o mance o he ci ies conside ed). These indica o s,
which e e o he yea 2019, a e as ollow: indica o 10 (jobs in a s, cul u e and en e ain-
men ); 6 ( ou is o e nigh s ays); 11 (jobs in media and communica ion); 12 (numbe o
jobs in p o essional, scien i ic and echnical, adminis a i e, and suppo se ice ac i i ies
such as a chi ec u e, ad e ising, design, and pho og aphic ac i i ies), D1.1 (syn he ic
index o Cul u al Venues and Facili ies); and 27 (po en ial oad accessibili y). Indica o s 10,
11, and 12 a e de i ed om he a o emen ioned “A iliados en al a a la Segu idad Social”,
which p o ides hese s a is ics wi h 100% co e age. Indica o 6 has been ob ained om
o icial igu es (Eu os a , Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e) in 76% o he cases, and impu ed
in he o he s. (Missing alues in he a iable we e eplaced a e classi ying he 81 ci ies
acco ding o hei size and ou is cha ac e (yes/no)) and assigning o he ci ies wi hou
da a he median o he alue o he a iable in ha g oup. The da a on cul u al enues
and acili ies (sigh s and landma ks, museums, cinemas, conce halls, hea e s) came om
T ipAd iso and a p o essional sou ce (Associa ion o Media Resea ch), which allow 100%
co e age. Finally, he indica o on accessibili y has been ob ained h ough a geog aphic
in o ma ion sys em om he public da abases on popula ion and in as uc u es in 2019,
inco po a ed in o he se e o he Na ional Geog aphic Ins i u e.
In o de o assesses he le el o ulne abili y o he companies included in he
81 ecosys ems, we ha e managed in o ma ion om he Sis ema de Análisis de Balances
Ibé icos (Ibe ian Balance Shee Analysis Sys em) da abase, he only accessible Spanish
da abase ha o e s accoun ing and inancial in o ma ion disagg ega ed by bo h munici-
pali ies and b anches o ac i i y. This sou ce allows us o comple e an exp essi e ske ch
based on he size o companies in e ms o employmen , wi h in o ma ion on he asse s,
ope a ing income, and economic p o i abili y o 5357 companies om he 81 ci ies in he
indica ed sec o s.
3.2. Me hods o Analysis o he Dynamism, Specializa ion, and Clus e ing o Ecosys ems du ing
he Financial C isis
To es ablish he dynamism o he di e en ecosys ems, da a on a e age employmen ,
s anda d de ia ion, and coe icien s o a ia ion by ci y and sec o o bo h 2012 and
2018 we e compa ed. Wi h ega d o sec o al specializa ion, we employed he ho izon al
localiza ion quo ien (HLQ), a measu e simila o he con en ional quo ien bu which
akes in o accoun he size o he ac i i y in he own o ci y obse ed [
39
]. (This de ines
he numbe o i ms o jobs in an ac i i y ha exceeds he expec ed numbe , his being he
exis ing numbe when he ac i i y in he ci y has he same impo ance as a e e ence space
p oducing a LQ equal o 1. I is calcula ed o jobs by i s ob aining he LQ exp essed as LQ
= (Eij/Ej)/(Ei/E), wi h LQ being he loca ion quo ien o ac i i y i in he ci y j; Eij a e he
jobs om ac i i y i in ci y j; Ej a e all he jobs o j; Ei a e he jobs om ac i i y i in he en i e
s udy a ea; and E is he o al numbe o jobs in he s udy a ea. Then, Eij is eplaced by Êij
o ob ain LQ = (Êij/Ej)/(Ei/E) = 1, wi h Êij being he numbe o jobs necessa y o LQ = 1,
gi en he o he alues. Finally, HLQ is ob ained by calcula ing HLQ = Eij
−
Êij. Wi h he
a iable o i ms, he p ocess is he same [
39
]). The HLQ deno es he exis ence o ela i e
specializa ion when he esul is a posi i e alue. In addi ion, he s a is ical signi icance o
he di e ences in specializa ion ound in he selec ed ci ies in 2012 and 2018 was e alua ed
by con as ing means. Finally, he loca ion quo ien s we e co ela ed o iden i y s a is ically
signi ican co-loca ion pa e ns be ween he a ious sec o s, which would be an indica ion
o syne gies o in e ela ionships be ween coinciding sec o s o a ci y, hus con e ing on
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 9 o 24
ha ci y he s a us o a unc ional clus e o hub. The analysis compa ed he si ua ion in
2012 wi h ha o 2018. Co ela ions we e ob ained o h ee se s o ci ies, i.e., he en i e y
o he sample, me opoli an ci ies, and non-me opoli an ci ies, equi ing a minimum alue
o R = 0.7 o conside he co ela ion as meaning ul, and accep ing ha he loca ion o one
sec o in luences ha o he o he (and ice e sa).
3.3. Indexes o Es ablish he Exposu e o Cul u al Ecosys ems o he Impac o he Pandemic
The indica o s ha make up he Cul u al and C ea i e Moni o ool, p e iously
men ioned, p o ide aluable in o ma ion on wha was al eady a s ake in cul u al and
c ea i e ecosys ems when he COVID-19 pandemic e up ed. He e, we ollowed Mon al o
e al. [
24
] and de eloped, based on ou own p io wo k [
21
,
22
], i e indexes o e alua e he
isks o which ecosys ems we e exposed acco ding o he in ensi y o hei use in he mos
a ec ed sec o s, as well as o assess he oppo uni ies open o hem based on he i ali y o
hei cul u al supply and hei accessibili y o su ounding a eas. These indexes a e:
(a)
The index o employmen in ensi y in cul u al sec o s is based on he sco e achie ed
by he ci ies in Indica o 10 o he CCCM,“‘jobs in a s, cul u e, and en e ainmen ”,
ob ained om he numbe o jobs in a s, cul u e, and en e ainmen - ela ed ac i i ies
including in pe o ming a s, museums, and lib a ies (NACE Re . 2, codes 90 and
91), di ided by he o al popula ion in 2019, hen mul iplied by 1000. The sou ce
o s a is ics used is ha o ‘A ilia es wi h employmen egis a ion’ om he Social
Secu i y T easu y (‘A iliados en al a labo al’, Teso e ía de la Segu idad Social). Nex ,
he in ensi y o employmen is calcula ed and ca ego ized by ela ing he esul ing
sco es o he mean and s anda d de ia ion o all ci ies, and by ca ego izing he
esul ing in ensi y as ollows [
24
]: ” e y high in ensi y” i he sco e o he ci y is
abo e he alue o he s anda d de ia ion, ”high in ensi y” i he sco e is below he
alue o he s anda d de ia ion bu abo e he alue o he mean, ”medium in ensi y”
i he sco e is below he mean alue bu abo e he alue o he s anda d de ia ion
(mul iplied by
−
1), and ”low in ensi y” i he sco e is below he alue o he s anda d
de ia ion (mul iplied by −1).
(b) Fo he index o o e nigh ou is s ays, we begin wi h he sco e achie ed by he ci ies
in Indica o 6 o he CCCM, ” ou is o e nigh s ays”, ob ained om he o al annual
numbe o nigh s ha ou is s o gues s spen in es ablishmen s o ou is accommo-
da ion (ho els o simila ) in he ci y in 2018, di ided by he o al popula ion in 2019.
The s a is ical sou ce used he e is he Na ional S a is ical Ins i u e (Ins i u o Nacional de
Es adís ica, o INE). Nex , he in ensi y o ou is ac i i y is calcula ed and ca ego ized,
p oceeding as indica ed in he case o he in ensi y o cul u al employmen .
(c)
The index o employmen in ensi y in he media and in sec o s ela ed o communi-
ca ion is based on he sco e o he ci ies in CCCM Indica o 11, ”jobs in media and
communica ion”, ob ained om he numbe o jobs in media and communica ion-
ela ed ac i i ies such as book and music publishing, ilm and TV p oduc ion (NACE
Re . 2, 58–60 and 62–63), di ided by he o al 2019 popula ion, and hen mul iplied
by 1000. The sou ce and he ca ego iza ion c i e ia a e hose indica ed o he cul u al
employmen in ensi y index.
(d)
The index o employmen in ensi y in o he c ea i e sec o s is based on he sco e
o he ci ies in Indica o 12 o he CCCM, ob ained om he “numbe o jobs in
p o essional, scien i ic and echnical, adminis a i e and suppo se ice ac i i ies
such as a chi ec u e, ad e ising, design, and pho og aphic ac i i ies” (NACE Re . 2,
69–74), di ided by he o al 2019 popula ion, and hen mul iplied by 1000. The sou ce
and he ca ego iza ion c i e ia a e hose al eady indica ed o he wo p eceding
employmen in ensi y indica o s.
(e)
The index o accessibili y o he local cul u al supply syn hesizes he sco e achie ed
by he ci ies in he cul u al enues and acili ies dimension (i sel an in eg a ion o
di e se exp essi e indica o s o he cul u al supply) and in Indica o 27 o he CCCM,
“po en ial oad accessibili y”, which assesses he popula ion accessible by oad wi hin
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 16 o 24
The e o e, i can, be deduced ha he e a ce ain ”accommoda ion” occu s be ween
he geog aphical condi ion o ci ies and he p o ile o hei cul u al and c ea i e ac i -
i ies, in o he wo ds, “ ha places a e somehow c ea i ely pa h-dependen wi h s ong
accumula ion o ces” [
33
] (p. 24). Thus, o he 19 ci ies wi h ecosys ems specialized in
Sec o 73 (ad e ising and ma ke esea ch) in 2018, wel e a e loca ed wi hin me opoli an
a eas. The highes a ios a e also ob ained in some o he highes -income ci ies in Spain,
such as Las Rozas (in he me opoli an a ea o Mad id) o San Cuga del Vallés (a ea o
Ba celona). In Sec o 91, he ecosys ems o non-me opoli an ci ies con inue o achie e
g ea e specializa ion, wi h a o al o 15 o he 24 ci ies specialized in his sec o . The highes
a ios con inue o be ob ained by small egional o p o incial capi als such as Sego ia,
Toledo, San iago, o Mé ida, all wi h a ich his o ical pas and excep ional monumen al
complexes, along wi h impo an ou is ci ies in he Cana y Islands (San Ba oloméde
Ti ajana) and on he Cos a del Sol (Es epona, Fuengi ola). Finally, in he geog aphy o
Sec o 90 (c ea i e, a s, and en e ainmen ac i i ies) he e a e no di e ences in special-
iza ion be ween me opoli an and non-me opoli an ci ies. We ound high specializa ion
a ios in me opoli an ci ies wi h a medium and high-medium income p o ile, bu also in
ex a-me opoli an ci ies wi h an impo an cul u al and/o ou is ic p o ile
4.2.2. Main enance o he Dis inc i e Cul u al and C ea i e Specializa ions o Ecosys ems
du ing he Pos -Pandemic Scena io
Ou o ecas o he cu en pandemic and i s a e ma h is ha he numbe and le els
o specializa ion o he ecosys ems achie ed p io o he inancial c isis will be di icul o
eco e , a leas in he sho e m, due o he impo e ishmen and hinning o he cul u al
and c ea i e sec o s. Howe e , we belie e ha he di e ences in specializa ion be ween
me opoli an and non-me opoli an ci ies will endu e. The p inciples o “bo owed size”
and “cen ali y” should con inue o a ec he na u e o he ecosys ems and o b ing o wa d
signi ican di e ences in cul u al and c ea i e specializa ion be ween me opoli an and
non-me opoli an ci ies. The pe sis ence o his di e en ia ion is impo an , in some way
ma king he u u e o each ype o ecosys em du ing he pandemic and a e wa d.
The maps in Figu e 7iden i y ci ies wi h he highes in ensi y o employmen in media
and communica ion- ela ed ac i i ies such as book and music publishing, ilm, and TV
p oduc ion (Figu e 7a) and in p o essional ac i i ies such as a chi ec u e, ad e ising,
design, and pho og aphic ac i i ies (Figu e 7b). In bo h maps, d awn om he sample
comp ising he i s 30 o ou 81 ci ies acco ding o hei C3 index a ing, he highes
in ensi ies o employmen a e ob ained by me opoli an ci ies in he su ounding a eas o
Mad id and Ba celona. I is ce ain ha many jobs in some o hese ac i i ies may be a high
isk (due o cancella ions o audio isual p oduc ions, educ ions in ad e ising expenses,
dec eases in sales a books o es no compensa ed by inc eases in online sales). Bu o he
ac i i ies based in hese ci ies ha e shown be e pe o mance, including ideo game
p oduc ion and ac i i ies in he adio and ele ision sec o s. Fu he mo e, as companies
a e ela i ely la ge (Sec ion 4.3.2) and include many knowledge-based jobs (e.g., digi al
wo ke s), hey a e likely o be less a ec ed by he c isis [
9
]. In any case, i mus be aken
in o accoun ha jobs in hese sec o s ep esen signi ican p opo ions o o al employmen
in hei ci ies (Figu e 3), leading o he expec a ion ha he e olu ion o hese c ea i e
sec o s will ha e a ele an mul iplie impac on he espec i e local economies.

Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 17 o 24
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 24
comp ising he i s 30 o ou 81 ci ies acco ding o hei C3 index a ing, he highes in-
ensi ies o employmen a e ob ained by me opoli an ci ies in he su ounding a eas o
Mad id and Ba celona. I is ce ain ha many jobs in some o hese ac i i ies may be a
high isk (due o cancella ions o audio isual p oduc ions, educ ions in ad e ising ex-
penses, dec eases in sales a books o es no compensa ed by inc eases in online sales). Bu
o he ac i i ies based in hese ci ies ha e shown be e pe o mance, including ideo game
p oduc ion and ac i i ies in he adio and ele ision sec o s. Fu he mo e, as companies
a e ela i ely la ge (Sec ion 4.3.2) and include many knowledge-based jobs (e.g., digi al
wo ke s), hey a e likely o be less a ec ed by he c isis [9]. In any case, i mus be aken
in o accoun ha jobs in hese sec o s ep esen signi ican p opo ions o o al employ-
men in hei ci ies (Figu e 3), leading o he expec a ion ha he e olu ion o hese c ea i e
sec o s will ha e a ele an mul iplie impac on he espec i e local economies.
Figu e 7. The 30 medium-sized Spanish ci ies wi h g ea e socio-cul u al i ali y, acco ding o he C3 index in 2019. (a)
Employmen in ensi y in sec o s ela ed o he media and communica ions; (b) Employmen in ensi y in o he c ea i e
sec o s. Sou ce, “A ilia es wi h employmen ”, Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
The cen ali y o medium-sized non-me opoli an ci ies a o s he disp opo iona e
p esence o sec o s in which he pandemic is cu en ly ha ing he mos impac . This is no
so much he case o Sec o 91. Lib a ies, a chi es, museums and o he cul u al ac i i ies,
whe e ac i i ies a e o a la ge ex en a p o ision o public se ices, and he e o e employ-
men would likely decline less han elsewhe e, al hough i may be p one o signi ican
budge de ici s (Sec ion 2.2). The impac , he e, may de i e mo e om i s specializa ion in
enue-based ac i i ies pe aining o Sec o 90 (c ea i e a s and en e ainmen ac i i ies).
This ci cums ance implies a high isk o exposu e o impac by he pandemic o a ious
non-me opoli an ci ies due o he in ensi y o employmen in he a o emen ioned cul u al
sec o s and, addi ionally, in ensi y o o e nigh ou is s ays (Sec ion 4.1.2, Figu e 2a,b).
4.3. Towa d S uc u al Change in Ecosys ems
4.3.1. The Dec ease in In e sec o al Co-Loca ions du ing he Financial C isis
In he peak yea o he inancial c isis (2012), se e al o he sec o s s udied showed
simila loca ion pa e ns, coinciding in ce ain ecosys ems and gene a ing specialized
clus e s in a small numbe o cul u al and c ea i e sec o s. Among he sec o s wi h he
Figu e 7.
The 30 medium-sized Spanish ci ies wi h g ea e socio-cul u al i ali y, acco ding o he C3 index in 2019.
(
a
) Employmen in ensi y in sec o s ela ed o he media and communica ions; (
b
) Employmen in ensi y in o he c ea i e
sec o s. Sou ce, “A ilia es wi h employmen ”, Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
The cen ali y o medium-sized non-me opoli an ci ies a o s he disp opo iona e
p esence o sec o s in which he pandemic is cu en ly ha ing he mos impac . This is no
so much he case o Sec o 91. Lib a ies, a chi es, museums and o he cul u al ac i i ies,
whe e ac i i ies a e o a la ge ex en a p o ision o public se ices, and he e o e employ-
men would likely decline less han elsewhe e, al hough i may be p one o signi ican
budge de ici s (Sec ion 2.2). The impac , he e, may de i e mo e om i s specializa ion in
enue-based ac i i ies pe aining o Sec o 90 (c ea i e a s and en e ainmen ac i i ies).
This ci cums ance implies a high isk o exposu e o impac by he pandemic o a ious
non-me opoli an ci ies due o he in ensi y o employmen in he a o emen ioned cul u al
sec o s and, addi ionally, in ensi y o o e nigh ou is s ays (Sec ion 4.1.2, Figu e 2a,b).
4.3. Towa d S uc u al Change in Ecosys ems
4.3.1. The Dec ease in In e sec o al Co-Loca ions du ing he Financial C isis
In he peak yea o he inancial c isis (2012), se e al o he sec o s s udied showed
simila loca ion pa e ns, coinciding in ce ain ecosys ems and gene a ing specialized
clus e s in a small numbe o cul u al and c ea i e sec o s. Among he sec o s wi h
he mos signi ican co-loca ions (Table 4), especially no ewo hy we e “non adi ional
c ea i e sec o s” [
32
] as in Sec o 60 (p og aming and b oadcas ing ac i i ies), Sec o 62
(compu e p og aming, consul ancy, and ela ed ac i i ies), Sec o 73 (ad e ising and
ma ke esea ch), and Sec o 74 (o he p o essional, scien i ic, and echnical ac i i ies,
including pho og aphic ac i i ies). As expec ed, we ind hese o be co-loca ed wi h one
ano he , bu also wi h adi ional sec o s, such as Sec o 58 (publishing ac i i ies) o Sec o
90 (c ea i e a s and en e ainmen ac i i ies). These esul s de i ing om ou analysis a e
consis en wi h hose o o he s udies [28,34].
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 18 o 24
Table 4. Signi ican sec o al co-loca ions by g oups and ci ies in 2012 (R > 0.7).
Co ela ed Sec o s All Ci ies Me opoli an Non-Me opoli an
58–62 (0.811) (0.856)
62–73 (0.744) (0.757)
73–74 (0.737) (0.880)
60–73 (0.715)
90–73 (0.744)
62–74 (0.733) (0.738)
60–74 (0.790)
Sou ce, Gene al Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
The ecosys ems o he me opoli an ci ies had he highes numbe o co-loca ions
among non adi ional sec o s. The ecosys ems in which non adi ional sec o s we e co-
loca ed wi h adi ional sec o s we e also me opoli an. Howe e , he sca e diag ams
(Figu e 8) show high in luence on he co ela ions o a ew ci ies which, u he mo e, a e
almos always he same. These a e ci ies whose ecosys ems ac as “geog aphic ho spo s”
o ac i i y [
28
]. Thus, San Cuga del Vallés (me opoli an a ea o Ba celona), Las Rozas,
San Sebas ián de los Reyes, and Majadahonda (me opoli an a ea o Mad id), and Ge xo
(me opoli an a ea o Bilbao) o ce he high co ela ion o Sec o s 90 and 73 in he se o
me opoli an ci ies (Figu e 8a). In u n, he high co ela ion be ween Sec o s 60 and 74
in he se o non-me opoli an ci ies occu s due o ci ies such as San iago de Compos ela,
Toledo, Mé ida, and Elda (Figu e 8b), which a e impo an egional capi als, headqua e s
o public adio and ele ision companies, and magne s o sec o s p o iding se ices o he
capi al. Finally, he simila ly high co ela ion o Sec o s 58 and 62 in he o e all se o ci ies
(Figu e 8c) is due, undamen ally, o some o he me opoli an and non-me opoli an ci ies
al eady men ioned (Las Rozas, San Cuga , and San iago de Compos ela).
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o 24
mos signi ican co-loca ions (Table 4), especially no ewo hy we e “non adi ional c ea-
i e sec o s” [32] as in Sec o 60 (p og aming and b oadcas ing ac i i ies), Sec o 62 (com-
pu e p og aming, consul ancy, and ela ed ac i i ies), Sec o 73 (ad e ising and ma ke
esea ch), and Sec o 74 (o he p o essional, scien i ic, and echnical ac i i ies, including
pho og aphic ac i i ies). As expec ed, we ind hese o be co-loca ed wi h one ano he , bu
also wi h adi ional sec o s, such as Sec o 58 (publishing ac i i ies) o Sec o 90 (c ea i e
a s and en e ainmen ac i i ies). These esul s de i ing om ou analysis a e consis en
wi h hose o o he s udies [28,34].
Table 4. Signi ican sec o al co-loca ions by g oups and ci ies in 2012 (R > 0.7).
Co ela ed Sec o s All Ci ies Me opoli an Non-Me opoli an
58–62 (0.811) (0.856)
62–73 (0.744) (0.757)
73–74 (0.737) (0.880)
60–73 (0.715)
90–73 (0.744)
62–74 (0.733) (0.738)
60–74 (0.790)
Sou ce, Gene al Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
The ecosys ems o he me opoli an ci ies had he highes numbe o co-loca ions
among non adi ional sec o s. The ecosys ems in which non adi ional sec o s we e co-
loca ed wi h adi ional sec o s we e also me opoli an. Howe e , he sca e diag ams
(Figu e 8) show high in luence on he co ela ions o a ew ci ies which, u he mo e, a e
almos always he same. These a e ci ies whose ecosys ems ac as “geog aphic ho spo s”
o ac i i y [28]. Thus, San Cuga del Vallés (me opoli an a ea o Ba celona), Las Rozas,
San Sebas ián de los Reyes, and Majadahonda (me opoli an a ea o Mad id), and Ge xo
(me opoli an a ea o Bilbao) o ce he high co ela ion o Sec o s 90 and 73 in he se o
me opoli an ci ies (Figu e 8a). In u n, he high co ela ion be ween Sec o s 60 and 74 in
he se o non-me opoli an ci ies occu s due o ci ies such as San iago de Compos ela,
Toledo, Mé ida, and Elda (Figu e 8b), which a e impo an egional capi als, headqua e s
o public adio and ele ision companies, and magne s o sec o s p o iding se ices o
he capi al. Finally, he simila ly high co ela ion o Sec o s 58 and 62 in he o e all se o
ci ies (Figu e 8c) is due, undamen ally, o some o he me opoli an and non-me opoli an
ci ies al eady men ioned (Las Rozas, San Cuga , and San iago de Compos ela).
Figu e 8. Sca e diag ams wi h examples o c ea i e sec o s wi h a endency o co-loca ion in 2012.
(a) Se o me opoli an ci ies; (b) Se o non-me opoli an ci ies; (c) Se o all ci ies. Sou ce, Gene al
Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
Repea ing he analysis o 2018 (Figu e 9) shows ha , o he ele en signi ican co-
loca ion si ua ions iden i ied o 2012 (Table 4), only wo pe sis , i.e., hose o Sec o 73
Figu e 8.
Sca e diag ams wi h examples o c ea i e sec o s wi h a endency o co-loca ion in 2012. (
a
) Se o me opoli an
ci ies; (
b
) Se o non-me opoli an ci ies; (
c
) Se o all ci ies. Sou ce, Gene al Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own
elabo a ion.
Repea ing he analysis o 2018 (Figu e 9) shows ha , o he ele en signi ican co-
loca ion si ua ions iden i ied o 2012 (Table 4), only wo pe sis , i.e., hose o Sec o
73 (ad e ising and ma ke esea ch) and Sec o 74 (o he p o essional ac i i ies) in he
ecosys ems o me opoli an ci ies (Figu e 9a) and o Sec o 60 (p og aming and b oadcas ing
ac i i ies) and Sec o 74 (o he p o essional ac i i ies) in non-me opoli an ci ies (Figu e
9b). In bo h cases, he same ew ci ies con inue o o ce co ela ions, main aining he s a us
o geog aphic ho spo s. In he case o he co ela ion be ween Sec o s 73 and 74 in he se
o me opoli an ci ies, he ecosys ems o he ci y ac as geog aphic ho spo s in San Cuga
del Vallés (me opoli an a ea o Ba celona), Las Rozas and Boadilla (me opoli an a ea
o Mad id), and Pa e na (me opoli an a ea o Valencia). In he case o he co ela ion
be ween Sec o s 60 and 74 in he se o non-me opoli an ci ies, he ecosys ems o San iago
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 19 o 24
de Compos ela and Toledo ac as geog aphic ho spo s, al eady men ioned as being egional
capi als and company headqua e s o public adio and ele ision s a ions.
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 o 24
(ad e ising and ma ke esea ch) and Sec o 74 (o he p o essional ac i i ies) in he eco-
sys ems o me opoli an ci ies (Figu e 9a) and o Sec o 60 (p og aming and b oadcas ing
ac i i ies) and Sec o 74 (o he p o essional ac i i ies) in non-me opoli an ci ies (Figu e
9b). In bo h cases, he same ew ci ies con inue o o ce co ela ions, main aining he s a us
o geog aphic ho spo s. In he case o he co ela ion be ween Sec o s 73 and 74 in he se
o me opoli an ci ies, he ecosys ems o he ci y ac as geog aphic ho spo s in San Cuga
del Vallés (me opoli an a ea o Ba celona), Las Rozas and Boadilla (me opoli an a ea o
Mad id), and Pa e na (me opoli an a ea o Valencia). In he case o he co ela ion be-
ween Sec o s 60 and 74 in he se o non-me opoli an ci ies, he ecosys ems o San iago
de Compos ela and Toledo ac as geog aphic ho spo s, al eady men ioned as being e-
gional capi als and company headqua e s o public adio and ele ision s a ions.
Figu e 9. Sca e diag ams o c ea i e sec o s wi h a endency o co-loca ion in 2018. (a) Me opoli-
an ci ies; (b) Non-me opoli an ci ies. Sou ce, Gene al Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own
elabo a ion.
F om hese esul s, i can be deduced ha he inancial c isis did a ec he syne gies
and p e-exis ing in e sec o al links in a signi ican way, o else ha such links no longe
necessa ily implied sec o al co-loca ion. I we ake in o accoun ha he missing co-loca-
ions co espond o sec o s ha los employmen (Table 3), we can guess hei ela ionship
wi h business concen a ions in sec o s such as Sec o 58 (publica ion) o Sec o 62 (p o-
g aming), bo h highly a ec ed by digi iza ion and he pla o m economy [40]. La ge com-
panies had ecou se o new digi al ools ha pe mi ed hem o in ol e hemsel es in
ac i i ies all along he alue chains de eloped in in e na ional con ex s. As shown la e in
Sec ion 4.3.2, he p opo ion o companies likely o en e such a p ocess was small; and
ye his is in e es ing as an indica o o new de elopmen s and business models in o which
ce ain companies om local c ea i e ecosys ems we e al eady en e ing when he pan-
demic eme ged.
4.3.2. Towa d Mo e S uc u ed, Dense, and Inclusi e Ecosys ems
The disappea ance o mos sec o co-loca ions du ing he inancial c isis aises ew
expec a ions a ound hei eco e y. Fu he mo e, i we also conside ha he co ona i us
has accele a ed p ocesses o digi iza ion a a dizzying speed [2,24], i does no seem likely
(a leas in he sho e m) ha sec o co-loca ions will e u n in a pos -pandemic scena io
as a business s a egy o gene a e in e -sec o al spillo e s and c oss-sec o syne gies. We
belie e ha his can lead o a ema kable change in he na u e o ecosys ems. While such
a change is con i med, i is u he necessa y o ace s uc u al ailu es and, in pa icula ,
he ulne abili y and p eca iousness o mos companies and wo ke s (Sec ion 2.2). I we
ocus on Spain, as o 1 Janua y 2019, in he se o cul u al sec o s s udied he e, 73.3% a e
companies wi hou sala ied employees (as compa ed wi h 33.4% in he manu ac u ing
Figu e 9.
Sca e diag ams o c ea i e sec o s wi h a endency o co-loca ion in 2018. (
a
) Me opoli an ci ies; (
b
) Non-
me opoli an ci ies. Sou ce, Gene al Social Secu i y T easu y and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
F om hese esul s, i can be deduced ha he inancial c isis did a ec he syne -
gies and p e-exis ing in e sec o al links in a signi ican way, o else ha such links no
longe necessa ily implied sec o al co-loca ion. I we ake in o accoun ha he missing
co-loca ions co espond o sec o s ha los employmen (Table 3), we can guess hei ela-
ionship wi h business concen a ions in sec o s such as Sec o 58 (publica ion) o Sec o 62
(p og aming), bo h highly a ec ed by digi iza ion and he pla o m economy [40]. La ge
companies had ecou se o new digi al ools ha pe mi ed hem o in ol e hemsel es
in ac i i ies all along he alue chains de eloped in in e na ional con ex s. As shown
la e in Sec ion 4.3.2, he p opo ion o companies likely o en e such a p ocess was small;
and ye his is in e es ing as an indica o o new de elopmen s and business models in o
which ce ain companies om local c ea i e ecosys ems we e al eady en e ing when he
pandemic eme ged.
4.3.2. Towa d Mo e S uc u ed, Dense, and Inclusi e Ecosys ems
The disappea ance o mos sec o co-loca ions du ing he inancial c isis aises ew
expec a ions a ound hei eco e y. Fu he mo e, i we also conside ha he co ona i us
has accele a ed p ocesses o digi iza ion a a dizzying speed [
2
,
24
], i does no seem likely
(a leas in he sho e m) ha sec o co-loca ions will e u n in a pos -pandemic scena io as
a business s a egy o gene a e in e -sec o al spillo e s and c oss-sec o syne gies. We be-
lie e ha his can lead o a ema kable change in he na u e o ecosys ems. While such
a change is con i med, i is u he necessa y o ace s uc u al ailu es and, in pa icula ,
he ulne abili y and p eca iousness o mos companies and wo ke s (Sec ion 2.2). I we
ocus on Spain, as o 1 Janua y 2019, in he se o cul u al sec o s s udied he e, 73.3% a e
companies wi hou sala ied employees (as compa ed wi h 33.4% in he manu ac u ing in-
dus y), 16.4% ha e only one o wo employees, and jus 4% ha e mo e han 10 employees.
I we ocus on he 81 ci ies s udied, he da a in Table 5, d awn om he only accessible
Spanish da abase ha o e s accoun ing and inancial in o ma ion disagg ega ed by bo h
ci ies and ac i i ies, allows us o comple e an exp essi e ske ch based on he size o he
5357 companies egis e ed, wi h in o ma ion on employmen , he asse s, ope a ing income,
and economic p o i abili y. The da a mus be e alua ed wi h cau ion, since he 40 la ges o
hese companies accoun o 55% o o al employmen , so ha he p esence o some may
dis o he agg ega ed analyses by sec o o ci y.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 20 o 24
Table 5.
Cha ac e is ics o companies in selec ed cul u al and c ea i e sec o s in Spanish ci ies be ween 50,000 and 100,000
inhabi an s in 2019.
Sec o Municipali y
Type
Fi ms
(Numbe )
Jobs
(Numbe )
Economic
P o i abili y
A e age Size Pe Fi m, Acco ding o
Jobs Asse s
(Thousands €)
Ope a ing Income
(Thousands €)
58 Me opoli an 215 2231 6.64
10.38
1575.17 1296.13
58 Non-me opoli an 192 1333 −0.01 6.94 654.14 563.70
58 To al
municipali ies 407 3564 4.84 8.76 1140.68 950.61
59 Me opoli an 269 9722 1.47
36.14
14,020.14 5512.21
59 Non-me opoli an 168 825 9.49 4.91 905.78 734.83
59 To al
municipali ies 437 10,547 1.78
24.14
8978.46 3675.60
60 Me opoli an 64 1755 5.94
27.42
2607.83 16,029.17
60 Non-me opoli an 88 2244 −81.85
25.50
2128.83 750.33
60 To al
municipali ies 152 3999 −2.92
26.31
12,210.09 7183.53
62 Me opoli an 1307 34,680 4.35
26.53
2879.30 3433.14
62 Non-me opoli an 674 3548 9.36 5.26 390.9 383.44
62 To al
municipali ies 1981 38,228 4.68
19.30
2032.66 2395.53
74 Me opoli an 1015 5970 3.24 5.88 1614.27 679.43
74 Non-me opoli an 689 3704 5.36 5.38 534.82 382.00
74 To al
municipali ies 1704 9674 3.63 5.68 1177.80 559.17
90 Me opoli an 174 671 3.20 3.86 653.46 496.61
90 Non-me opoli an 209 981 6.13 4.69 329.46 313.45
90 To al
municipali ies 383 1652 4.30 4.31 476.66 396.66
91 Me opoli an 13 40 −1.69 3.08 1096.34 402.12
91 Non-me opoli an 21 407 6.92
19.38
7870.16 2349.82
91 To al
municipali ies 34 447 6.24
13.15
5280.17 1605.11
All
sec o s
Me opoli an 3197 56,417 4.03
17.65
3621.01 2577.11
Non-me opoli an 2160 13,900 −5.03 6.44 649.45 462.34
To al
municipali ies 5387 70,317 3.05
13.13
2422.84 1724.41
Sou ce, Sis ema de Análisis de Balances Ibé icos (Ibe ian Balance Shee Analysis Sys em).
Al hough any o he indica o s can show high a iabili y acco ding o he sec o
o municipali y analyzed, he small size o he companies is clea , whe he measu ed
in e ms o employmen , asse s, o ope a ing income, which could a ec hei abili y o
ope a e, hei esis ance o cu en ad e se ci cums ances, and hei u u e expec a ions.
Again, we ind ha a ci y being me opoli an o non-me opoli an will gene a e signi ican
di e ences in all a iables, including he a e age economic p o i abili y o companies,
he a e age o which is nega i e o hose loca ed in ex a-me opoli an ci ies.
The da a, he e, ep esen a good example o he need o d i e s uc u al changes
wi hin cul u al and c ea i e sec o s and in he condi ions o hei wo ke s. Such s uc u al
change should be ex ended h oughou he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems, os e ing
s onge in eg a ion among all hese sec o s and cul u al ins i u ions and ac o s [
2
]. Among
he a ious p oposals om policymake s, we ha e aken, as an example, one p oposal
ha ecommends ha ecosys ems y o ake g ea e ad an age o he quali y o he local
supply o cul u al acili ies and equipmen o o e cul u al se ices in p oximi y o nea by
a ea esiden s, whose p esence as spec a o s migh compensa e o he lack o cul u al
consume s caused by he pandemic.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 21 o 24
The map in Figu e 10 e alua es his possibili y, showing he 30 ci ies wi h he bes
cul u al supply weigh ed by he p opo ion o esiden s wi hin a 120 km adius who can
a el o he ci y wi hin 90 min (see Sec ion 3.3 o an explana ion o his indica o ). In ci ies
ha o e “ e y high” cul u al accessibili y, he wo componen s o he indica o (local
supply and accessibili y) a e classi ied as “high” o hei quali y (cul u al supply) and hei
e iciency (a high p opo ion o esiden s in he su ounding a ea). In ci ies wi h cul u al
accessibili y ca ego ized as ”high”, hei lowe accessibili y lessens he a ac ion om
su ounding a eas o an excellen cul u al supply; elsewhe e, we ind me opoli an ci ies
wi h excellen accessibili y bu less signi ican cul u al supply han is ound in hose ci ies
al eady men ioned. O cou se, he condi ions o he cul u al acili ies mus gua an ee ha
any ac i i ies ca ied ou wi hin hem comply wi h es ablished secu i y p o ocols du ing
he pandemic. Again, his esul shows signi ican di e ences be ween me opoli an and
non-me opoli an ci ies.
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 o 24
a el o he ci y wi hin 90 min (see Sec ion 3.3 o an explana ion o his indica o ). In
ci ies ha o e “ e y high” cul u al accessibili y, he wo componen s o he indica o
(local supply and accessibili y) a e classi ied as “high” o hei quali y (cul u al supply)
and hei e iciency (a high p opo ion o esiden s in he su ounding a ea). In ci ies wi h
cul u al accessibili y ca ego ized as ”high”, hei lowe accessibili y lessens he a ac ion
om su ounding a eas o an excellen cul u al supply; elsewhe e, we ind me opoli an
ci ies wi h excellen accessibili y bu less signi ican cul u al supply han is ound in hose
ci ies al eady men ioned. O cou se, he condi ions o he cul u al acili ies mus gua an ee
ha any ac i i ies ca ied ou wi hin hem comply wi h es ablished secu i y p o ocols du -
ing he pandemic. Again, his esul shows signi ican di e ences be ween me opoli an
and non-me opoli an ci ies.
Figu e 10. Accessibili y o he local cul u al supply in 2019. Sou ce, T ipAd iso and Ins i u o Ge-
og á ico Nacional (Na ional Geog aphical Ins i u e), and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
5. Conclusions
This wo k has sough o o ecas he sho - and medium- e m impac s o he co ona-
i us pandemic on he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems o 81 Spanish ci ies wi h be ween
50,000 and 100,000 inhabi an s, hus, complemen ing a wide se ies o s udies ha ha e
add essed his ques ion om di e en poin s o iew. The aspec s chosen o analysis
we e h ee ele an a ibu es o u ban cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems. i.e., hei dyna-
mism, hei specializa ion, and hei p opensi y o o m clus e s; aspec s ecognized in he
bibliog aphy o hei associa ion wi h he posi i e de elopmen o said ecosys ems. We
se ou he ollowing h ee que ies: how he pandemic migh a ec he beha io o eco-
sys ems, in wha way hei specializa ions migh be al e ed, and wha expec a ions he
pandemic would likely aise in ela ion o hei p ocesses o unc ional clus e ing. The
applied me hodology consis ed o compa ing he h ee no ed a ibu es in 2012 and 2018,
he peak and e minal yea s o he inancial c isis. The changes obse ed ha e been in e -
p e ed in ligh o a gumen s p o ided in he li e a u e, inally assessing he p obabili y o
hei ecu ence (o non- ecu ence) du ing he cu en pandemic, acco ding o he pecu-
lia i ies o his p esen c isis and he po en ial exposu e o he ci ies o i s e ec s.
The di e en analyses unde ake a epe i ion du ing he pandemic o ce ain e ec s
obse ed du ing he p e ious c isis ha can be p edic ed. We belie e ha he ac o s ha
de e mined he asymme ic beha io o sec o s and ci ies du ing he p io c isis con inue
Figu e 10.
Accessibili y o he local cul u al supply in 2019. Sou ce, T ipAd iso and Ins i u o Geog á ico Nacional (Na ional
Geog aphical Ins i u e), and au ho s’ own elabo a ion.
5. Conclusions
This wo k has sough o o ecas he sho - and medium- e m impac s o he co on-
a i us pandemic on he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems o 81 Spanish ci ies wi h be ween
50,000 and 100,000 inhabi an s, hus, complemen ing a wide se ies o s udies ha ha e
add essed his ques ion om di e en poin s o iew. The aspec s chosen o analysis
we e h ee ele an a ibu es o u ban cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems. i.e., hei dy-
namism, hei specializa ion, and hei p opensi y o o m clus e s; aspec s ecognized in
he bibliog aphy o hei associa ion wi h he posi i e de elopmen o said ecosys ems.
We se ou he ollowing h ee que ies: how he pandemic migh a ec he beha io o
ecosys ems, in wha way hei specializa ions migh be al e ed, and wha expec a ions
he pandemic would likely aise in ela ion o hei p ocesses o unc ional clus e ing.
The applied me hodology consis ed o compa ing he h ee no ed a ibu es in 2012 and
2018, he peak and e minal yea s o he inancial c isis. The changes obse ed ha e been
in e p e ed in ligh o a gumen s p o ided in he li e a u e, inally assessing he p obabili y
o hei ecu ence (o non- ecu ence) du ing he cu en pandemic, acco ding o he
peculia i ies o his p esen c isis and he po en ial exposu e o he ci ies o i s e ec s.

Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 22 o 24
The di e en analyses unde ake a epe i ion du ing he pandemic o ce ain e ec s
obse ed du ing he p e ious c isis ha can be p edic ed. We belie e ha he ac o s ha
de e mined he asymme ic beha io o sec o s and ci ies du ing he p io c isis con inue o
be alid, as do hose ha allowed he specializa ion o cul u al ecosys ems (and con as s
be ween me opoli an and non-me opoli an ecosys ems) o be main ained, as explained
abo e in ela ion o he e ec s o bo owed size and cen ali y. In addi ion, p ocesses ha
du ing he inancial c isis led o he disappea ance o co-loca ions which had con igu ed
a numbe o ci ies as ”ho spo s” o he mos digi ized c ea i e sec o s likewise emain in
o ce and ha e e en accele a ed.
Ou o ecas s ha e also aken in o accoun ac o s inhe en o he cu en c isis, includ-
ing he deg ee o physical p esence equi ed by some cul u al ac i i ies and he weigh o
he mos ulne able sec o s (whe he due o a ci y’s cha ac e is ics o i s dependence on
ou ism and mobili y, among o he ac o s). On he one hand, he indica o s de eloped
o es ablish he in ensi y o exposu e o isk ha e shown, in pa icula , he ulne abili y
o non-me opoli an ci ies, al hough some o hese ci ies also appea o be posi ioned o
ake ad an age o hei good cul u al supply and accessibili y, in compensa ion o a loss
o ex a- egional cul u al consume s. On he o he hand, he posi ion o me opoli an ci ies
seems mo e secu e, o wo easons, i.e., hei weake connec ion o hose cul u al sec o s
mos a ec ed by he pandemic, and a g ea e p esence o sec o s ha a e leas ulne able
(due o high and accele a ed digi iza ion).
We ha e also e e ed o he exis ence in hese ecosys ems o ce ain s uc u al ea-
u es ha become mo e isible du ing imes o c isis, such as he p eca iousness o many
cul u al and c ea i e i ms, o cing cul u al wo ke s o suppo hemsel es unde di icul
condi ions, wi h low income and an unce ain u u e [
41
]. As Comunian and England [
18
]
say, we can ask ou sel es “i COVID-19 ep esen s a momen o c isis o he sec o o has
simply exposed he unsus ainable p ice o cul u al and c ea i e wo k” [
18
] (p. 112). I also
seems clea ha he e ec s o he pandemic on he ecosys ems o hese ci ies will be di ec ly
ela ed o he su i al capaci y o hei businesses. A his poin we ha e e alua ed he
po en ial o ecosys ems o p o ide local cul u al se ices acco ding o accessibili y o hei
cul u al supply and we ha e ound some p omising cases.
The da a and analysis p o ided, in his wo k on he cul u al and c ea i e ecosys ems
o medium-sized ci ies, may se e o suppo speci ic policies p oposed elsewhe e, which
can only be b ie ly men ioned he e. Fo example, he design o new business models and
new ac i i y o ma s o gua an ee bo h secu i y and inancial iabili y; he s eng hening
o links be ween public and p i a e componen s o he cul u al ecosys ems o he ci ies; he
explo a ion o oppo uni ies o coope a ion wi h o he local sec o s (educa ion, ou ism,
heal h) o maximize he con ibu ion o cul u e o social well-being; and o he s [
2
,
10
,
18
,
24
].
In he Spanish case, non-me opoli an ci ies appea o be mo e ulne able o he c isis
o hei s ong connec ion o c ea i e sec o s mos a ec ed by he pandemic, whe eas
me opoli an ci ies seem mo e secu e, hanks o he highe p esence o less ulne able
sec o s. In he o me , all hese gene al policies p oposed in he in e na ional li e a u e
collide wi h he eali y o he sec o , clea ly specialized in cul u al consump ion and
ou ism a he han in cul u al p oduc ion [
13
]. The e o e, he p io i y should be o
ad ance policies aimed a p o ec ing employmen and cul u al o ganiza ions as a i s
measu e in he de elopmen o new agendas owa d mo e c ea i e social economies.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
All he au ho s ha e con ibu ed in simila p opo ion o he de elopmen
o his wo k. The sec ions ha e been de eloped join ly and coo dina ed among all au ho s. The
supe iso y ask co esponded o he i s signa o y au ho . All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he
published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch o ms pa he compe i i e p ojec “Cul u e and e i o y in Spain: P ocesses
and impac s in small and medium-sized ci ies” ( e e ences CSO2017-83603-C2-1-R and CSO2017-
83603-C2-2-R), inanced by he S a e Resea ch P og am “De elopmen and Inno a ion O ien ed o
he Challenges o Socie y” o he Spanish Minis y o Economy and Compe i i eness, wi hin he
amewo k o he S a e Plan o Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch and Inno a ion, 2013-2016. In
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 49 23 o 24
addi ion, he wo k has had a g an o he publica ion o he Ins i u o Uni e si a io de In es igación
en Ciencias Ambien ales, Uni e si y o Za agoza, in i s 2020 call.
Con lic s o In e es :
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . The ounding o ganiza ion has no
ole in he design o he s udy; in he collec ion analysis o in e p e a ion o he da a; in he w i ing o
he manusc ip ; o in he decision o publish he esul s.
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