shaPing Wood: WoodWo king du ing hE i on agE and
oMan PE iod in hE no hWEs o hE iBE ian
PEninsula
1 GEPN-G upo de Es udos pa a a P ehis o ia do No oes e Ib ico. Dp o. His o ia I. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela. P aza da
Uni e sidade s/n. 15782 San iago de Compos ela, Spain. [email p o ec ed]
2 Dp o. de P ehis ò ia i A queologia. Uni e si a de València. A da. Blasco Ibez, 24, 46010 Valencia, Spain. Yolanda.ca ion@u .es
Summa y: This a icle discusses se e al imbe s uc u es, wooden objec s and manu ac u ing was e eco e ed om se lemen s and specia-
lized p oduc ion si es du ing he I on Age and he Roman pe iod in no hwes Ibe ia. These a chaeobo anical emains we e p ese ed di ec ly
by ca boniza ion, wa e logging and occasionally mine aliza ion, as well as indi ec ly by imp essions on clay. The s udy o hese a i ac s and
s uc u es allows us o cha ac e ize o es y p ac ice, echnical p ocess o woodwo king (sequence o ac ions, echniques and ges u es),
household equipmen and a chi ec u e.
Key wo ds: Woodwo king, ca pen y, cha coal and wood analysis, o es y p ac ice, household equipmen , a chi ec u e, I on Age, Roman
Pe iod, No hwes Ibe ian Peninsula.
MARÍA MARTÍN-SEIJO1, YOLANDA CARRIÓN MARCO2
WOOD AND CHARCOAL. EVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY. SAGVNTVM EXTRA-13, 2012: 135–144. 135
INTRODUCTION
This a icle discusses bo h wooden a i ac s and
wooden s uc u es om I on Age and Roman si es in
he no hwes o he Ibe ian Peninsula. The s udy o
hese pieces p o ides a g ea e unde s anding o how
his aw ma e ial was used o woodwo king. While
he p ese a ion o hese ypes o objec s and s uc-
u es is a e in a chaeological con ex s, wood was
used in many di e en ways in he day- o-day li e
o pas socie ies: domes ic, a isanal and i ual ools,
weapons, s uc u es, logboa s, ships, ca s, e c. (Coles
e al. 1978; Ea wood 1993; Figuei al 1996; Pugsley
2003; Bosch e al. 2006; Pillonel 2007; Ul ich 2007;
Ca ión and Rosse 2010).
Al hough wood, like mos o ganic subs anc-
es, apidly pe ishes in empe a e clima es once i is
bu ied, wooden emains can su i e in wa e logged
condi ions, o can be p ese ed by ca boniza ion,
mine aliza ion o e en su i e, indi ec ly, as imp es-
sions in clay. In he assemblages s udied, whole i ems
we e mos commonly p ese ed by wa e o humid-
i y sa u a ion, along he ma gins o i e s o ías.
Howe e , he mos ubiqui ous ype o p ese a ion
( o agmen s o i ems) was h ough ca boniza ion
as a esul o bu ning e en s, whe e s uc u al imbe s
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and wooden objec s we e i e-a ec ed, o in hea hs,
whe e wooden objec s we e occasionally bu ned as
uel. P ese a ion by mine aliza ion was a e in he
assemblages. E en less equen we e he examples o
imp essions o b anches on clay, which p o ide indi-
ec e idence o cons uc ion in wood.
The e a e many e e ences in he specialized li -
e a u e abou woodwo king and ca pen y (including
s uc u es and objec s) in I on Age se lemen s and
Roman si es (Ga cía-Rollán 1971; López-Cue illas
and Lo enzo 1986; Sil a 1986; O e o 1988; Al es e
al. 1988-89; Ca ballo 2002; Ca ión 2005; Ma ín-
Seijo 2006; Al es and Rie h 2007; Vigo 2007; Ma ín-
Seijo 2008; Ca ión and Rosse 2010, Ma ín-Seijo
and Ca ballo 2010; Rey e al. 2011). The si es consid-
e ed in his s udy (Fig. 1) a e ele en o i ied se le-
men s (cas os) occupied du ing he I on Age - Zoñán,
Neixón G ande, Al o do Cas o, Cas olandín, Cas o-
i e, Mon ealeg e, Nabás, Pun a do Muiño, Co o do
Mos ei o, O Cas elo and Cas omao-, along wi h wo
habi a ion si es, a icus (Caldas), a illa (No ille), and
a ma ine sal e n (A eal), da ing o he Roman pe iod.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A he mac oscopic le el, he echnological s udy
o he wooden a i ac s consis ed i s in he mo -
phome ic analysis o he objec : o e all desc ip ion,
g aphic eco ding and measu ing. Indi ec e idence
o wooden cons uc ions, such as clay imp essions o
wa le and daub s uc u es (Cube o 1996; Na a and
Fe nández 2001; Gómez 2008), was also analyzed.
The diame e o each imp ession was measu ed us-
ing a digi al calipe . The di e en s ages o he chaîne
op a oi e o ope a ional sequence we e hen de-
sc ibed: aw ma e ial p ocu emen , blank and p oduc
p epa a ion and inal p oduc . This concep conside s
a p oduc ion p ocess as a sequence o ac ions in lu-
enced by echnical possibili ies and pe sonal and cul-
u al choices (Skibo and Schi e 2008).
Du ing he mic oscopic s udy he samples we e
i s iden i ied axonomically, acco ding o he spe-
ci ic ana omical pa e ns on he h ee sec ions o wood
(c oss, angen ial and adial). Se e al dend ological
and aphonomic cha ac e is ics o he samples we e
also egis e ed: pa o he plan , p esence o yloses,
minimum diame e , numbe o annual ings, season o
cu ing and al e a ions ela ed o he aphonomic p oc-
esses ( agmen a ion, e osion, biological ac ion, e c.)
(C one and Ba be 1981; Mo gan 1988; Th y-Pa iso
2001; Ma gue ie and Huno 2007; Ma ín-Seijo and
Ca ballo 2010).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
IRON AGE WOODWORKING
The cha coal assemblages eco e ed om he hill-
o s (cas os), anging in da e om he 8 h cen u y BC
o he 1s cen u y AD, p o ide in o ma ion abou di -
e en s ages o he chaîne op a oi e o woodwo k-
ing. Mos o he agmen s o pieces s udied we e inal
p oduc s o building ma e ial o domes ic objec s. I
was only in Cas olandín (Cun is, Pon e ed a) ha i
was possible o iden i y a ca pen e ’s wo kshop by he
p esence o manu ac u ing was e and agmen s o in-
Figu e 1. Loca ion o he si es (I on Age in ed, Roman in black). 1.
No ille, 2. Zoñán, 3. Neixón G ande, 4. Caldas, 5. Al o do Cas o,
6. Cas olandín, 7. Cas o i e, 8. Mon ealeg e, 9. A eal, 10. Pun a
do Muiño, 11. Nabás, 12. Co o do Mos ei o, 13. O Cas elo, 14. Cas-
omao.
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WOOD AND CHARCOAL. EVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY. SAGVNTVM EXTRA-13, 2012. 137
ished objec s o s uc u es.
Oak (Que cus sp. deciduous) was he mos com-
mon and ubiqui ous axon iden i ied in wooden manu-
ac u e du ing he I on Age, used as elemen s o build-
ing s uc u es (planks, beams, wedges, la hs, e c.), and
o many di e en kinds o objec s (handles and ag-
icul u al implemen s). O he axa iden i ied in lowe
pe cen ages we e Co ylus a ellana, Fabaceae, Que -
cus sp. e e g een, A bu us unedo, E ica sp., Alnus sp.,
F axinus sp., Rosaceae/Maloideae, P unus sp. and Sa-
lix/Populus. All he species iden i ied we e ha dwoods
and p obably we e a ailable in he su oundings o he
se lemen s.
All he in o ma ion ela ed o imbe , oo ing and
wa le om he I on Age samples came om bu n-
ing episodes which esul ed in deposi s wi h a high
concen a ion o ca bonized o ganic emains. Main
s uc u al elemen s, such as beams and pos s, we e
made o oak (Que cus sp. deciduous). In Al o do Cas-
o (Cun is, Pon e ed a) a i e e en da ed o be ween
he 5 h and 4 h cen u ies BC p ese ed an oak beam. A
Neixón G ande (Boi o, A Co uña), om a con ex o
simila da e, a ca bonized oak ence-pos was ound.
In Nabás (Nig án, Pon e ed a) a bu ning episode
ha a ec ed se e al buildings o he se lemen was
iden i ied. Wood-cha coal om his i e e en was da -
ed be ween he 2nd cen u y BC and he 1s cen u y AD.
Se e al planks we e disman led and bu ned, be o e
he cons uc ion collapsed. The esul s (Fig. 2) show
ha he axa used o imbe we e mainly Que cus sp.
including deciduous and e e g een species; o he axa,
such as Co ylus a ellana, Alnus sp. and Salix/Populus
p obably o med pa o wa le walls, while he oo -
ing ma e ial came om Fabaceae. O he species we e
iden i ied spo adically.
The assemblages eco e ed in Cas o i e (A Es-
ada, Pon e ed a) we e ela ed o se e al i e epi-
Figu e 2. Pe cen ages o iden i ied axa in he bu ning e en o Na-
bás.
Figu e 3. Taxa iden i ied in he bu ning laye s o Cas o i e.
Figu e 4. Maximum diame e s o he hazel b anches ound a Cas-
o i e.
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ca ed a Pun a do Muiño (Vigo, Pon e ed a), O Cas-
elo and Cas o i e, h ough indi ec a chaeobo anical
e idence as clay imp essions. Measu emen o he
maximum diame e s o hese imp essions showed he
p e alence o b anches anging be ween 0.5 and 2 cm
(Fig. 5).
Du ing he I on Age wood was used o cons uc-
ion imbe s as well as aw ma e ial o he manu ac-
u e o many domes ic and a isanal objec s, ag icul-
u al implemen s, weapons, e c. Que cus sp. decidu-
ous, Alnus sp., Co ylus a ellana, Que cus sube and
F axinus sp. wood was used o he manu ac u e o
he ele en wooden objec s s udied (Table 1) while he
manu ac u ing was e belongs o Que cus sp. decidu-
ous and Ilex aqui olium.
Handles o ools and weapons we e he mos com-
mon wooden pieces ound a he cas os. These a e
likely o ha e been pa o me al ools used in di e -
en ac i i ies and we e made o Que cus sp. deciduous
and Co ylus a ellana. These species we e p obably
selec ed o hei wood quali ies - ha dness and ough-
ness o oak and elas ici y o hazel. All o hem we e
agmen ed, wo p ese ed by mine aliza ion and he
es by ca boniza ion.
Se e al agmen s o wooden con aine s we e
sodes da ed o be ween he 8 h and he 3 d cen u ies BC
and be ween he 2nd and he 1s cen u ies BC (Rey e
al. 2011). In hese deposi s, high pe cen ages o oak
(Que cus sp. deciduous) we e iden i ied, including
some well p ese ed planks, la hs and wedges (Fig. 3).
Se e al wa le hu dle s uc u es o ce eal s o age
we e also iden i ied om hese con ex s. They we e
made o hazel wigs wi h maximum diame e s o 0.5
-2 cm (Fig. 4), wi h he majo i y anging om 0.9 o
1.6cm (Ma ín-Seijo and Ca ballo 2010). The hazel
wigs we e aged be ween 1 and 8 yea s (nb = 77).
Howe e , as g ow h ings a e comple ely p ese ed
only in he base o he unk o base o he b anch
(Mo gan 1988), he age could only be app oxima ely
es ima ed due o he agmen a y na u e o he cha -
coal and subsequen di icul y in iden i ying wha pa
o he b anch hey belonged o. The cu ing season was
p edominan ly du ing he au umn.
This pa e n is also obse ed in O Cas elo (Cen-
lle, Ou ense), whe e se e al assemblages o b anches
(nb=75) o A bu us unedo, E ica sp., Fabaceae, Que -
cus sube and Salix sp, mos o hem be ween 0.5 o
1 cm diame e , we e iden i ied. In his case, b anches
we e cu h oughou he yea , which may be e idence
o epai s o he oo ing and wall s uc u es.
The p esence o wa le and daub s uc u es in he
I on Age se lemen s is qui e common, as is shown
by he p esence o small diame e , lexible wig as-
semblages in many si es. Thei p esence is also indi-
Figu e 5. Maximum diame e s o he imp essions on clay ound a
Pun a do Muiño and Cas o i e.
Table 1. Wooden objec s eco e ed in ‘cas os’ (*p ese ed by min-
e aliza ion).
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WOOD AND CHARCOAL. EVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY. SAGVNTVM EXTRA-13, 2012. 139
ROMAN WOODWORKING
The samples eco e ed om he Roman si es p e-
sen ed a g ea e axonomic a iabili y, p obably due
o he na u e o p ese a ion o he wooden emains,
mos ly om wa e logged con ex s (A eal and Cal-
das), wi h he emainde p ese ed by ca boniza ion
(No ille). Se e al wa e logged objec s could no be
iden i ied because hey we e ea ed p io o sampling
o because he samples we e oo deg aded o iden i y
he species.
In he ma ine sal e n o A eal (Vigo, Pon e ed a)
many s uc u al imbe s su i ed in hei o iginal po-
si ion in a con ex da ing o be ween he 1s and 3 d
cen u ies AD. The pos s and planks which delimi ed
he sal e apo a ion pond we e made o Que cus sp.
deciduous (nb=270), Alnus sp. (nb=7) and Cas anea
sa i a (nb=5) (Fig. 10). In his case we could egis-
e he p ocess by which imbe s we e ob ained (also
called con e sion). The pos s/planks we e ob ained by
adial and longi udinal spli ing and p esen ed di e -
en mo phologies (Fig. 8).
The pos s which delimi ed he channel associa ed
wi h he e apo a ion pond (Fig. 9) we e made o Cas-
iden i ied: i e o hem we e made o Alnus sp. and
one o F axinus sp. The essels ound p ese ed he
handholds and could be desc ibed as bowls o scoops.
In Nabás se e al agmen s, p obably om a box, o
co k (Que cus sube ) we e eco e ed, in associa ion
wi h seeds o Panicum miliaceum. An inde e mina e
objec wi h a handle was also made o Alnus sp. (Fig.
6).
Few ool-ma ks a e p ese ed wi h su icien cla -
i y o de e mine he kind o ool used. In se e al pieces
cu ma ks we e iden i iable. O he ool-ma ks include
he p esence o a cylind ical pe o a ion in one piece
o Que cus sp. deciduous om Cas o i e da ing o
be ween he 4 h and 2nd cen u ies BC, which could be
ela ed o he use o a bow d ill. Manu ac u ing was e
o Ilex aqui olium was p obably ela ed wi h he use
o a la he in a con ex da ed be ween he 1s and 2nd
cen u ies AD (Fig. 7).
Figu e 6. Handle o an inde e mina e objec ound a Al o do Cas o.
Figu e 7. Manu ac u ing was e p obably ela ed wi h he use o a
la he.
Figu e 8. Pos s and planks ob ained by (1) adial and (2) longi udi-
nal angen ial spli ing.

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o 6, he p edominan ange was 2-3 annual ings. The
cu ing season was a ied. O he s uc u al elemen s,
such as s akes o wedges, we e made o Que cus sp.
deciduous.
A he illa o No ille (Muga dos, A Co uña) a
ich assemblage o wood-cha coal was eco e ed
om a i e-a ec ed laye . The species mos used in
cons uc ion we e Que cus sp. deciduous and Pinus
pinea-pinas e (mo e likely he second), bu Alnus sp.,
Co ylus a ellana, F axinus c . F. excelsio , Fabace-
ae and Salix sp. a e also p esen (Fig. 10). The wood
is highly agmen ed, bu i seems o o igina e om
la ge-diame e elemen s; an excep ion a e some small-
diame e willow woods, a species highly alued o
he elas ici y o i s wigs, which mos likely o med
pa o a ne wo k o wa le and daub s uc u es.
In a chaeological con ex s da ing o be ween he
3 d and 5 h cen u ies AD manu ac u ing was e (chips)
and objec s ela ed o cons uc ion (pos s, s akes, nails,
plugs, wedges, planks, s ips and a joine y piece), ish-
ing (ne weigh and loa s, co ks, awls, spa ula) and
o he ac i i ies ( ay, bowl/scoop, op, e c.) we e iden-
i ied. The species ep esen ed in he manu ac u ing
was e we e Que cus sp. deciduous, Cas anea sa i a,
Salix/Populus, F axinus sp., Juglans egia and Ro-
saceae/Maloideae. The elemen s ela ed o wooden
ames we e made o Que cus sp. deciduous and e -
e g een, Cas anea sa i a, Salix/Populus, P unus sp.,
Pinus p. pinea/pinas e and Pinus p. syl es is/nig a.
anea sa i a (nb=26), Que cus sp. deciduous (nb=21)
and Q. sp.e e g een (n=1), and he wa le hu dle was
also made o Que cus sp. deciduous (nb=26), Cas a-
nea sa i a (nb=26) and F angula alnus (nb=1) wigs.
The diame e s o hese wigs we e be ween 0.3 and 4
cm, al hough he p edominan ange was om 1 o 2
cm. The numbe o annual ings iden ied was om 1
Figu e 10. Taxa iden i ied a A eal (wa e logging) and No ille (ca -
boniza ion).
Figu e 9. Wa le s uc u e o he channel associa ed wi h he e apo-
a ion pond a A eal.
Table 2. Wooden objec s om A eal.
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ylus a ellana, Salix/Populus and Cas anea sa i a
b anches wi h a diame e be ween 1.5-2 cm, as well
as he clay imp essions o b anches, was ela ed o
wa le hu dles and wa le and daub s uc u es du ing
he I on Age and he Roman pe iod.
The imbe equi emen s we e me by local e-
sou ces since he iden i ied axa we e cha ac e is ic
o he landscapes o No hwes Ibe ia du ing he I on
Age and Roman pe iod and he e is no e idence o
he use o “exo ic” wood. The widesp ead use o he
ma i ime pine a No ille can p obably be a ibu ed
o he plan a ion o hese species by he Romans o
wood exploi a ion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The au ho s wan o add ess special hanks o Clíodhna ní
Lionáin o e iewing he English e sion o he ex .
The wooden objec s ela ed o ishing and o he ac-
i i ies we e made o Que cus sube , Cas anea sa i a,
F axinus sp. and Que cus sp. deciduous (Table 2).
A Caldas de Reis (Pon e ed a) a wooden beam
o Que cus was p ese ed associa ed wi h a le el o
collapse da ed o be ween he 3 d and 4 h cen u ies AD.
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis o hese assemblages p o ides in-
o ma ion on he use o wood du ing he I on Age
and he Roman pe iod in he no hwes o he Ibe ian
Peninsula (Table 3). Romaniza ion p obably a ec ed
he h ee pilla s o all c a p oduc ion - aw ma e i-
als, echnology and social con ex s (Feugè e 2011;
Tisse and 2011) – in di e en ways. Fu he analysis
o he inno a ion and sp ead o woodwo king ech-
niques would equi e he in es iga ion o a g ea e
numbe o a i ac s and s uc u es.
These da a show he wide ange o uses o which
wood was pu by hese communi ies while he wood-
en a i ac s and imbe s uc u es p o ide an insigh
in o con empo a y domes ic li e. Al hough in he
pas many ools and household equipmen would
ha e been o wood, li le is known abou he use
o his ma e ial due o p oblems o p ese a ion on
mos si es. Species we e selec ed o hei physical
and mechanical p ope ies esponding o he equi e-
men s o he end objec in ques ion, e.g. high quali y
unks o s uc u al elemen s, lexible b anches o
amewo ks, o ine-g ained wood o mo e inely
wo ked objec s.
The wooden amewo ks indica e he p esence
o o es y managemen p ac ices ela ed o he p o-
duc ion o la ge, s aigh and lexible b anches. The
obse a ion o he cu ing season h ough he p es-
ence o ba k on he b anches indica es ha elling
ook place du ing a ious seasons. E hnog aphic
examples indica e ha b anches o amewo ks a e
used when s ill g een because o hei g ea lexibil-
i y; bu he s uc u es could ha e also been epai ed
in a ious seasons o he yea . The p esence o Co-
Table 3. Taxa iden i ied in wooden manu ac u es om I on Age and
Roman si es.
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142
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