TESE DE DOUTORAMENTO
LEARNING GENETICS AND
EVOLUTION THROUGH
SCIENTIFIC PRACTICES. A CASE
STUDY WITH SECONDARY
STUDENTS
Noa Agei os P ego
ESCUELA DE DOUTORAMENTO INTERNACIONAL
PROGRAMA DE DOUTORAMENTO EN EDUCACIÓN
SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA
2019
DECLARACIÓN
DA AUTORA DA
TESE
Lea ning gene ics and e olu ion
h ough scien i ic p ac ices. A case s udy
wi h seconda y s uden s
Dna.
Noa Agei os P ego
P esen o a miña ese, seguindo o p ocedemen o axei ado ao
Regulamen o, e decla o que:
1) A ese aba ca os esul ados da elabo ación do meu aballo.
2) De selo caso, na ese aise e e encia ás colabo acións que i o
es e aballo.
3) A ese é a e sión de ini i a p esen ada pa a a súa de ensa e
coincide coa e sión en iada en o ma o elec ónico.
4) Con i mo que a ese non inco e en ningún ipo de plaxio dou os
au o es nin de aballos p esen ados po min pa a a ob ención
dou os í ulos.
En San iago, 10 de ou ub o de 2019.
Asdo. Noa Agei os P ego
5
AUTORIZACIÓN DA DIRECTORA E
TITORA DA TESE
Lea ning Gene ics and E olu ion h ough
scien i ic p ac ices. A case s udy wi h
seconda y s uden s
Dna. Blanca Puig
INFORMA:
Que a p esen e ese, co espóndese co aballo ealizado po Dna. Noa
Agei os P ego, baixo a miña di ección, e au o izo a súa p esen ación,
conside ando que eúne os equisi os esixidos no Regulamen o de Es udos
de Dou o amen o da USC, e que como di ec o a des a non inco e nas causas
de abs ención es ablecidas na Lei 40/2015.
De aco do co a igo 41 do Regulamen o de Es udos de Dou o amen o,
decla a amén que a p esen e ese de dou o amen o é idónea pa a se
de endida en base á modalidade de COMPENDIO DE PUBLICACIÓNS, nos
que a pa icipación do/a dou o ando/a oi decisi a pa a a súa elabo ación.
A u ilización des es a igos nes a memo ia, es á en coñecemen o dos
coau o es, an o dou o es como non dou o es. Ademais, es es úl imos eñen
coñecemen o de que ningún dos aballos aquí eunidos pode á se
p esen ado en ningunha ou a ese de dou o amen o.
En San iago de Compos ela, 10 de ou ub o de 2019
Asdo. Blanca Puig Mau iz
7
AGRADECEMENTOS
A ealización des a ese oi posible g azas ao apoio de di e sas
pe soas a ins i ucións. A con inuación a a ei de exp esa o meu
ag adecemen o a odas elas.
En p imei o luga , exp eso o meu ag adecemen o ao Minis e io de
Educación, Cul u a y Depo e, g azas ao cal pa icipei nos p oxec os
EDU2012-38022-C02-01 e EDU2015-66643-C2-2-P. Á Conselle ía de
Cul u a, Educación e O denación Uni e si a ia da Xun a de Galicia,
coas axudas ao G upo de Re e encia Compe i i a RODA CN2012/054
e ED431C 2017/026. Á axuda de mobilidade ESERA T a el Awa d
2016, que me pe mi iu ealiza unha es ancia na Uni e si y o Abe deen
pa a pode op a a mención in e nacional nes a ese.
Á miña di ec o a de ese, Blanca Puig. Sen a súa axuda,
acompañamen o, paciencia e dedicación es e p oxec o non e ía sido
posible. G aciñas po guia me, apoia me e ensina me an o ao longo
des es anos.
A Ma ila Jiménez Aleixand e, po axuda me a comeza no mundo
da in es igación di ixindo o meu TFM e apoiándome e animándome
nos p imei os pasos da miña o mación como in es igado a.
A ese se desen ol eu no ma co do p oxec o FEDER/Minis e io de
Ciencia, Inno ación e Uni e sidades – Axencia Es a al de
In es igación/ P oxec o ESPIGA ("P omo iendo el Desa ollo del
Pensamien o C í ico y de las dimensiones de Implicación Cogni i a y
Emocional de los desempeños Epis émicos en las Clases de Ciencias
en la E a de la Pos e dad"), e e encia PGC2018-096581-B-C22.
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
8
Aos i o es das escolas de e án de NARST e ESERA, pola súa
axuda bos consellos nas p imei as e apas des e aballo.
A Lau a Colucci-G ay, po acolle me an xene osamen e na
Uni e si y o Abe deen e apo a an o na miña o mación e a es a ese.
Ao alumnado e ás amilias, que acep a on o ma pa e nes e
es udo. Ao p o eso ado que me pe mi iu acompañalos nas súas aulas,
en especial a Xus o Cal o, que du an e dous anos me pe mi iu ap ende
da súa expe iencia.
Ás miñas amigas, en especial a Lucía, C is, Thais, Fá ima e C is.
Po acompaña me du an e es es anos, po que unha con e sa con os é
su icien e pa a supe a os momen os de desánimo.
Con moi o aga imo, á miña amilia. Á miña nai Ca men, polo seu
apoio incondicional en odas as e apas da miña ida. Ao meu pai Xulio,
quen me con axiou o amo polo ensino, pola na u eza e po ap ende .
Po úl imo, a odas as mes as e p o eso as coas que des u ei
ap endendo du an e o colexio e o ins i u o, e que me mo i a on pa a
que e se docen e.
Aos memb os do depa amen o de Didác icas Aplicadas, en
especial aos compañei os da á ea Ciencias Expe imen ais. Tamén aos
meus compañei os de despacho, Sabela, Pablo, Bo ja e Inés, aga do
pode segui ap endendo de ós.
A Ángel Ca acedo, po aconsella nos e o ien a nos á ho a de
escolle as doenzas a aballa na aula co alumnado.
9
PRESENTATION
This hesis is s uc u ed ollowing he guidelines and egula ions
es ablished o he publica ion o heses as a compendium o esea ch
a icles. This was app o ed by he esolu ion 12 de julio de 2017 po la
que se publica el Reglamen o de es udios de doc o ado by means o
which he Regula ion on PhD s udies was published, and which was
app o ed in he Pleno o dina io del Consejo de Gobie no de 12 de junio
de 2017, egula ed by he Real Dec e o 99/201.
In acco dance wi h he egula ions go e ning he o ma o he
p esen a ion o heses as a compendium o publica ions, we ha e
s uc u ed he hesis in he ollowing manne :
Sec ion 1: In oduc ion
Sec ion 2: Publica ions
Sec ion 3: Discussion
Sec ion 4: Conclusions and educa ional implica ions
Sec ion 5: Re e ences
This hesis con ains h ee o iginal a icles amed wi hin he same
line o esea ch; he s udy o scien i ic and easoning p ac ices by
seconda y school s uden s when lea ning gene ics and e olu ion. The
h ee a icles a e p esen ed in he o iginal language and o ma in which
hey we e o iginally published. In addi ion, a ou h a icle is included,
since i p esen s he design o he eaching sequence ha in ol es he
asks objec o analysis in his hesis.
1. Puig, B., Agei os, N. & Jiménez-Aleixand e, M. P. (2017).
Lea ning Gene Exp ession Th ough Modelling and A gumen a ion. A
Case S udy Explo ing he Connec ions Be ween he Wo lds o
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
16
a gumen ación (e.g., Be land e Reise , 2009; Passmo e e S oboda,
2012).
Exis e un aumen o de in e ese na in es igación sob e p ác icas
cien í icas na análise conxun a das p ác icas de a gumen ación e
modelización (e.g., Cla k, Sengup a, B ady, Ma inez-Ga za, e
Killingswo h, 2015; Passmo e e S oboda, 2012). Es a ese p e ende
in es iga que ope acións eñen luga no desempeño de ambas p ác icas
cien í icas e as súas posibles in e accións.
A e ó ica e a gumen ación e as súas in e seccións no discu so
A a gumen ación pode se incluída den o das p ác icas
epis émicas e cien í icas, máis amén den o das p ác icas de
azoamen o. Den o des as, au o es como Ma ins, Mo ime , Osbo ne,
Tsa sa elis, e Jiménez-Aleixand e (2001) p opoñen explo a un
conxun o máis amplo de es a exias discu si as, alén da a gumen ación
cien í ica, como pode se a e ó ica. Son escasas as in es igacións que
se cen an en analiza a e ó ica na ap endizaxe de ciencias polo
alumnado, a di e enza dos es udos que abo dan a a gumen ación
(Osbo ne, 2001). En consecuencia, pouco se coñece sob e o papel da
e ó ica na cons ución de a gumen os e na aplicación do
coñecemen os. En liña con Osbo ne (2001), es a ese p opón a análise
da e ó ica como ía pa a log a unha mello comp ensión sob e como
p omo e a a gumen ación cien í ica en a iculación coa aplicación do
coñecemen o na aula de ciencias.
Es a ese pa e da isión de que a a gumen ación é unha p ác ica
social na que os memb os da comunidade p ocu an explica os
enómenos es udados a aliando, c i icando e e isando as conclusións
a a és do discu so (Be land e Reise , 2011). Vemos a e ó ica como
unha compoñen e i al da linguaxe, así como unha e amen a pa a
comp ende o discu so cien í ico. O e mo e ó ica pode se emp egado
pa a e e i se á a iculación de di e en es modos de comunicación,
como linguaxe, imaxes e xes os, pa a p oduci ex os cohe en es, que
axudan a da o ma a unha isión de e minada do mundo (D i e ,
New on e Osbo ne, 2000). Os es udos sob e a linguaxe ixe on incapé
Resumo
17
sob a as in e seccións en e a a gumen ación e a e ó ica como p ác icas
discu si as que poden da o ma ao pensamen o dos es udan es e a
ou as ac i idades epis émicas (Kelly e Baze man, 2003).
Ap endizaxe de xené ica e e olución. P incipais di icul ades
Du an e as úl imas décadas, p oducí onse g andes a ances
concep uais e ecnolóxicos no campo da xené ica, moi os dos cales
chegan ao ámbi o público. Todo is o equi e a comp ensión de ideas
cien í icas sob e xené ica po pa e da cidadanía (Feins ein, Allen e
Jenkins, 2013; Ryde 2001). A al abe ización en xené ica implica se
capaz de comp ende , u iliza ou esponde a in o mación sob e
enómenos xené icos e ecnoloxías que un indi iduo pode a opa en
si uacións da ida co iá (Duncan, Roga e Ya den, 2009). É dici , oma
decisións in o madas sob e cues ións sociais e cien í icas complexas
(Shea e Duncan, 2015).
A xené ica é unha disciplina que p esen a di icul ades á ho a de
ensina e ap ende . Knippels (2002) ag upa en cinco ca ego ías as
di icul ades a opadas na ap endizaxe de xené ica: 1) ocabula io e
e minoloxía especí ica; 2) con ido ma emá ico nas a e as de xené ica
mendeliana; 3) p ocesos ci olóxicos; 4) na u eza abs ac a da xené ica;
5) complexidade da xené ica: os p oblemas mac o-mic o. Ademais,
au o es como Mills Shaw, Van Ho ne, Zhang e Boughman (2008), an
e e encia a di icul ades especí icas elacionadas con: a) ecnoloxías
xené icas; b) de e minismo xené ico; c) pa óns de he danza; d)
na u eza dos xenes e do ma e ial xené ico; e) base xené ica das
en e midades; ) in es igación en xené ica; g) ecnoloxías ep odu i as.
En espos a a es as di icul ades, xo den inicia i as docen es e
p opos as pa a supe alas, sendo a unidade didác ica des a ese un
exemplo que oma en con a no seu deseño apo es p e ios da li e a u a.
En conc e o, p opos as o ien adas a mello a a comp ensión do modelo
de exp esión dos xenes e as elacións eno ipo e xeno ipo. En liña con
Reinagel e B ay Spe h (2016), p oponse a modelización como unha
p ác ica que axuda a mello a a comp ensión sob e a elación en e os
xenes e os eno ipos.
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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A e olución é un dos concep os undamen ais da bioloxía, mais a
súa ensinanza e ap endizaxe p esen a desa íos (And ews e al., 2017).
Exis en nume osos es udos que amosan ideas al e na i as sob e a eo ía
da e olución (Albe s e Labo 2004; Fe a i e Chi, 1998; Mille , Sco
e Okamo o, 2006). De aco do a Al e s e Nelson (2002) es as ideas
poden clasi ica se segundo a súa o ixe en: a) ideas que xo den de
expe iencias co iás; b) ideas cons uídas polo p opio alumnado, nas que
es es acomodan no a in o mación ao seu ma co an e io ; c) ideas
ensinadas in o malmen e po ou as pe soas ou ap endidas na icción;
d) ideas e náculas, que xo den da di e enza en e a de inición
cien í ica dunha palab a e o seu uso co ián; e) concep os e óneos e
elixiosos.
Exis en escasas in es igacións que abo den conxun amen e a
ap endizaxe de xené ica e e olución. Un dos aballos que oma como
e e encia es a ese é o de Kalinowski, Leona d e And ews (2010), que
mos a di icul ades po pa e do alumnado uni e si a io pa a usa
concep os de xené ica molecula á ho a de cons uí explicacións de
e olución. Is o con as a coa idea de que a e olución pa a se
comp endida p ecisa de concep os de paleon oloxía, emb ioloxía,
bioxeog a ía, bioloxía molecula e xené ica de poboacións (May ,
2002). Is o le a a que cada ez exis a maio consenso sob e a
necesidade de po encia os ínculos in e disciplina ios en odas es as
á eas pa a p omo e a comp ensión e ap endizaxe dos es udan es
(Tibell e Ha ms, 2017).
Xené ica e e olución a icúlanse nes a ese no con ex o de
elaciona dúas doenzas humanas, unha delas con compoñen e xené ica.
Me odoloxía
Es a ese o ma pa e da in es igación cuali a i a, a cal in en a
in es iga como as pe soas cons úen o mundo ao seu edo , que an ou
que lles oco e, a ando de ob e unha isión signi ica i a e ica da
obse ación da si uación. En conc e o, enmá case den o dos es udos
de caso que se elacionan con enómenos sociais e poñen o oco de
Resumo
19
a ención nunha ou a ias das súas mani es acións e no seu en o no
(Swanbo n, 2010). Es a ese abo da un es udo de caso único (Yin, 2003)
de ipo explo a o io, no que se analizan os desempeños de p ác icas
cien í icas po un g upo de in e es udan es en di e sas a e as que
o man pa e dunha unidade didác ica de xené ica e e olución.
O con ex o no que se desen ol e o es udo é un ins i u o de ensino
secunda io (IES) do in e io de Galicia. O cen o, malia si ua se nunha
ila, considé ase semiu bano e ecibe alumnado do cen o da ila e de
di e sas aldeas que se a opan p e o. O ni el socio-cul u al é medio e
g an pa e do alumnado con inúa os es udos de bacha ela o ao ema a
o Ensino Secunda io Ob iga o io (ESO). A elección do cen o
pa icipan e es i o mo i ada polo in e ese do p o eso ado en pa icipa
no p oxec o de in es igación.
Os pa icipan es son dúas aulas de 20 es udan es de en e 15 e 16
anos de 4º ESO e os seus dous p o eso es (T1 e T2) da ma e ia de
bioloxía e xeoloxía. As dúas aulas euní onse e o alumnado aballou
como un soa aula. Ambos docen es le aban máis de 10 anos no ensino
público e a ios anos ensinando nes e mesmo cen o. No caso de T1,
cabe menciona , que pa icipou p e iamen e nunha in es igación de
didác ica de ciencias cen ada no desen ol emen o da modelización en
xeoloxía. Ademais, es e docen e elabo a os seus p opios modelos pa a
aballa con eles na aula.
Os dous p o eso es discu i on en p e ias eunións coas
in es igado as a pos a en p ác ica das a e as, o deseño e adecuación
des as, alo ando a súa idoneidade endo en con a as necesidades dos
pa icipan es. Es as eunións ealizá onse an o no cen o educa i o
como no cen o de aballo da in es igado a. Cómp e sinala que ambos
docen es desen ol e on as a e as na aula, mais o seu ol oi dis in o.
T1 di ixía as sesións e guiaba aos dis in os g upos no desen ol emen o
das ac i idades e T2 apoiaba a T1 no desen ol emen o das ac i idades
Ambos docen es espondían as demandas dos dis in os g upos e
p opo cionaban a andamiaxe que demandaba cada g upo.
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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As ac i idades obxec o de análise nes a ese o man pa e dunha
p imei a secuencia didác ica sob e xené ica e e olución e p ác icas
cien í icas. En conc e o analízanse a p imei a e úl ima a e as g upais.
O deseño das ac i idades i o en con a os con idos elacionados con
xené ica e e olución do cu ículo ixen e (CCEOU, 2015), ademais dos
esul ados de in es igacións an e io es sob e ensinanza de xené ica e
e olución. A secuencia abo da di e sas doenzas con compoñen e
xené ica que equi en a comp ensión e aplicación do modelo de
exp esión dos xenes. Ademais, co in de encella xené ica e e olución,
inclúese unha doenza que se elaciona e olu i amen e cunha das
en e midades p e iamen e aballadas.
A secuencia didác ica 1 inclúe ca o ac i idades ealizadas en
pequenos g upos en seis sesións. As ac i idades o dénase seguindo
dous c i e ios: 1) o ni el de complexidade das en e midades, desde
unha en e midade máis sinxela, monoxénica (a anemia alci o me) a a
unha máis complexa, polixénica, como o canc o de mama; 2) a
p og esión no desempeño das p ác icas cien í icas. Pá ese dunha
ac i idade na que se equi e elabo a un modelo “ma e ial” sob e a
exp esión dos xenes pa a explica a anemia alci o me; con inúase con
dúas a e as nas que é p eciso aplica o modelo a ou as en e midades
humanas; e emá ase a secuencia coa aplicación do modelo inicial
elabo ado pa a es ablece as elacións e olu i as en e dúas
en e midades.
A oma de da os i o luga no anscu so no mal das dis in as
sesións. A in es igado a, p esen e en seis sesións g a adas en son e
ídeo i o un papel de obse ado a non pa icipan e, co p opósi o de
non in luí no desen ol emen o das sesións. Decidiuse op a po ca o
ins umen os pa a a ecollida de da os e iangulación: 1) enquisas aos
docen es, 2) os in o mes esc i os das a e as, 3) as g a acións en son e
ídeo, 4) as no as de campo da in es igado a.
O p oceso de análise seguido cons a de a ias ases. Comézase pola
ansc ición das g a acións das con e sas, sendo a unidade de análise a
quenda. Di e en es episodios son iden i icados, nalgúns casos, e a
Resumo
21
con inuación ealízase a ca ego ización. O p oceso de análise en luga
en in e acción cos da os e a li e a u a exis en e, dado que en endemos
que a análise non debe pa i de ca ego ías p ede e minadas (Kelly e
Takao, 2002), senón que deben de ini se en in e acción coa li e a u a e
os p opios da os. Di e sas úb icas p opos as en in es igacións p e ias
son adap adas en in e acción cos da os pa a abo da os di e en es
obxec i os de in es igación.
Publicacións
Publicación 1. Lea ning Gene Exp ession Th ough Modelling and
A gumen a ion. A Case S udy Explo ing he Connec ions Be ween he
Wo lds o Knowledge
A in es igación sob e p ác icas cien í icas na ac ualidade pon
especial in e ese en es uda as elacións que eñen luga en e p ác icas
como a modelización e a a gumen ación cien í ica (e.g., Blanco-Anaya,
Jus i e Díaz de Bus aman e, 2017; Passmo e e S oboda, 2012). Na
in es igación sob e ap endizaxe de bioloxía, esul a de especial in e ese
analiza es as elacións en e p ác icas en con ex os como a ap endizaxe
de como a xené ica e e olución, onde o alumnado p esen a di icul ades
(Kampou akis e Zogza, 2009; Shea, Duncan e S ephenson, 2015).
A modelización pode axuda aos es udan es a comp ende e
a gumen a sob e emas elacionados coa xené ica (Reinagel e B ay
Spe h, 2016). Nes e aballo p oponse modeliza a exp esión dos xenes
como ía pa a ap ende xené ica molecula e iden i ica os p ocesos e
en idades que pa icipan que non son isibles, así como pa a explica
en e midades cunha compoñen e xené ica.
Es e es udo es á enma cado na p opos a de Tibe ghien (2000) sob e
os dous mundos do coñecemen o, o “mundo das eo ías e modelos” e o
“mundo dos obxec os e e en os” que o man pa e dos p ocesos
modelización, segundo es a au o a. Nes e caso, amplíase o ma co de
Tibe ghien (2000) engadíndose un e cei o mundo que se co esponde
co “mundo das ep esen acións”. P e éndese examina como
in e accionan as p ác icas de modelización e a gumen ación, así como
as conexións que es ablecen en e os es mundos do coñecemen o na
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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modelización da exp esión dos xenes polo alumnado. Nes a publicación
abó danse as p egun as de in es igación P1 e P2 da ese.
A análise do discu so pe mi iu iden i ica un epe o io de
ope acións de a gumen ación e de modelización e as conexións que
es ablecen en e os mundos do coñecemen o. A ope ación de
modelización máis ecuen e é de ca ác e manipula i o, sendo as
elacionadas co me a-coñemen o da p ác ica escasas nes e con ex o. En
can o ás ope acións de a gumen ación, o uso de p obas é a
p edominan e du an e odo o p oceso de modelización. Pola con a, as
elacionadas coa c í ica son pouco ecuen es, o que e ela di icul ades
polo alumnado pa a a alia enunciados e modelos p opos os po ou os.
As conexións co mundo na u al son as menos ecuen es, o que apun a
a necesidade de p es a a ención a es e dominio de coñecemen o na
modelización.
Publicación 2: A gumen a ion as a ool o explain he e olu iona y
links be ween human diseases: a case s udy
Nume osos es udos o on p opos os pa a p omo e a
a gumen ación na ap endizaxe de ciencias, xa que, malia se unha
compoñen e cla e das p ác icas de cons ución de coñecemen o, a súa
p esenza nas aulas é escasa (Be land e Reise , 2009). Exis en es udos
que abo dan a a gumen ación no con ex o de ap endizaxe de xené ica e
e olución, mais semp e abo dando ambas disciplinas po sepa ado.
Es e a igo examina a a gumen ación e a gumen os esc i os do
alumnado nunha ac i idade que equi ía es ablece elacións
explica i as en e a anemia alci o me e a mala ia. Con ex o que pon en
elación a xené ica e a e olución.
Nes a publicación abó danse as p egun as de in es igación P3 e P4
da ese. A análise cén ase nos a gumen os esc i os cons uídos en
g upos polo alumnado pa icipan e, an o no que se e i e á súa es u u a
causal, como á súa calidade en base a coñecemen os aplicados e
xus i icacións apo adas. Ademais, analízanse os da os emp egados na
elabo ación de a gumen os inais consensuados sob e as elacións en e
as dúas doenzas.
Resumo
23
Di e sas úb icas o on adap adas da li e a u a en in e accións cos
da os pa a le a a cabo es a análise. Os esul ados apun an ás
di icul ades dos es udan es pa a cons uí a gumen os de calidade en
e mos de usa unha linguaxe causal cla a e nocións de xené ica e
e olución. A maio ía do alumnado u iliza os da os p opo cionados na
a e a, mais pa e des es da os son e o mulados pa a acomoda se ás
súas eo ías p e ias. Rep esen acións sociais e cul u ais elacionadas
coa o ixe da anemia alci o me así como posicións eleolóxicas son
iden i icadas no discu so esc i o.
Publicación 3. Examining easoning p ac ices and epis emic
ac ions o explo e s uden s’ unde s anding o gene ics and e olu ion
Es e a igo cén ase na análise dos mo emen os discu si os e
p ác icas de azoamen o no discu so o al do alumnado nunha a e a, a
mesma que na publicación 2, que equi e explica as elacións en e a
anemia alci o me e a mala ia. Examínanse as in e seccións en e a
e ó ica e a a gumen ación, así como as accións epis émicas que
mobilizan nes e con ex o.
Nes a publicación abó danse as p egun as de in es igación P5 e P6
da ese. A análise dos mo emen os e ó icos e do uso de p obas pe mi e
iden i ica es ma cos de coñecemen o nos que o alumnado se si úa á
ho a de discu i as elacións en e as dúas en e midades humanas. O
ipo de accións epis émicas iden i icadas e nas que pa icipa o
alumnado, pa ecen es a di ec amen e elacionadas co con ido dos da os
p opo cionados, esul ado que apun a á impo ancia des es. Ademais,
as accións epis émicas pa ecen condiciona o ni el de so is icación das
explicacións elabo adas sob e as elacións e olu i as en e dúas
en e midades humanas. Is o elaciónase coas di icul ades a opadas no
emp ego dunha adecuada e minoloxía sob e e olución e sob e xené ica
no discu so o al. Iden i ícanse no discu so, de igual xei o que nos
a gumen os esc i os, ep esen acións sociais elacionadas con
di e enzas cul u ais e biolóxicas en e g upos humanos e posicións
eleolóxicas.
Discusión xe al
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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O uso de da os como p obas é un ío condu o ao longo da ese. No
p imei o a igo emos como en un papel undamen al, sendo a
ope ación de uso de p obas a máis ecuen e e a que pe mi e uni os es
mundos de coñecemen o. O ol no segundo e e cei o a igos én dado
polo deseño da p opia a e a, que equi e ao alumnado analiza e usa
un epe o io de da os con dis in o ni el epis émico pa a chega a unha
conclusión inal sob e as elacións en e a anemia alci o me e a
mala ia. Nes e caso, os esul ados amosan que o alumnado u iliza en
cada momen o os da os que se lles p opo cionaban, mais en ocasións
acomodan es es en base ás súas eo ías p e ias e cons ucións cul u ais
e sociais. A análise dos da os do segundo e e cei o a igo apun a á
exis encia de ideas al e na i as sob e xené ica e e olución. Pa e des as
ideas es án elacionadas con explicacións eleolóxicas, e ou a pa e,
con ep esen acións sociais elacionadas coa o ixe da anemia alci o me
en Á ica. A análise do discu so o al pe mí enos comp oba que o
alumnado non oi quen de cons uí unha explicación so is icada sob e
a elación en e a mala ia e a anemia alci o me.
Ou o elemen o en común que eme xe da análise dos es a igos
en que e coas di icul ades do alumnado pa a mo e se en e dis in os
ni eis de o ganización biolóxica (molecula es, celula es e indi iduais),
o que es á en cohe encia con in es igacións p e ias (po exemplo,
Ma bach-Ad e S a y, 2000; an Mil Boe winkel e Waa lo, 2013). Na
p imei a a e a, analizada no a igo 1, os ma e iais p opo cionados no
ki p e endían se i pa a acili a a iden i icación de en idades de
dis in os ni eis de o ganización biolóxica (molecula e celula ). A
a e a abo dada nas publicacións 2 e 3, ela i a ás elacións e olu i as
en e dúas en e midades, p esen aba da os des es ni eis pe o amén o
ni el de poboación. Os es udan es i e on di icul ades á ho a de discu i
en p o undidade os da os de di e en es ni eis p esen ados que pode ían
axuda a cons uí unha explicación e olu i a.
Conclusións
A análise do obxec i o 1, examina as in e accións en e a
modelización e a a gumen ación e as súas conexións cos es mundos
Resumo
25
do coñecemen o no con ex o de ap endizaxe da exp esión dos xenes en
alumnado de secunda ia, pe mí enos es ablece cinco conclusións:
1. Iden i ícanse unha se ie de ope acións a gumen a i as e de
modelización du an e a modelización a exp esión dos xenes po pa e
do alumnado no con ex o de explica unha en e midade humana.
2. O "uso de p obas" oi unha ope ación cen al no p oceso de
modelización da exp esión dos xenes, que pe mi iu conec a os es
mundos do coñecemen o ( eo ías e mundo na u al; eo ías e
ep esen acións; e ep esen acións e mundo na u al).
3. Examina a modelización pe mi e iden i ica as conexións en e
os es mundos do coñecemen o elacionados coa exp esión dos xenes
que es ablecía alumnado. O mundo na u al oi o menos ecuen e na
modelización da exp esión dos xenes.
4. Pa ece que exis e unha elación en e a so is icación das
ep esen acións, as conexións en e os mundos do coñecemen o e as
in e accións en e a gumen ación e modelización. Un maio núme o de
conexións p oduciuse cando se es ablece on máis in e accións, o que
esul ou nunha ep esen ación máis so is icada.
5. A c í ica oi unha ope ación di ícil de ealiza polo alumnado
men es se dedicaban á cons ución do modelo, dando explicacións
de e minis as.
A análise do obxec i o 2, examina os a gumen os e da os
emp egados polo alumnado de secunda ia pa a explica as elacións
en e dúas en e midades humanas na ap endizaxe de xené ica e
e olución, pe mí enos es ablece dúas conclusións:
6. Fo on escasas as conside acións de xené ica e e olución na
maio ía dos a gumen os inais esc i os consensuados polo alumnado
sob e as elacións en e a anemia alci o me e a mala ia.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH
This doc o al hesis ocuses on in es iga ing seconda y s uden s’
pe o mance o a gumen a ion and modelling, as well as he easoning
p ac ices and epis emic ac ions enac ed when lea ning gene ics and
e olu ion. The publica ions included in his hesis as a compendium o
a icles add ess, on he one hand, he s udy o a gumen a ion and
modelling p ac ices and hei mu ual in e ac ions in ela ion o he
wo lds o knowledge ha a e pu in o play when modelling gene
exp ession. On he o he hand, hey in oduce he o ic in o he analysis
o a gumen a ion and examine he use o e idence and he epis emic
ac ions pe o med by s uden s in he con ex o lea ning oge he
gene ics and e olu ion.
The main eason o add essing his esea ch p ojec is ela ed o
pe sonal and p o essional conce ns o he esea che , a seconda y
school science eache who has no iced ha seconda y s uden s show
di icul ies o lea ning gene ics and e olu ion. Ano he mo i a ing
ac o was he need o connec bo h domains, e olu ion and gene ics,
using signi ican con ex s, such as hose add essed in his hesis. This
conce n is aligned wi h he exis ence o a la ge body o esea ch
ega ding gene ics educa ion, which e eals s uden s' di icul ies bo h
in unde s anding and in applying he model o gene exp ession.
Mo eo e , in he case o e olu ion, he iden i ica ion o eleological
posi ions in he li e a u e (e.g., Kampou akis & Zogza, 2009; Puig &
Jiménez-Aleixand e, 2010) unde s anding his heo y in e ms o
pu pose o a endency owa ds imp o emen is ano he eason o
add essing his esea ch.
Gene ics esea ch is p og essing wi h new da a and new echniques
(Shea, Duncan & S ephenson, 2015) as well as new concep s and new
e ms (B own, 2008; Flodin, 2017). Scien i ic ad ances in he ield such
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
34
as gene he apy, geno yping es s and he use o s em cells equi e
decision-making and a c i ical li e acy om ci izens. Rega ding
e olu ion, acco ding o Dobzhansky (1973) no hing in biology makes
sense excep in he ligh o e olu ion. E olu ion con inues o ope a e
nowadays, some hing ha s uden s do no always iden i y (Puig, 2013).
Fo ins ance, i can be associa ed wi h he p esence o human diseases,
being pa icula ly clea in he case o he ela ionships be ween mala ia
and sickle cell disease (he eina e SCD) add essed in his hesis.
Cu en esea ch in o gene ics and e olu ion educa ion sugges s ha
hese wo domains could be connec ed in o de o imp o e hei
unde s anding. P e ious s udies poin o he bene i s o eaching
gene ics be o e e olu ion because i imp o es s uden s’ unde s anding
(Mead, Hejmadi & Hu s , 2017). I has also been sugges ed ha speci ic
emphasis on gene ics du ing ins uc ion may enhance concep ual
change in e olu ion (Kampou akis & Zogza, 2009). The e is sca ce
e idence ega ding he bene i s o gene ics and e olu ion ins uc ion
h ough s uden s' engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices, being his one o
he main con ibu ions o he hesis.
This esea ch also con ibu es o wo pe sonal objec i es. On he
one hand, as a eache , i con ibu es o he sea ch o inno a i e
eaching me hodologies ha acili a e lea ning abou gene ics and
e olu ion h ough scien i ic p ac ices in he seconda y school
class oom. On he o he hand, as a esea che , i seeks o con ibu e o
he s udy o he o igin and possible causes o s uden s’ lea ning
di icul ies in bo h domains h ough he analysis o scien i ic p ac ices
and he o ic. The de elopmen o esou ces and eaching ma e ials o
he ins uc ion o gene exp ession and i s applica ion o di e se con ex s
ela ed o human diseases is also a goal o his hesis.
Fu he mo e, hese mo i a ions a e connec ed o he science
educa ion esea ch de eloped wi hin he esea ch g oup RODA
(Reasoning, Discou se and A gumen a ion) a he Uni e si y o
San iago de Compos ela (USC). The in es iga ion ocuses on
in es iga ing he p ocesses o s uden s’ pa icipa ion in he scien i ic
p ac ices o p oduc ion, e alua ion and communica ion o knowledge
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
35
in di e en con ex s and educa ional le els. In he case o his hesis,
seconda y educa ion is add essed since i is he educa ional le el in
which gene ics and e olu ion a e included in he cu iculum (CCEOU1,
2015). In addi ion, he a icles o he hesis we e de eloped wi hin he
amewo k o wo na ional p ojec s. Publica ions 1, 2 and 4 a e ela ed
o he p ojec "Scien i ic P ac ices in Science Teaching and Lea ning,
Dimensions in T ans e ence and Pe o mance" (SCI-PRAC), code
EDU2015-66643-C2-2-P. In pa icula , wi h wo p ojec objec i es
ela ed o designing ma e ials ha p omo e a gumen a ion, i s
a icula ion wi h modelling p ac ices and wi h he analysis o he
pe o mance o hese wo p ac ices in he science class oom.
Publica ion 3 has been de eloped wi hin he amewo k o his
p ojec and i was comple ed in a second p ojec ha ecen ly began in
2019, "P omo ing he de elopmen o c i ical hinking and he social
and me acogni i e dimension o epis emic pe o mances in science
class ooms in he pos - u h e a" (ESPIGA) code PGC2018-096581-B-
C22. The connec ion wi h his second p ojec is wi h one objec i e
dealing wi h he analysis o he cogni i e domain in s uden s’
pe o mance o epis emic p ac ices.
The hesis d aws om a p e ious esea ch de eloped wi hin he
RODA g oup abou he use o e idence and a gumen a ion in lea ning
gene ics in seconda y educa ion (Puig, 2013). This s udy e ealed he
exis ence o de e minis ic posi ions among seconda y s uden s in
ela ion o he model o gene exp ession. This hesis sugges s he
inco po a ion o modelling gene exp ession o imp o e i s
unde s anding, as well as helping o o e come de e minis ic posi ions.
Modelling has been p oposed as a way o unde s anding biological
p ocesses ha a e no isible (Ven ille & Dono an, 2008). We belie e
ha his p ac ice is a sui able s a ing con ex o gene ics lea ning,
gi en he a ie y o elemen s and p ocesses a he cellula and molecula
le el ha a e di icul o isualise (F eiden eich, Duncan & Shea, 2001).
In addi ion, he hesis ollows Shea, Duncan & S ephenson’s p oposal
1 CCEOU: Regional Council o Cul u e, Educa ion and Uni e si y
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
36
(2015) ha suppo s beginning he ins uc ion wi h molecula gene ics,
using modelling as a way o lea ning molecula p ocesses which a e
in ol ed in gene exp ession, be o e ans e ing his knowledge o he
cons uc ion o a gumen s abou Mendelian gene ics.
Conside ing he cu en Spanish cu iculum (CCEOU, 2015), he
con ex o gene ics is used as a s a ing poin be o e mo ing owa ds
lea ning abou e olu ion, which has shown o inc ease he s uden s'
unde s anding o e olu ion (Mead, Hejmadi & Hu s , 2017). To his
end, i was decided ha he sequence would end by add essing oge he
e olu ion and gene ics in o de o a ou s uden s' e ec i e lea ning o
bo h domains.
Publica ion 4 de elops and jus i ies he design o he eaching
sequence o his hesis, which allows o o mula e he esea ch
objec i es o he s udy. This design was de eloped in collabo a ion wi h
he biology eache s in ol ed and he scien i ic con en o he ac i i ies
was alida ed by an in e na ional expe in clinical gene ics. Mo eo e ,
an analysis o he li e a u e in gene ics and e olu ion lea ning was
ca ied ou .
A icles 1, 2 and 3, which add essed he objec i es o he hesis, a e
closely linked since: 1) hey all analyse scien i ic p ac ices, modelling
(pape 1) and a gumen a ion; 2) hey ocus on he examina ion o he
use o e idence. In he case o pape 1, a en ion is on he use o
e idence du ing he p ocess o modelling gene exp ession; and in he
case o pape s 2 and 3, he analysis ocuses on he s uden s’ use o
e idence when making explana o y links be ween wo human diseases;
3) pape s 2 and 3 a e based on he esul s ob ained in he p e ious
pape s. They ad ance in he di ec ion o he objec i es p oposed in he
hesis.
Publica ion 1 add esses he analysis o modelling and
a gumen a ion p ocesses while s uden s engage in modelling gene
exp ession model o explain SCD ( ask 1 o he eaching sequence). The
pape helps o ad ance in he analysis o modelling, p o iding a
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
37
amewo k based on Tibe ghien’s (2000) p oposal ega ding he wo lds
o knowledge. Ou p oposal includes a hi d domain o wo ld o
knowledge called he wo ld o ep esen a ions. In addi ion, a ub ic
p oposed by Jiménez-Aleixand e, Puig, B a o and C ujei as (2014) is
modi ied in o de o iden i y he ope a ions o a gumen a ion ha
appea in his con ex . The examina ion o he modelling and
a gumen a ion ope a ions allows us he iden i ica ion o he in e ac ions
ha occu be ween bo h p ac ices, and he connec ions es ablished
among he h ee wo lds o knowledge. This a icle was de eloped in
collabo a ion wi h M. P. Jiménez-Aleixand e, an in e na ional expe in
a gumen a ion in science educa ion esea ch.
In publica ion 2 he ocus o analysis is on he w i en a gumen s
p esen ed by he g oups when pa icipa ing in a ask ha includes
gene ics and e olu ion con en s. I is an a gumen a ion ask s uc u ed
in 4 s ages ha in ol es he p og essi e analysis o da a wi h a di e en
epis emic le el in o de o es ablish connec ions be ween sickle cell
disease and mala ia and each a inal conclusion. On he one hand, he
quali y o inal w i en a gumen s ag eed upon in he g oups is
examined, and on he o he hand, he use o da a and i s ole in
es ablishing successi e a gumen s h oughou he ask is explo ed. The
analysis e eals di icul ies in he cons uc ion o a gumen s, bo h in he
use o jus i ica ions and in he applica ion o scien i ic e minology. In
addi ion, eleological posi ions a e iden i ied. The esul s o his a icle
sugges he need o o al discou se o be analysed in de ail in o de o
be e unde s and he p ocesses ha lead o he cons uc ion o hese
a gumen s, as well as he possible causes o he de ec ed di icul ies.
Publica ion 3 is based on he esul s ob ained in pape 2 and he
ask unde analysis is he same. Rhe o ic is in oduced o he analysis
o o al a gumen a ion. In pa icula he o ical mo es (Swales, 1990)
and he use o e idence in a gumen a ion as well as he in e sec ions
be ween hem, a e analysed. This publica ion also includes he analysis
o epis emic ac ions, a amewo k o analysis which adap ed
Pon eco o & Gi a de ’s p oposal (1993). The analysis o his pape
allows he iden i ica ion o ames o hinking which s uden s a e
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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posi ioned in, as well as he epis emic ac ions pe o med. These esul s
help o unde s and how epis emic ac ions ela ed o he use o ime
scales and he abili y o de ine no ions can in luence s uden s when
es ablishing complex connec ions in biological p ocesses, such as he
coe olu ion be ween wo human diseases.
I is wo h no ing ha he analysis in his a icle was ini ia ed du ing
a h ee-mon h p e-doc o al esea ch s ay a he Uni e si y o Abe deen,
pa ially unded by an ESERA a el Awa d 2016. This ga e ise o he
co-au ho ship o he hi d publica ion wi h P o esso Lau a Colucci-
G ay, who con ibu ed o he inco po a ion o he amewo k o he o ic
in esea ch.
In o de o p epa e his collec ion o hesis publica ions, i was
necessa y o p epa e p oposals p io o na ional and in e na ional
con e ences. In addi ion, he ad ances o he hesis we e p esen ed in
wo summe schools o ecognised in e na ional p es ige. Fi s ly in
2015, i was p esen ed a he Sand a K. Abell Ins i u e o Doc o al
S uden s (SKAIDS), held a he Uni e si y o Colo ado Boulde (USA)
be ween he 12 h and 17 h o July 2015; and secondly, a he Ese a
Summe school 2016, held a Ceske Budejo ice (Czech Republic)
be ween he 22nd and 26 h o Augus 2016. Some pos e s we e c ea ed
a hese summe schools and hese we e p esen ed in speci ic pos e
sessions a bo h NARST 2016 and ESERA 2017.
The con e ence pape s and pos e s de eloped du ing he hesis a e
displayed below.
Agei os, N. & Puig, B. (2015). Unha p opos a didác ica de
modelización e a gumen ación cien í ica sob e en e midades xené icas.
Communica ion p esen ed in III Encon o Mocidade In es igado a,
San iago de Compos ela, Spain, 25 h o 26 h o Ma ch 2015.
Agei os, N. & Puig, B. (2015). Cons uí o modelo de exp esión
dos xenes pa a explica en e midades xené icas. Communica ion
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
39
p esen ed in XXVIII Cong eso Enciga, Sa ia, Spain, 19 h o 21s o
No embe 2015.
Agei os, N. & Puig, B. (2016). La modelizacin pa a el ap endizaje
de en e medades gen icas. El caso de la anemia alci o me. Pos e in
V Semina io Ibe o-Ame icano CTS, IV Semina io CTS, A ei o,
Po ugal, 4 h o 6 h o July 2016.
Agei os, N. & Puig, B. (2016). S uden s’ a gumen s and
a gumen a ion o explain he e olu iona y links be ween wo human
diseases. Communica ion p esen ed in ERIDOB, Ka ls ad (Sweeden),
5 h o 9 h o Sep embe 2016.
Agei os, N. & Puig, B. (2016). Explo ing he A icula ion o
Scien i ic P ac ices o Modeling and A gumen a ion in a Sequence on
Gene ic Diseases. Pós e p esen ed in NARST Annual In e na ional
Con e ence, Bal imo e, EEUU, 14 h o 17 h o Ap il 2016.
Agei os, N.; Puig, B. & Colucci, L. (2017). Comunica ion in he
Simposio P ác icas de a gumen ación en el aula y su con ibución a la
compe encia cien í ica. X Cong eso In e nacional sob e In es igación
en la Didác ica de las Ciencias, Se illa, Spain, 5 h o 8 h o Sep embe
2017.
Puig, B. & Agei os, N. (2017). In e ac ions be ween Modelling and
A gumen a ion while Building he Model o Gene Exp ession.
Communica ion p esen ed in he Symposio “Deepening S uden s’
Unde s anding o Mode n Gene ics: Fou App oaches ha Link
Molecula Gene ics wi h Mendelian Gene ics”. NARST Annual
In e na ional Con e ence, San An onio, EEUU, 22nd o 25 h o Ap il
2017.
Agei os, N.; Colucci-G ay, L & Puig, B. (2017). Examining
s uden s' unde s anding o gene ics h ough a linguis ic analysis o
hinking s a egies. Pape p esen ed a ESERA Con e ence 2017,
Dublin, I eland, 21s o 25 h o Augus 2017.
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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Agei os, N. & Puig, B. (2017). In e ac ions be ween a gumen a ion
and modelling in gene ics’ ins uc ion abou human diseases. Pos e
p esen ed a ESERA Con e ence 2017, Dublin, I eland, 21s o 25 h o
Augus 2017.
Agei os, N.; Colucci-G ay, L & Puig, B. (2018). S uden s'
a gumen s and easoning in gene ics: dealing wi h he complex
in e ac ions be ween geno ype and pheno ype in he exp ession o
animal diseases. Communica ion p esen ed in XII Con e ence o
Eu opean o Resea che s in Didac ics o Biology, Za agoza, Spain, 2nd
o 6 h o July 2018.
Agei os, N. & Puig, B. (2018). Las p ác icas cien í icas en la
enseñanza sob e gené ica: a gumen ación sob e el modelo de exp esión
de una en e medad animal. Communica ion p esen ed in 28 Encuen os
de Didác ica de las Ciencias Expe imen ales. A Co uña, Spain, 5 h o
7 h o Sep embe 2018.
Agei os, N.; Colucci-G ay, L & Puig, B. (2019). A guing o explan
he e olu iona y links be ween wo human diseases. A case s udy
esea ch. Communica ion p esen ed in 13 h In e na ional Con e ence
o ESERA, Boloña, I alia, 26 h 30 h Augus 2019.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The main goal o his hesis is o examine he scien i ic and
easoning p ac ices as well as epis emic ac ions pe o med by
seconda y s uden s when lea ning gene ics and e olu ion in he con ex
o explaining human diseases. In o de o add ess his gene al goal, i is
necessa y o explo e, on he one hand, modelling and a gumen a ion
p ac ices enac ed by s uden s and hei mu ual in e ac ions in
connec ion wi h he wo lds o knowledge; and on he o he hand, he
easoning p ac ices and epis emic ac ions pe o med by s uden s.
This gene al goal is add essed h ough h ee esea ch objec i es,
and hei ela ed esea ch ques ions:
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
41
O1. To examine how modelling and a gumen a ion in e ac and
connec he h ee wo lds o knowledge in he con ex o lea ning gene
exp ession. This is add essed h ough he ollowing esea ch ques ions,
ha pape 1examines:
RQ1) Wha a gumen a i e and modelling ope a ions do s uden s
enac in he p ocess o modelling gene exp ession? Speci ically, which
ope a ions allow connec ing he h ee wo lds o knowledge?
RQ2) Wha a e he in e ac ions be ween modelling and
a gumen a ion in modelling gene exp ession? To wha ex en do hese
in e ac ions help s uden s connec he h ee wo lds o knowledge and
modelling gene exp ession?
O2. To examine seconda y s uden s’ a gumen s and he da a used
while de eloping explana o y links be ween wo human diseases in
gene ics and e olu ion ins uc ion. This is add essed h ough he
ollowing esea ch ques ions, analysed in pape 2:
RQ3) Wha is he na u e o s uden s’ a gumen s while explaining
he e olu iona y links be ween wo human diseases?
RQ4) Wha da a do s uden s mobilise and how do hey use hem o
suppo hei a gumen s ega ding he ela ionships be ween hese wo
diseases?
O3. To examine he in e sec ions be ween he o ic and
a gumen a ion, and epis emic ac ions in s uden s’ discou se in he
con es o lea ning gene ics and e olu ion. This is add essed h ough
he ollowing esea ch ques ions, analysed in pape 3:
RQ5) Wha ames o hinking eme ge om he examina ion o
s uden s’ he o ical mo es and use o e idence when hey a e lea ning
abou opics in gene ics and e olu ion?
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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skills, skills which a e equi ed in o de o ackle e e yday li e issues
ela ed wi h he apid ad ances in science. This hesis ocuses on he
s uden s’ capaci y o build a gumen s suppo ed by e idence, bu also
on hei capaci y o e lec on hei own a gumen s and e o mula e
hem based on he e alua ion o da a. E alua ion, e e ed o as how
s uden s challenge o he s uden ’s a gumen s (Jin, Hokayem, Wang &
Wei, 2016) is an impo an a iable when cons uc ing logical
a gumen s (Ch is odoulou & Osbo ne, 2014).
F om a socio-cul u al pe spec i e, he o ical p ac ices may be seen
as ‘linguis ic de ices’ o he o ganisa ion and s uc u ing o a gumen s.
A gumen a i e mo es can he e o e be used as cues o disclosing
unde lying se s o he o ical na a i es, looking a how ideas o
sys emic in e ac ions a e isualised and add essed by s uden s’
meaning-making s a egies. Emphasis is on he he o ical o discu si e
mo es ha shape he s uden s’ a gumen s and cons uc ion o
knowledge in gene ics and e olu ion, wo cen al domains o biology
which a e known o be di icul o each and o lea n (e.g. B ay Spe h e
al., 2014; Zoha & Neme , 2002). A gumen s a e conside ed in his
s udy as being comp ised o he basic elemen s ha Toulmin desc ibed
in TAP model (Toulmin, 1958). The elemen s ha a e pa o he
a gumen s uc u e a e, acco ding o Toulmin, he da a o make
quali ied claims, wa an s suppo ed wi h backings ha connec da a
wi h he claim and ebu als.
1.3.3 Lea ning Gene ics and E olu ion. Di icul ies and
challenges
Di icul ies ela ed o gene ics and e olu ion lea ning ha e been
b oadly epo ed in he li e a u e. Howe e , sca ce esea ch has been
ca ied ou in o he con ex o gene ics and e olu ion lea ning, p ima ily
add essing bo h disciplines oge he . In his line, his sec ion add esses
he mos common di icul ies in bo h domains, making links be ween
hem in he inal pa .
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
49
1.3.3.1 Gene ics lea ning. The model o gene exp ession and
de e minism
O e he las ew decades, he e ha e been signi ican concep ual
and echnological ad ances in he gene ics ield, many o which ha e
eached he public domain. All o hese de elopmen s ha e equi ed o
ci izens o unde s and scien i ic ideas on gene ics (Feins ein, Allen &
Jenkins, 2013; Ryde , 2001). Since he goal o science educa ion is o
p o ide ci izens wi h scien i ic knowledge, he implica ions o cu en
gene ic and genomic echnologies on ou li es mus be add essed in
science ins uc ion. Fo his eason, molecula gene ics is a cen al pa
o he seconda y cu iculum in di e en pa s o he wo ld, none heless
i is conside ed o be a di icul a ea in science eaching and lea ning
(Baha , Johns one, & Hansell, 1999).
In Spain, he o icial cu iculum (MECD2, 2015) in oduced
gene ics o he i s ime in 4º ESO3, wi hin he subjec o Biology and
Geology, a non-compulso y subjec . This means ha some o he
s uden s may inish seconda y school wi hou ha ing wo ked on
gene ics- ela ed subjec s in he science class oom.
Gene ic li e acy implies being able o unde s and, use o answe
in o ma ion abou gene ic phenomena and echnologies ha an
indi idual may encoun e in e e yday li e si ua ions (Duncan, Roga
and Ya den, 2009). This in ol es being able o make in o med
decisions on complex socio-scien i ic issues (Shea, Duncan &
S ephenson, 2015).
Resea ch in his ield indica es ha he gap be ween scien i ic
unde s anding o gene ics and wha is augh in school has inc eased in
ecen yea s. (Doughe y, Pleasan s, Solow, Wong & Zhang, 2011). By
he end o seconda y school, s uden s do no ha e he necessa y
2 MECD: Spanish Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e and Spo s
3 The ou h and las yea o compulso y seconda y educa ion. In Spain, compulso y
seconda y educa ion s a s a he age o 12 and las s ou yea s, un il s uden s each 16. Then,
hey can choose o con inue wi h wo mo e yea s o Baccalau ea e (non-compulso y) un il hey
each he age o 18, du ing which hey p epa e o he uni e si y access examina ion.
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
50
unde s anding o gene ics in o de o be able o make app op ia e
pe sonal and social decisions (Lewis and Wood-Robinson, 2000).
One o he di icul ies highligh ed in he li e a u e ega ding
lea ning gene ics is ela ed o de e minis ic posi ions ega ding he
model o gene exp ession (e.g., Cas é a, Clémen , & Ab ougui, 2008;
Mills Shaw, Van Ho ne, Zhang and Boughman, 2008; Puig & Jiménez-
Aleixand e, 2011). De e minism is a end ha suppo s he idea ha
"genes in a iably de e mine cha ac e s, so ha he ou comes a e jus a
li le, o no a all, a ec ed by changes in he en i onmen o by he
di e en en i onmen s in which indi iduals li e" (Kampou akis 2017,
p. 6).
De e minis s a ibu e social and economic di e ences be ween
di e en human g oups o gende s o he edi y, hus conside ing he
di e ences as inna e dis inc ions. This de e minis ic iew o en appea s
in he media, exclusi ely a ibu ing genes he causes o human
beha iou o disease (Condi e al., 1998; Nelkin & Lindee, 1995).
Kelle (2005) ound ha belie in gene ic de e minism is ela ed o
nega i e acial s e eo ypes, p ejudice, and sexism. Fo Nelkin and
Lindee (2004), gene ic de e minism is no simply he esul o a
misunde s anding o simpli ica ion o science, bu i may also be
ancho ed in deep belie s ega ding social phenomena.
An ea lie hesis on a gumen a ion and he use o e idence on he
model o gene exp ession (Puig, 2013) highligh ed he di icul ies o
seconda y school s uden s in iden i ying he en i onmen al in luence
on gene exp ession in di e en con ex s. Likewise, Cas é a and
Clemen (2014) demons a ed ha de e minism does no only appea
among s uden s, bu also among eache s in se e al coun ies.
De e minism is no he only di icul y encoun e ed when lea ning
abou gene ics, gi en ha he e a e o he s associa ed wi h he
complexi y o his subjec , which acco ding o Knipples (2002) a e
g ouped in o hese i e ca ego ies: 1) ocabula y and speci ic
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
51
e minology; 2) ma hema ical con en in he Mendelian gene ics asks;
3) cy ological p ocesses; 4) he abs ac na u e o gene ics; 5) he
complexi y o gene ics: mac o- mic o p oblems. In addi ion, au ho s
such as Mills Shaw e al. (2008), e e o speci ic di icul ies ela ed o:
a) gene ic echnologies; b) gene ic de e minism; c) inhe i ance pa e ns;
d) na u e o genes and gene ic ma e ial; e) gene ic basis o diseases; )
gene ic esea ch; g) ep oduc i e echnologies.
I is use ul o be amilia wi h all o hese di icul ies in o de o
imp o e he eaching o gene ics in seconda y school, howe e Duncan
and Reise (2007) sugges ha i could be classi ied in o b oade
ca ego ies, such as hese h ee: a) he in isibili y and inaccessibili y o
gene ic phenomena; b) he complexi y o gene ic phenomena in ol ing
se e al le els; and c) he on ological di e ences be ween he le els o
gene ic phenomena.
In o de o add ess hese di icul ies, educa ional ini ia i es and
p oposals ha e eme ged. The eaching sequence designed in his hesis
se es as an example, aking p e ious con ibu ions in o conside a ion.
Speci ically, he p oposal aims o imp o e he unde s anding o he
model o gene exp ession and he connec ions be ween pheno ype and
geno ype. Au ho s such as Todd and Kenyon (2015) poin ed ou he
impo ance o ocusing ins uc ion on p o eins, s udying how hey a e
o med, wha hei unc ions a e and how hey a e exp essed. Reinagel
and B ay Spe h (2016) ag eed wi h hese au ho s and sugges modelling
as a p ac ice o help imp o e he unde s anding o he links be ween
genes and geno ypes. Besides, Mills Shaw e al. (2008) p opose ackling
he i s yea s o ins uc ion by analysing d awings and anima ions o
cellula and sub-cellula p ocesses in o de o imp o e he concep ual
unde s anding o cellula p ocesses and o be able o connec he
di e en le els o o ganisa ion.
Ano he p oposal is ha o Leh e and Schauble (2000). These
au ho s encou age s uden s o ha e he oppo uni y o e iew and
cons uc hei ideas o e ime in o de o unde s and and apply
concep s ha do no end o be unde s ood un il se e al yea s la e .
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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Following his end, he Lea ning P og essions (LPs) ha e eme ged,
hese a e hypo he ical models on how he lea ning o a domain de elops
o e ime wi h adequa e ins uc ion (Duncan, Choi, Cas o-Faix &
Ca e a, 2017). Acco ding o Todd and Romine (2017) LPs ha e hese
dis inc i e cha ac e is ics: hey ocus on some ideas and/o p ac ices;
hey con ain uppe and lowe limi s; hey iden i y di e en le els o
achie emen in e ms o pe o mance and lea ning; and he
achie emen s a e a ained h ough a speci ic cu iculum, al hough hese
a e no gua an eed.
Finally, i should be no ed ha gi en ha gene ic de e minism is a
common di icul y among s uden s ha nega i ely a ec s, on he one
hand, hei unde s anding o gene ics and, on he o he hand, he
pe o mance o a gumen a ion and decision-making p ac ices; i mus
be add essed in he class oom. Doughe y (2009) belie es ha
ins uc ion in gene ics should mo e accu a ely e lec wha genes can
and canno do, s essing he complexi y o he edi y.
1.3.3.2 E olu ion lea ning. Di icul ies and p oposals o
add ess hem
E olu ion is one o he undamen al concep s o biology, bu i is
also one o he mos challenging concep s o lea n (And ews e al.,
2017). Uni e si y biology s uden s and p e-se ice eache s (Mille ,
Sco & Okamo o, 2006; Albe s & Labo , 2004) show al e na i e ideas
ela ed o e olu ion. In ou con ex he e is g ound-b eaking wo k ha
ad oca es he inco po a ion o he eaching o e olu ion in p ima y
educa ion (Vázquez-Ben & Bugallo-Rod íguez, 2018). The au ho s
p opose an in e en ion model o his educa ional s age which is based
on he esul s ob ained in a s udy on he challenges pe cei ed by
in e na ional expe s in e olu ion educa ion (Vázquez Ben & Bugallo-
Rod íguez, 2017).
The e a e nume ous s udies ha p o ide al e na i e ideas on he
heo y o e olu ion (Fe a i & Chi, 1998). Acco ding o Al e s and
Nelson (2002), hese ideas can be classi ied acco ding o hei o igin as
a) ideas ha a ise om e e yday expe iences; b) ideas which a e
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
53
cons uc ed by he s uden s hemsel es in which hey accommoda e
new in o ma ion o hei p e ious amewo k; c) ideas augh in o mally
by o he people o lea ned in ic ion; d) e nacula ideas, ha eme ge
om he di e ence be ween he scien i ic de ini ion o a wo d and i s
e e yday use; e) mis aken o eligious concep s. Ve nacula ideas,
whe e me apho s a e a clea example, a e essen ial ools in science o
he gene a ion o new en i ies (B own, 2008). All hese al e na i e ideas
can in luence he way in which s uden s apply molecula gene ic
concep s, and how hey a gue abou he e olu iona y links be ween wo
human diseases, such as mala ia and SCD, which ha e been add essed
in his hesis.
Rega ding he di icul ies which ha e eme ged in his esea ch
when i comes o unde s anding he heo y o e olu ion, and mo e
speci ically he mechanism o na u al selec ion, G ego y (2009)
classi ies hem in ou concep s o hema ic blocks: a) he a ia ion ha
exis s be ween indi iduals; b) he o igin o new cha ac e s in
popula ions; c) he edi y; d) adap a ion.
Explaining he o igin o adap a ions is a common di icul y among
seconda y school s uden s, which, as Kampou akis (2013) indica es, is
ela ed o a eleological iew o e olu ion. Acco ding o his au ho ,
eleological explana ions a e hose in which a phenomenon is explained
in e ms o a inal objec i e which i con ibu es o (Walsh, 2008), and
which a e closely ela ed o he e m "lama ckism" because hey a e
ela ed o Lama ck's e olu ion heo y. In o de o mo e beyond hese
eleological explana ions and p omo e concep ual change, au ho s such
as Kampou akis & Zogza (2009) p opose eplacing he old explana ions
wi h a new concep ual amewo k, one which is mo e e icien and
mo e scien i ically consis en wi h cu en heo ies. In his con ex , in
addi ion o c ea ing eleological explana ions, s uden s also elabo a e
an h opomo phic explana ions and do no acknowledge he need o
include causal o mechanis ic easoning when asked o a icula e an
explana ion o biological change (Ab ams & Sou he land, 2001;
Sou he land, Ab ams, Cummins & Anzelmo, 2001).
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
54
As wi h gene ics, he complexi y o he subjec ma e associa ed
wi h andom e olu iona y p ocesses can also cause p oblem o
s uden s (Ga in-Doxas & Klymkowsky, 2008; Mead & Sco , 2010).
In many cases, s uden s a e no able o ecognise andom p ocesses as
esponsible o biological ai s (Ga in-Doxas & Klymkowsky, 2008).
Howe e , i is necessa y o poin ou ha andomness in biology is no
exclusi e o e olu ion, bu hese phenomena a e also equi ed in o de
o be able o explain gene ic p ocesses such as gene exp ession. Nehm
& Ha (2010) ha e shown ha s uden s ind i di icul o deal wi h
ques ions abou e olu ion be ween species o ega ding he
disappea ance o cha ac e is ics in popula ions.
Li le esea ch has been ca ied ou dealing wi h e olu ion and
gene ics lea ning oge he . One o he wo ks ha his hesis has aken
as a e e ence is ha o Kalinowski, Leona d and And ews (2010), who
ha e ou lined he di icul ies aced by uni e si y s uden s in using
concep s o molecula gene ics when cons uc ing explana ions o
e olu ion. Only a small p opo ion o he s uden s (19%) made explici
e e ence o he molecula and gene ic causes o a ia ion in hei
explana ions o e olu ion, ocusing on mechanisms ha ope a e a he
le el o o ganisms (B ay Spe h, Long, Pennock & Ebe -May, 2009).
This is in con as wi h he idea ha e olu ion needs concep s such as
palaeon ology, emb yology, biogeog aphy, molecula biology and
popula ion gene ics in o de o be unde s ood (May , 2002), leading
he e o e o a g owing consensus on he need o he in e disciplina y
connec ions in all hese a eas o be s eng hened in o de o p omo e
s uden unde s anding and lea ning (Tibell & Ha ms, 2017).
This hesis suppo s he idea ha placing g ea e emphasis on
gene ics du ing ins uc ion can imp o e concep ual change in e olu ion
(Kampou akis & Zogza, 2009). An example o his is ocusing on DNA
sequences du ing he eaching o na u al selec ion (Kalinowski,
Leona d & And ews, 2010). Simila ly, a p oposal has been made o
make mo e connec ions wi h s uden s' p io knowledge o gene ics and
e olu ion in o de o y o gain a be e unde s anding o he mechanism
o na u al selec ion. Fu he mo e, ollowing Fe a i and Chi (1998), he
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
55
aim is o s uden s o unde s and he mul iple le els o o ganisa ion o
li ing o ganisms, as well as he di e en empo al and spa ial scales on
which e olu ion ope a es.
Gene ics and e olu ion a e a icula ed in his hesis in he con ex
o ela ing wo human diseases, one o hem wi h a gene ic componen .
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The hesis is amed wi hin quali a i e esea ch which ocused on
he p ocesses o knowledge cons uc ion and epis emic pe o mances
by seconda y s uden s in science class ooms. A longi udinal case s udy
was ca ied ou wi h a g oup o s uden s om g ade 10 (4º ESO) du ing
he academic yea 2014/2015, and g ade 11 (1º Bachille a o4 ) du ing
he academic yea 2015/16. S uden s a e om a cen e in he inland o
Galicia (Spain). The hesis ocuses on he i s yea o s udy wi h he 4º
ESO s uden s.
We i s ly p esen he me hodological app oach on which he hesis
is si ua ed. Secondly, he con ex and pa icipan s in addi ion o he
ac i i ies de eloped a e ou lined, ocusing p edominan ly on hose
which a e he objec o analysis in he hesis. Thi dly, he da a collec ed,
and he analysis p ocesses a e p esen ed.
1.4.1 Me hodological app oach. Quali a i e esea ch
This hesis is pa o quali a i e esea ch which ocuses on how people
build he wo ld a ound hem, wha hey do o wha happens o hem, in
o de o ge a meaning ul and a ied pe spec i e o he obse a ion o
he si ua ion. Acco ding o Denzin and Lincoln (2005) quali a i e
esea ch can be de ined as:
Quali a i e esea ch is a si ua ed ac i i y ha loca es
he obse e in he wo ld. I consis s o a se o
4 The i s yea o non-compulso y seconda y educa ion. In Spain, compulso y seconda y
educa ion las s un il s uden s each 16. Then, hey can choose o con inue wi h wo mo e yea s
o Baccalau ea e (non-compulso y) un il hey each he age o 18, du ing which hey p epa e
o he uni e si y access examina ion.
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
56
in e p e i e, ma e ials p ac ices ha make he wo ld
isible. These p ac ices ans o m he wo ld. They u n
he wo ld in o a se ies o ep esen a ions, including
ield no es, in e iews, con e sa ions, pho og aphs,
eco dings, and memos o he sel . A his le el,
quali a i e esea ch in ol es an in e p e i e,
na u alis ic app oach o he wo ld. This means ha
quali a i e esea che s s udy hings in hei na u al
se ings, a emp ing o make sense o , o in e p e ,
phenomena in e ms o he meanings people b ing o
hem. (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.3).
Acco ding o hese au ho s, quali a i e me hodology aims a
ge ing o know social eali y by analysing documen s o
communica i e ac s. In he con ex o his s udy, his me hodology is
applied in o de o analyse s uden s' pe o mance in scien i ic p ac ices,
as well as o in es iga e how e olu ion and gene ics lea ning akes place
h ough hese p ac ices.
Wi hin he quali a i e s udies, his hesis deals wi h a longi udinal
case s udy, which enables us o a ain in-dep h knowledge o a speci ic
case (g oup o s uden s). Acco ding o Ge ing (2007), case s udies can
be explained using he ollowing analogy:
The e a e wo ways o lea n how o build a house. One
migh s udy he cons uc ion o many houses – pe haps
a la ge subdi ision o e en hund eds o housands o
houses. O one migh s udy he cons uc ion o a
pa icula house. The i s app oach is a c oss-case
me hod. The second is a wi hin-case o case s udy
me hod. (Ge ing, 2007 p.1).
Case s udies a e ela ed o social phenomena and hey ocus on one
o mo e o hei mani es a ions and on hei en i onmen (Swanbo n,
2010). In addi ion, hey ha e been ca ied ou o a ce ain pe iod o
ime and ocus on de ailed desc ip ions, in e p e a ions and de ailed
explana ions, as well as being based on di e en sou ces o in o ma ion
( epo s, documen s, obse a ion no es, among o he s). In his hesis,
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
57
he ocus is on he i s yea o he longi udinal s udy, as his is he i s
cou se in which gene ics and e olu ion appea in he cu iculum. I is a
unique explo a o y case s udy (Yin, 2003) in which he pe o mances
o scien i ic p ac ices a e analysed by a g oup o wen y s uden s in
di e en asks as pa o a eaching sequence on gene ics and e olu ion.
One o he mos widesp ead c i icisms o case s udies is hei
inabili y o p o ide easily gene alizable da a, gi en ha hese a e e y
speci ic s udies (Cohen, Manion & Mo ison, 2011). To imp o e he
alidi y and eliabili y o he esul s ob ained in he case s udies, Moo e,
Lapan and Qua a oli (2012) sugges applying iangula ion. This
iangula ion can be applied ei he by using p e iously es ed pilo
s udies o by using h ee di e en sou ces o in o ma ion. In his hesis
we ha e used he la e by including: 1) he w i en epo s elabo a ed
by he s uden s; 2) he audio and ideo eco dings o he wo k sessions;
3) he esea che 's ield no es. T iangula ion is also applied in da a
analysis in o de o gua an ee he eliabili y o he esul s ob ained. The
au ho and he supe iso o he hesis analyse he da a ela ed o he
esea ch objec i es in an independen manne be o e con as ing he
esul s o ensu e homogenei y. In addi ion, a hi d expe in e enes by
con as ing he analyses o he h ee objec i es, he e o e gua an eeing
he eliabili y o he esul s.
1.4.2 Con ex , pa icipan s and eaching sequence
We p esen he con ex and he pa icipan s o he case s udy o his
hesis as well as he design o he wo eaching sequences in which he
asks objec o s udy in his hesis a e embedded.
1.4.2.1 Con ex and pa icipan s
The con ex in which he s udy has been conduc ed is a seconda y
school in inne Galicia (Spain). The school, despi e being si ua ed in a
ci y, is semi-u ban, ecei ing s uden s bo h om he cen e o he ci y
and se e al neighbou ing illages. S uden s amilies ha e a medium
socio-cul u al le el and a la ge p opo ion o he s uden s will con inue
wi h hei seconda y school s udies a he end o he ESO, as can be
seen in he pa icipan s o his s udy. The pa icipa ing cen e was
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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session hey had o e lec on hese cases and w i e down he ad an ages
and disad an ages o geno ype es s.
Task 4. Explaining he links be ween sickle cell disease and
mala ia: in his case wo human diseases, SCD and mala ia, we e
compa ed by analysing he di e en da a p o ided.
Following Kalinowski e al. (2010), his ask was designed o help
s uden s o cons uc explana o y amewo ks and make explici
connec ions be ween concep s in he con ex o molecula gene ics and
e olu ion. S uden s had o apply p e iously used knowledge, o
example on mendelian and molecula gene ics and e olu ion o desc ibe
he links be ween wo human diseases, mala ia and SCD.
The easons o selec ing SCD and mala ia we e as ollows: a)
among he scien i ic communi y hei e olu iona y ela ionship is well
known gi en ha mala ia pa asi es and humans coe ol ed p o iding an
adap i e ad an age o he SCD he e ozygo es; b) hese a e opics ha
can be used o add ess he widesp ead di icul ies epo ed in he
educa ional esea ch li e a u e conce ning he unde s anding o and
ela ionship be ween hese illnesses (Ja e , Williams, Ho n, Rad o d
& Wyss, 2016); and c) hey a e ele an o he s uden s, as SCD was
ecen ly included in he Neona al Me abolic Sc een in Galicia (Spain).
The ask was in oduced by means o a sho discussion wi h he
s uden s. The d i ing ques ion was p esen ed as ollows: “Is he e any
connec ion be ween SCD and mala ia?” To y and answe he ques ion,
s uden s we e p o ided wi h a) ou numbe ed en elopes wi h
in o ma ion and b) a piece o ca dboa d o a ange he in o ma ion and
w i e down hei conclusions. The s uc u e o he ask is shown in
Figu e 1.4.
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
65
Figu e 1.4 S uc u e o he ask “Explaining he links be ween sickle cell
disease and mala ia”.
The ask was designed o encou age s uden s o use e idence o
jus i y hei claims by gi ing hem di e en da a in a s uc u ed manne .
S uden s we e ins uc ed o open one en elope a a ime in
nume ical o de and discuss he in o ma ion p o ided, in o de , be o e
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
66
w i ing down hei conclusions. This s ep was epea ed ou imes, each
ime wi h a di e en en elope. The s uc u e o his ac i i y aimed o
help s uden s o e ise all p e ious conclusions in he ligh o new
e idence.
The in o ma ion was di ided in o ou se s wi h in o ma ion
a anged in ch onological o de , including di e en ypes o
in o ma ion ela ed o mala ia and SCD, including his o ical,
diag amma ic and gene ic in o ma ion. The in o ma ion p o ided has
been summa ized in able 1.2, alongside he knowledge o gene ics and
e olu ion ha was equi ed, and a b ie desc ip ion o he epis emic
s a egies which we e needed o sol e hem. The eason o using a
ch onological o de was o ec ea e he p ocess ollowed by scien is s,
by using he e idence a ailable in o de o build a hypo hesis and
modi y i as new e idence eme ges. The in o ma ion was p esen ed
bo h in ex ual and isual o m, as scien i ic meaning is de i ed om
bo h modali ies o ep esen a ion (Lemke, 1992, 1998). S uden s
comple ed he ask in one 50-minu e session.
Table 1.2 In o ma ion p o ided in he ask (Agei os, Puig & Colucci-G ay, in
p ess).
En elope
Type o
da a
In o ma ion
p o ided
Gene ics/
e olu ion
knowledge
Epis emic s a egies
1
His o ical
Fi s egis e o
a case o SCD
Molecula
gene ics
In e p e ing his o ical
da a abou SCD and
iden i ying he shape
o he e y h ocy es
a ec ed by he
disease
His o ical
Fi s
isualiza ion o
he shape o a
sickle cell
e y h ocy e
His o ical
Cases epo ed
in ea ly XX
cen u y
Visual
Image o blood
sample wi h
sickle cell
e y h ocy es
2
Gene ic
Desc ip ion o
he pheno ype
o a amily
a ec ed by
SCD
Mendelian
gene ics
Comple ing he amily
ee o a hypo he ical
amily by in e p e ing
pheno ype
in o ma ion using
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
67
Visual
Family ee o
comple e
Mendelian gene ics
nomencla u e
Visual
Pho og aph o
he membe s
o he amily
3
Visual
Elec opho esis
o
he e ozygous
and
homozygous
indi iduals
wi h SCD
Mendelian and
molecula
gene ics and
biochemis y
Iden i ying: a) he
di e ences be ween
homozygous and
he e ozygous
indi iduals su e ing
om SCD, b) he
ela ion be ween he
geno ype o SCD and
he amoun o mala ia
pa asi es
Visual
Amoun o
mala ia
pa asi e in
indi iduals
wi h/wi hou
SCD
Ae iology
Desc ip ion o
mala ia
4
His o ical
Haemoglobin
mu a ion
caused by SCD
E olu ion and
Mendelian and
molecula
gene ics
Rela ing he mu a ion
in he haemoglobin o
ed blood cells o he
ed blood cell
a ec ed by SCD;
iden i ying he
dis ibu ion a ea o
mala ia and SCD
His o ical
DNA sequence
mu a ion
iden i ied ha
causes SCD
Visual
Maps o
dis ibu ion o
SCD and
mala ia
Teaching sequence 1 ended wi h a inal e alua ion ac i i y ha was
done in he class oom, bu wi hou he p esence o he esea che s. This
inal ac i i y, en i led “T acking sickle cell anaemia”, consis ed o wo
ques ions. The i s p esen ed a case o a gi l who has sickle cell disease
who wan ed o a el o a eas whe e he e is a high isk o con ac ing
mala ia. The second ques ion asked s uden s o use hei ma e ial
models o explain he gi l’s illness o he , and o his hey we e gi en
a colou pho og aph o hei models.
Teaching sequence 2, which was de eloped in he second pe iod
(academic yea 2015-2016) is ela ed o eaching sequence 1 and was
designed conside ing he di icul ies encoun e ed in his i s uni . The
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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asks a e summa ised in able 1.3. Since his sequence is no analysed
in he hesis, he ac i i ies o his sequence a e no discussed in de ail.
Table 1.3. Ac i i ies in eaching sequence 2
Ac i i ies
Wha we e he causes o
he dea hs o Ma iño's
pigs?
The mosqui oes o Albu e a. Can he
mosqui o popula ion change when
aced wi h an insec icide?
Pe iod
Ma ch 2016
Ma ch 2016
Sessions
2 sessions
3 sessions
Didac ic
objec i es
Apply he model o gene
exp ession o a gue abou
he causes o an animal
disease.
E alua e da a ela ed o he
possible causes o an animal
disease.
Use a ailable es s o
e alua e a de e minis ic
model o gene exp ession in
his con ex .
E alua e s a emen s ela ed o
e olu ion.
De elop a model e olu ion o explain
he Albu e a phenomenon.
G aphically ep esen changes in a
popula ion o e se e al gene a ions.
Rela e he de eloped model o an
e olu iona y pe spec i e.
Re ise he eleological a gumen s based
on he model o e olu ion which has
been elabo a ed.
Scien i ic
p ac ices
A gumen a ion
Modelling and a gumen a ion
1.4.3 Da a collec ion
The da a collec ion ook place du ing he egula cou se o he
di e en sessions. The esea che , who a ended six sessions, played he
ole o a non-pa icipa ing obse e in o de o ensu e ha hey did no
in luence he de elopmen o he sessions. Fou ins umen s we e
chosen o da a collec ion and iangula ion: 1) eache s' su eys, 2)
w i en ask epo s, 3) audio and ideo eco dings, 4) he esea che 's
ield no es.
1. Su eys: Be o e he implemen a ion o he asks, a su ey o six
open-ended ques ions was conduc ed o he eache s in ol ed. The
su ey was aimed a ge ing o know hei expe ience and knowledge
o scien i ic p ac ices, in pa icula ega ding modelling. The main
pu pose was o iden i y hei ision ega ding his wo k me hodology.
Also, gi en ha a eache had p e ious expe ience in esea ch abou
modelling, he su ey aimed o ind ou how he assessed he
in oduc ion o models and modelling in science eaching in his classes.
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
69
2. W i en epo s: These included he w i en ma e ials p oduced
bo h indi idually and collec i ely in he wo analysed asks, which
we e: he ep esen a ions o he gene exp ession models and he w i en
explana ions om each g oup (Task 1); he w i en epo s whe e hey
placed he da a p o ided in Task 4 and he pa ial and inal conclusions
d awn.
3. Audio and ideo eco dings: The pu pose o hese eco dings
was o eco d he pa icipan s’ discou se and hei in e ac ions among
hemsel es and wi h he eache while pe o ming hei asks. A o al o
i e sessions we e eco ded. Be o e he beginning o each session, he
esea che and a collabo a o om he esea ch g oup se up a ideo
eco de and an audio eco de o ensu e ha e e y hing ha happened
in each g oup would be eco ded. The ideo images a e necessa y in
o de o conduc a mul imodal analysis and iden i y each membe o he
g oup when hey a e speaking. I is also necessa y o check which
elemen s hey we e handling du ing modelling and when elabo a ing
a gumen s om da a. The li e al ansc ip ion o he in e ac ions in he
g oups and wi h he eache is p oduced o subsequen analysis.
4. Field no es. The esea che was in cha ge o collec ing ield
no es o each o he sessions. These no es included he dis ibu ion o
ables and g oups in he class oom, commen s on he p og ess made in
di e en asks, inciden s, schemes and d awings made by eache s on
he blackboa d, as well as di icul ies obse ed du ing he de elopmen
o he ac i i ies.
1.4.3.4 Da a analysis
This sec ion p esen s he main analysis s a egy adop ed in his
hesis, he discu si e analysis, as well as he p ocess which was
ollowed in o de o add ess he objec i es and esea ch ques ions.
1.4.3.4.1 Discou se analysis
As Ibáñez Ga cía (2014) poin s ou , philosophical s udy
adi ionally ocused on he inne and p i a e wo ld, bu wi h he so-
called linguis ic u n, he wo k began o ocus on he s udy o linguis ic
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
70
s a emen s. The e o e, we mo e om conside ing language as a means
o exp essing ideas o i s ole as an ins umen o cons uc ing hem.
O e he las decades, discou se analysis has become a heo e ical
pe spec i e ela ed o lea ning in social en i onmen s, he de ini ion o
which we ha e aken om Gee and Hand o d (2012):
Discou se analysis is he s udy o language in use. I is
he s udy o he meanings we gi e language and he
ac ions we ca y ou when we use language in speci ics
con ex s. (Gee & Hand o d, p.1).
Acco ding o Gee and Hand o d (2012), discou se analysis can be
app oached in wo di e en ways, one based on linguis ic analysis
(con en analysis and g amma ) and he c i ical app oach, which aims
o p o ide a desc ip ion beyond language unc ioning, social p oblems
and con o e sies p esen in socie y and, he e o e, in discou se. This
hesis combines bo h app oaches, as i inco po a es he o ic in o he
analysis o a gumen a ion on socio-scien i ic issues.
Bea ing in mind ha eaching is a social ac i i y, language is
he e o e impo an o unde s anding how lea ning akes place in a
class oom si ua ion (Lemke, 1990). Fo example, in he science
class oom eache s play he ole o in o ma ion con eyo s ha s uden s
mus subsequen ly unde s and and communica e, some imes h ough
o al language (Jiménez-Aleixand e & Díaz de Bus aman e, 2003).
People in ol ed in science eaching and lea ning, he e o e, "speak
science," as Lemke (1997) indica ed. This implies no only lea ning he
language o science, bu also i s alues. Acco ding o Gee (2005),
discou se can be an iden i y ool sha ed by membe s o a communi y.
In his sense, class oom discou se can p o ide knowledge abou he
s uden s' unde s anding o ce ain opics, bu i can also p o ide
in o ma ion abou alues, belie s, o ideologies.
In he las decade, discou se analysis has e ol ed owa ds he so-
called mul imodal discou se analysis (he eina e MDA). I is
conside ed ha social ac o s pe o m di e en ac ions al hough, hey
a e no exclusi ely discu si e (No is, 2004). MDA ex ends he s udy
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
71
o language by combining i wi h images, scien i ic symbology, ac ions,
music, sound o ges u es (O´Hallo an, 2013). Fo his eason, in his
hesis we chose his me hod o analysis, since in he science class ooms,
speci ically in he one s udied in his hesis, s uden s no only discuss
science e bally, bu also cons uc models ( ep esen a ions) o explain
na u al p ocesses ha will be analysed oge he wi h o al and w i en
language.
In summa y, s udies ha use discou se analysis allow us o know
how he knowledge cons uc ed by s uden s is moulded, and a he same
ime, i is moulded by discou se and social p ac ices.
1.4.3.4.2 Da a analysis p ocess
Da a analysis was pe o med ollowing he se ies o s eps
summa ised in Figu e 1.5.
Figu e 1.5 Da a analysis p ocess.
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
72
Fi s o all, he audio da a was ansc ibed in o de o analyse he
speech and be able o s udy he meaning o he language used (Gee,
2005). Since ansc ip ion is a change o medium, his leads o a change
in he da a (Gibbs, 2012). The ansc ip ion is done as li e ally as
possible, espec ing he e minology used and also he language
(Galician, Spanish).
F om he ansc ip ion, he uni o analysis is he u n o speech,
his means ha each in e en ion by he pa icipan s in he con e sa ion,
o a agmen o said u n i di e en s a emen s o ope a ions a e
e lec ed in i . A e a i s eading, u ns can be compiled in o episodes,
he la e being made up o se e al u ns ela ed o he same discussed
issue o he same pe o med ac ion (Gee, 2005). In consecu i e
eadings, ca ego ies a e assigned o o al in e en ions and ac ions,
ying o highligh he aspec s which a e o be analysed. In some cases,
he ocus will be on modelling and a gumen a ion ope a ions, as well as
hei in e ac ions. In o he cases, i will ocus on discu si e mo es and
he o ical s a egies, bu i will depend on he esea ch ques ion which
is o be answe ed. Table 1.4 summa ises he analy ical ools used o
each objec i e, as well as he asks ha a e analysed.
Table 1.4 Objec s and analysis ools used in each ac i i y o add ess he
esea ch objec i es
Resea ch
objec i e
Objec o analysis
Analysis ool
Sequence ask
O1. To examine
how modelling and
a gumen a ion
in e ac and
connec he h ee
wo lds o
knowledge in he
con ex o lea ning
gene exp ession
Modelling and
a gumen a ion
p ocesses.
In e ac ions
be ween bo h.
Rela ionships
be ween he
wo lds o
knowledge in
modelling.
A gumen a ion
ope a ions
(building upon
Jiménez-
Aleixand e e al
2014) and
modelling
ope a ions
(adap ed om
Schwa z, 2009)
Wo lds o
Knowledge
(adap ed om
Tibe ghien, 2000).
Modelling gene
exp ession o
explain sickle
cell disease
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
73
To examine
seconda y
s uden s’
a gumen s and he
da a used while
de eloping
explana o y links
be ween wo
human diseases in
gene ics and
e olu ion
ins uc ion.
Quali y o w i en
a gumen s (causal
language and
applica ion o
gene ic no ions)
Causal s uc u e o
a gumen s (Ryu &
Sando al, 2012);
Gene ics and
e olu ion
conside a ions
(adap ed om
Zoha & Neme ,
2002)
Explaining he
links be ween
sickle cell
disease
O3. To examine he
in e sec ions
be ween he o ic
and
a gumen a ion,
and epis emic
ac ions in s uden s’
discou se in he
con es o lea ning
gene ics and
e olu ion
A gumen a ion
(use o es s) and
he o ic in o al
discou se.
Epis emic ac ions
in discou se
Rhe o ical mo es
(Swales, 1990).
F ames o hinking
(Pon eco o &
Gi a de , 1993).
Epis emic ac ions
(adap ed om
Pon eco o &
Gi a de , 1993)
Explaining he
links be ween
sickle cell
disease
The analy ical p ocess ook place in in e ac ion wi h da a and
exis ing li e a u e, since we unde s and ha analysis should no s a
om p ede e mined ca ego ies (Kelly & Takao, 2002), bu should
ins ead be de ined in in e ac ion wi h li e a u e and he da a i sel . I
consis ed o a p ocess o analysis ha in ol ed se e al cycles o eading
he ansc ip s and e iewing he ca ego ies. These ca ego ies we e
elabo a ed om ub ics collec ed in he li e a u e (see able 1.4), be o e
being adap ed o ou da a. The inal e inemen o he ca ego ies was
nego ia ed be ween he a ious esea che s in ol ed.
The ub ics o analysing bo h he esponses o he w i en
documen s and he models we e p oduced in a simila way, i.e. in
in e ac ion wi h he da a i sel and aking he li e a u e in o accoun .
1.3.4 E hical conside a ions
Since he esea ch design in ol es analysing he da a ob ained
di ec ly om seconda y class ooms and wo king wi h s uden s and
eache s, a numbe o e hical conside a ions we e aken in o accoun o
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
172
Conside ing ha he ask engaged s uden s in building a
ep esen a ion o explain gene exp ession, modelling ope a ions we e
mo e equen han a gumen a i e ones. Ope a ions ela ed o he me a-
knowledge o modelling (Schwa z e al., 2009), we e he leas common
ope a ions. The ask design may ha e a ec ed his, gi en ha a ki was
p o ided, meaning he e o e ha s uden s paid mo e a en ion o
manipula i e ope a ions such as “Building he model” han o o he s.
S uden s spen ime selec ing and placing he elemen s p o ided in he
ki o build hei ep esen a ions. This pa o he modelling p ocess in
which s uden s selec ed and mo ed elemen s om he ki a ound, glued
hem o ansc ibed and ansla ed he sequences co esponded o
“doing he lesson” (Jimnez-Aleixand e, Bugallo-Rod íguez and
Duschl, 2000). Conside ing ha his was he i s modelling-based ask
in he eaching sequence pe o med by s uden s his was no an
unexpec ed esul . S uden s may ha e needed ge used o hese kinds o
modelling-based ac i i ies and his may pa ially explain why
pa icipan s ocused on building he model in he physical way.
Rega ding he a gumen a ion ope a ions, he use o e idence
played a cen al ole, appea ing h oughou he modelling p ocess. I is
he only ope a ion which connec s he h ee wo lds o knowledge. This
ope a ion includes wo subca ego ies called “Iden i ying and
in e p e ing da a as e idence” and “Using e idence o suppo a claim:
iden i ying and in e p e ing e idence”. S uden s engaged in hese
subca ego ies when hey iden i ied da a om he h ee wo lds o
knowledge as being e idence o gene exp ession and included hem in
hei ep esen a ions. Ano he ope a ion ela ed o use o e idence is
“Asking o e idence, da a and/o jus i ica ions” and i also appea s in
connec ing he h ee wo lds o knowledge, bu in a lowe equency
han use o e idence.
The ope a ion o c i iquing did no appea equen ly when
modelling gene exp ession. This ope a ion in ol es s uden s
ques ioning ce ain elemen s p o ided in he ki as pa o gene
exp ession. The ac ha s uden s included he elemen s in hei inal
ep esen a ions, despi e no being su e abou hei pa icipa ion in gene
Sec ion 3. Discussion
173
exp ession, is an indica ion o hei di icul ies in engaging in c i ique.
Fu he mo e, ew s uden s made coun e claims, his means ha hey did
no usually p opose an al e na i e idea o he one ha was c i icised.
Rega ding he connec ions among he h ee wo lds o knowledge,
connec ions be ween he wo ld o heo ies and he wo ld o
ep esen a ions we e mo e equen han he connec ions wi h he
na u al wo ld. S uden s e ie ed hei knowledge abou he elemen s
and p ocesses in ol ed in gene exp ession o build hei
ep esen a ions, which could explain why hey es ablished mo e
connec ions be ween he wo ld o heo ies and he wo ld o
ep esen a ions han wi h he na u al wo ld. Mo eo e , e e ences and
connec ions o he na u al wo ld we e he sca ces , and, as expec ed,
when s uden s linked i o he wo ld o heo ies no modelling ope a ions
appea ed.
The examina ion o RQ2 demons a ed ha a ela ionship exis s
be ween he connec ions es ablished among he h ee wo lds o
knowledge and he in e ac ions pe o med be ween a gumen a ion and
modelling p ac ices. A highes equency o in e ac ions led o mo e
connec ions among he h ee wo lds o knowledge. On op o his, his
seemed o also a ec he elabo a ion o a mo e sophis ica ed
ep esen a ion o gene exp ession.
3.1.2 S uden s’ a gumen s and da a used while making links
be ween wo human diseases
The second esea ch objec i e, To examine seconda y s uden s’
a gumen s and he da a used while de eloping explana o y links
be ween wo human diseases in gene ics and e olu ion ins uc ion, is
a icula ed in hese wo esea ch ques ions add essed in Pape 2.
RQ3) Wha is he na u e o s uden s’ a gumen s while explaining
he e olu iona y links be ween wo human diseases?
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
174
RQ4) Wha da a do s uden s mobilise and how do hey use hem o
suppo hei a gumen s ega ding he ela ionships be ween hese wo
diseases?
The examina ion o hese wo esea ch ques ions ocuses on he
a gumen s p oduced in a ask ha equi ed s uden s o link wo human
diseases, SCD and mala ia. Pa icula a en ion has been placed on he
s uden s’ w i en inal a gumen s (in he case o RQ3) and on he w i en
s a emen s p o ided by he g oups in each s ep o he ask (in he case
o RQ4).
The analysis o RQ3 allows us o iden i y he quali y o a gumen s
in e ms o empi ical and heo e ical c i e ia. The esul s showed ha
he s uden s’ inal w i en a gumen s did no include gene ics and
e olu ion concep s. One g oup men ioned he wo d “e ol e” in he hi d
w i en conclusion bu ailed o do so in he inal a gumen . They
explained ha A icans ha e e ol ed a ian s o p o ec agains
mala ia, bu no u he in o ma ion o p ocesses we e included.
Mos o he g oups ( ou ou o i e g oups) we e no able o
include gene ics and e olu ion concep s in hei inal w i en consensual
a gumen s. They ocused mo e on desc ibing some o he da a p o ided
ins ead o de eloping a inal conclusion ega ding he links be ween
SCD and mala ia. One g oup was able o use gene ics no ions as
mu a ion. Howe e , hey seemed o ha e a eleological iew ega ding
he ole o mu a ion in he ela ionship be ween bo h diseases.
S uden s s uggled o d aw up quali y w i en a gumen s using clea
causal language and building s ong jus i ica ions. Likewise, he
s uden s' explana ions seemed o pose naï e ideas abou gene ics and
e olu ion such as eleological conside a ions. Teleological
explana ions, which in ol e a ibu ing e olu iona y change o need,
a e no a e in s uden s’ discou se (Al e s & Nelson, 2002; Zoha &
Ginossa , 1998). Fo ins ance, s uden s in his s udy conside ed ha he
ela ionship be ween he wo human diseases is based on he ac ha
SCD is a p o ec ion agains mala ia. Mo eo e , one g oup explici ly
Sec ion 3. Discussion
175
a ibu ed o humans, he need o he mu a ion o appea in o de o a
p o ec ion agains mala ia o be c ea ed. This esul is consis en wi h
he one p oposed by g oup 1, who, despi e acknowledging ha a
mu a ion can be posi i e, explici ly s a ed ha “black people” can
con ol his mu a ion based on hei own will, he e o e e ealing
eleological posi ions.
The analysis ela ed o he use o da a is ele an o his ask as i
was designed ollowing a s uc u e in which s uden s we e p o ided
wi h da a in di e se s eps o help hem o p og essi ely analyze he da a.
Thei in en ion was o help s uden s o each a inal conclusion, building
on all o he da a p o ided and e ising hei own a gumen s in he
p ocess. Howe e , when analyzing how hey selec and modi y he da a
p o ided, s uden s in ou s udy s uggled o in eg a e his da a in o hei
explana ions. This analysis helps unco e cul u al and social
ep esen a ions. S uden s iden i y he o igin o SCD in A ica and link
he disease o “A ican-Ame icans” o “black people”. This issue has
al eady been epo ed (Ja e e al., 2016) e en hough many A ican-
Ame icans ha e ne e e en esided in A ica (Biggs e al., 2002). The
ac ha s uden s iden i y he idea ha his g oup could only ma y
among hei e hnic g oup demons a es ha his g oup has been
iden i ied as being ma ked by cul u al di e ences o o he g oups a ha
ime. The social ep esen a ion o iden i ying all black people no jus
as A icans, bu also as A ican-Ame icans appea ed in he s uden s’
a gumen s as in p e ious s udies on a gumen a ion in gene ics lea ning
(Puig and Jiménez-Aleixand e, 2011). This poin s o he in luence o
cul u al knowledge when s uden s y o make sense o he da a.
3.1.3 Examina ion o he o ic, a gumen a ion and epis emic
ac ions
To add ess he hi d esea ch objec i e, To examine he
in e sec ions be ween he o ic and a gumen a ion, and epis emic
ac ions in s uden s’ discou se in he con es o lea ning gene ics and
e olu ion, wo esea ch ques ions we e p oposed in Pape 3.
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RQ5) Wha ames o hinking eme ge om he examina ion o
s uden s’ he o ical mo es and use o e idence when hey a e lea ning
abou opics in gene ics and e olu ion?
RQ6) Wha epis emic ac ions help s uden s o make explana o y
links be ween gene ics and e olu ion?
The analysis o he o al discussion du ing he ac i i y Explaining
he links be ween sickle cell disease and mala ia allowed us o explo e
he use o e idence and he he o ical mo es. This analysis helped us o
unco e s uden s’ ames o hinking and he epis emic ac ions
pe o med by he s uden s. Th ee cen al ames we e iden i ied. F ame
1, Iden i ying he o igins o sickle cell disease in he A ican communi y,
which showed s uden s’ explana ion o he o igin o SCD as being in
A ica. This claim appea ed epea edly in subsequen ames,
demons a ing how s uden s accommoda e new da a o i in o hei own
iews. F ame 2, iden i ying he pa e n o inhe i ance o SCD, in which
s uden s iden i ied he pa e n o inhe i ance o SCD, as a dominan -
ecessi e pa e n, ollowing a discussion on sex-linked inhe i ance.
Besides, hey discussed he molecula ela ionship be ween SCD and
mala ia, making connec ions o he p e ious ame by ecalling he
o igin o SCD. In ame 3, Making e olu iona y links be ween SCD and
mala ia, s uden s ag eed ha he e is an e olu iona y link be ween he
wo diseases. Howe e , he link consis s o a ela ionship be ween he
mu a ion ha causes SCD and he p o ec ion ha i p o ides agains
mala ia.
The iden i ica ion o hese h ee ames o hinking allowed us o
see he pe spec i e om which s uden s a gued and analysed he
p o ided da a in he con ex o linking wo human diseases.
I seems ha using mo e he o ical mo es helped pa icipan s o
mobilize mo e da a, al hough no necessa ily demons a ing high le els
o using e idence. The highes le els o use o e idence we e s ongly
ela ed o he en hymemes, al hough hey did no seem o help s uden s
o achie e a mo e sophis ica ed idea abou he p ocesses being s udied.
Sec ion 3. Discussion
177
In acco dance wi h Tibell & Ha ms (2017), s uden s s uggled o build
in e connec ed biological explana ions, in pa icula hey s uggled o
connec biological en i ies and p ocesses om di e en le els; be ween
molecula gene ics and mendelian gene ics o gene ics and e olu ion.
This inding poin s o he need o bo h engaging s uden s in lea ning
gene ics and e olu ion oge he and o de eloping eaching uni s o
help deal wi h hese di icul ies (Kampou akis & Zogza, 2009).
The examina ion o RQ6 helped us iden i y he epis emic ac ions
ha appea ed in s uden s' discou se. Rega ding he analysis o he
epis emic ac ions, In e p e ing ac ions, phenomena and in en ions o
ac o s was he one ha appea ed mos equen ly in he s uden s’
discou se. The au ho s expec ed his esul gi en ha biological
p ocesses in ol e di e en ac o s ha need o be conside ed in o de o
be unde s ood. The epis emic ac ion o Loca ing e en s and phenomena
in ime appea s e y equen ly in he i s ame, as i coincides wi h
he momen in which he his o ical da a is p o ided o he s uden s.
The epis emic ac ions o Te minological and concep ual
de ini ions and Loca ing e en s and phenomena in ime a e absen in
ame 3. This di e ence, in compa ison wi h he p e ious ames, may
be c ucial in unde s anding why s uden s a e no able o build a complex
e olu iona y explana ion a he end o he ask. They did no seem o be
able o p opose he mechanisms ha may be in ol ed in he ela ionship
ha hey ag ee exis s be ween bo h diseases.
3.2 GENERAL DISCUSSION
The analysis o da a and he use o e idence is a guiding means
h oughou his hesis. In he i s a icle we saw he undamen al ole i
plays, wi h he use o he e idence ope a ion being he mos equen
and he one ha allows o he h ee wo lds o knowledge o be
connec ed. The ole in pape 2 and pape 3 was gi en by he ask design
i sel , which equi ed s uden s o analyse and use a se ies o da a o
in o ma ion a di e en epis emic le els in o de o each a inal
conclusion abou he ela ionship be ween SCD and mala ia. In his
case, he esul s showed ha he s uden s always used he da a p o ided,
bu ha hey some imes adjus ed his da a based on hei p e ious ideas
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in luenced by social and cul u al cons uc ions. In addi ion, he use o
da a as e idence o elabo a ing a gumen s abou he ela ionships
be ween he wo diseases allows, oge he wi h he o ic, o ames o
knowledge and epis emic ac ions ha ope a e in his con ex o be
iden i ied.
In he case o pape 2, he analysis o he da a used by he s uden s
in hei w i en a gumen s sugges ed he exis ence o naï e ideas
ega ding gene ics and e olu ion. Some o hese nai e ideas we e
ela ed o eleological explana ions, and some o social ep esen a ions
ela ed o he o igin o SCD in A ica. In o de o explo e his in dep h,
he o al discou se o a g oup in which discu si e in e ac ions we e
equen was analysed. The analysis o he o ic, in pa icula o
he o ical mo es, was in oduced in o he s udy o a gumen a ion. This
allowed o he ames o hinking ela ed o he ways o easoning
abou gene ics and e olu ion o be iden i ied.
This analysis o o al discou se allowed us o e i y he appea ance
o eleological explana ions among s uden s, as well as he in luence o
cul u al lea ning on he in e p e a ion o his o ical da a. One such
example was hei unde s anding ha A ican-Ame icans could only
ma y o he A ican-Ame icans and he idea o SCD being a con agious
disease ha was sp ead in A ica by an A ican-Ame ican sla e be o e
being passed on h ough inhe i ance wi hin he A ican-Ame ican
communi y, also appea ed in he s uden s' discou se.
We also ound ha s uden s we e no able o e bally cons uc a
mo e sophis ica ed explana ion o he ela ionship be ween mala ia and
sickle cell disease. The absence o epis emic ac ions such as Loca ing
e en s and phenomena in ime and Designa ing e minological and
concep ual de ini ions could a ec he ac ha his g oup was no able
o elabo a e a sophis ica ed explana ion in which he coe olu ion o
bo h diseases would be bene icial o humans.
Ano he common issue ha eme ged om he analysis p esen ed
in he h ee pape s was ela ed o he s uden s' di icul ies in mo ing
Sec ion 3. Discussion
179
among he di e en le els o o ganiza ion (molecula , cellula and
indi idual) as was also epo ed in p e ious esea ch (e.g. Ma bach-Ad
and S a y, 2000; an Mil, Boe winkel & Waa lo, 2013). Following
Knippels’ (2002) ins uc ional model o gene ics, so-called “yo-yo
lea ning”, ou asks we e designed o enable s uden s o mo e up and
down h ough di e en o ganiza ional le els o biology. In he i s
ask, which has been analysed in pape 1, he ma e ials p o ided in he
ki we e ela ed o he molecula and cellula le els, and he a ec ing
disease on an indi idual le el. The ask add essed in pape s 2 and 3,
ega ding he e olu iona y links be ween bo h diseases, p esen ed da a
om hese le els bu also om he popula ion le el. S uden s s uggled
o discuss, in dep h, he molecula da a p esen ed ha could ha e helped
hem o build an e olu iona y explana ion. They also s uggled o link
he pheno ype wi h he p o ein unc ion ou come in he i s ask, and
his is consis en wi h p e ious s udies abou modelling in gene ics
(Reinagel and B ay Spe h, 2016). Ano he di icul y hey aced was in
linking he pheno ype wi h hei ep esen a ions. This could be ela ed
o he “mac o–mic o” p oblem, which also equi es unde s anding
phenomena a mul iple le els o o ganiza ion.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
In his sec ion we summa ise he conclusions d awn om each
esea ch ques ion. We hen go on o discuss he educa ional
implica ions ha can be d awn om he s udy and i s limi a ions.
Finally, po en ial u u e lines o esea ch ela ed o his hesis a e
p esen ed.
4.1 CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions a e p esen ed in ela ion o he h ee objec i es (4.1.1,
4.1.2 & 4.1.3) o he hesis.
4.1.1 Modelling and a gumen a ion and hei connec ions o
he h ee wo lds o knowledge
The examina ion o O1. To examine how modelling and
a gumen a ion in e ac and connec he h ee wo lds o knowledge in
he con ex o lea ning gene exp ession, allows us o es ablish i e
conclusions:
Conclusion 1. A ange o a gumen a ion and modelling ope a ions
we e iden i ied while he s uden s modelled gene exp ession in he
con ex o explaining a human disease. The me a-knowledge ope a ions
o modelling we e sca ce.
The analysis o s uden s’ discou se du ing he modelling-based
ask has enabled us o iden i y a se o modelling and a gumen a ion
ope a ions. The iden i ica ion o modelling ope a ions adds a deepe
unde s anding o he elemen s ha appea in he p ac ice o modelling
(cons uc ing, using, e alua ing, and e ising scien i ic models), o
Schwa z e al.‘s amewo k (2009), his includes he me a-knowledge
ha guide his p ac ice. The iden i ica ion o a gumen a ion ope a ions
builds on he p oposal made by Jiménez-Aleixand e, Puig, B a o &
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4.2 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The educa ional implica ions ha may be d awn om he
conclusions a e desc ibed in he ollowing pa ag aphs.
F om conclusions 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5, which a e ela ed o he i s
esea ch objec i e, he educa ional implica ions a e:
Modelling asks based on MDM is e ealed o be o use o eache s
when designing and guiding modelling ins uc ion, and o s uden s
when engaging in di e en ope a ions du ing he modelling p ocess
(Puig, Agei os & Jiménez-Aleixand e, 2017). The communica ion s age
seems o help s uden s o engage in e ising hei models, he e o e
a ou ing hei en ichmen . P o iding a ki o modelling gene
exp ession seems o be use ul o iden i ying and loca ing cellula
en i ies and molecula p ocesses ( ansc ip ion, ansla ion) ha a e
nei he isible no easy o connec . This shows he bene i s o engaging
s uden s in he elabo a ion o a ma e ial model o gene exp ession.
Howe e , he esul s show ha s uden s s ill s uggle wi h ela ing he
geno ype and he pheno ype and wi h making in e connec ions among
biological le els. In u u e implemen a ions we would ecommend o
s uden s o be asked o gi e explici explana ions as o how hey mo e
be ween he le els o o ganiza ion du ing he p ocess o modelling.
Modelling asks o e s uden s oppo uni ies o build and e alua e
explana ions o he na u al wo ld (Mendonça and Jus i, 2013), howe e ,
as his s udy shows, his p ocess equi es sca olding. Modelling mus
p esen a clea goal o s uden s beyond jus "doing he lesson"
(Jiménez-Aleixand e e al., 2000). These ac i i ies may be pe o med
mechanically i he in e ac ion be ween p ac ices and be ween he
wo lds o knowledge is no a icula ed. Teache s mus epea edly make
he con ex and objec i es explici du ing modelling o ensu e ha
s uden s do no lose sigh o hem. In o he wo ds, eache s mus use
‘modelling alk’ in an explici manne .
This s udy shows ha s uden s s uggle o make connec ions wi h
he na u al wo ld ha co esponds o SCD. The pheno ype o his
Sec ion 4. Conclusions and educa ional implica ions
189
disease is mic oscopic, and his migh no help s uden s o ecognize i
and connec hei ep esen a ions wi h he na u al wo ld. An educa ional
implica ion is he need o p o ide ecognizable pheno ypes, such as
achond oplasia o polydac yly, which can be modelled in o de o help
s uden s make connec ions o he na u al wo ld. Mo eo e , diseases
wi h a clea en i onmen al in luence, such as phenylke onu ia could be
modelled as a way o helping s uden s o inco po a e en i onmen al
ac o s in ol ed in gene exp ession. Fu he mo e, we sugges making
he wo lds o knowledge explici du ing he modelling p ocess so ha
s uden s a e able o ela e he ep esen a ion o he heo y and apply
knowledge o build and explain he ep esen a ion.
The s udy e eals ha he “Use o e idence” ope a ion helps
connec he h ee wo lds o knowledge, allowing he sca ce connec ions
wi h he na u al wo ld. This poin s o he cen al ole o his ope a ion.
We belie e ha p omo ing his ope a ion could inc ease he connec ions
o he na u al wo ld and could he e o e be bene icial o he s uden s’
unde s anding o gene exp ession. Teache s’ aining on how o
p omo e and sca old he use o e idence in modelling-based asks
equi es u he a en ion and esea ch in o modelling-based lea ning.
We also sugges he impo ance o guiding s uden s in he me a-
knowledge o modelling in a way ha makes he modelling p ac ice
meaning ul o hem (Schwa z e al., 2009). Fo ins ance, by asking
hem o e lec on he c i e ia used o making modelling decisions, such
as selec ing and including elemen s in hei ep esen a ions; o by
guiding s uden s in he compa ison o hei ep esen a ions in a way ha
will help hem o unde s and ha models can ake di e en o ms.
The ope a ion o c i iquing is sca cely pe o med by s uden s in he
con ex o building a model o gene exp ession. This indica es he
impo ance o paying a en ion o he p omo ion o c i iquing in he
cons uc ion and e alua ion o models. Social in e ac ions o ien ed
owa ds his epis emic goal should be p omo ed in he science
class oom.
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The e o e, i is impo an o make explici he ac ha al hough he
ac i i y equi es o a ep esen a ion o gene exp ession o be buil
acco ding o mode n gene ics, he e is no jus one co ec scien i ic
model o ela e o in he wo ld o heo ies. Mul iple his o ical models
o gene unc ion exis as Ge icke and Hagbe g (2007) emphasized.
F om conclusions 6 & 7 which a e ela ed o he second
esea ch objec i e he educa ional implica ions a e:
Rega ding gene ics and e olu ion ins uc ion, as Kampou akis and
Zogza (2009) s a ed, we conside ha e olu ion mus be lea ned
alongside gene ics, engaging s uden s in dialogic discou ses and
p o iding expe iences in which hey a e gi en he chance o discuss
explana ions and e alua e e idence. Mo eo e , his ype o ins uc ion
should co e social ep esen a ions and cul u al lea ning as his s udy
shows ha hese opics may a ec he cons uc ion and e alua ion o
a gumen s in ligh o he da a. Likewise, we ag ee wi h some au ho s’
sugges ions ha s uden s' al e na i e ideas such as eleological and
an h omo phogenic explana ions could be conside ed as a s a ing poin
o e olu ion ins uc ion (Zoha & Ginossa , 1998).
Ou indings also sugges ha he e is a need o he eaching and
lea ning o gene ics and e olu ion o be suppo ed h ough he p o ision
o da a ha helps s uden s o use hei p e ious knowledge as a way o
helping hem o build accu a e scien i ic knowledge. Wo king in he
class oom wi h da a may be a way o helping s uden s o unde s and
e olu ion as a con inuous p ocess ha is occu ing a p esen and ha is
connec ed o ou e e yday li e and e en o he diseases ha we su e ,
such as SCD and mala ia. Howe e , his me hod p esen s some
challenges o bo h eache s and s uden s. Mo e emphasis mus be placed
on he s uden s’ unde s anding o complex no ions such as gene ics and
e olu ion in biology educa ion esea ch.
We p opose de eloping eaching uni s which a e designed o
add ess hese di icul ies and engage s uden s in dialogic discou ses,
p o iding expe iences in which hey a e gi en a chance o discuss
explana ions and e alua e e idence.
Sec ion 4. Conclusions and educa ional implica ions
191
We belie e he a o emen ioned is an impo an esponsibili y
o biology educa o s who a e p epa ing s uden s o be ac i e
pa icipan s in he social, cul u al and ecological p ac ices o science.
F om conclusion 8, 9, 10 & 11 which a e ela ed o he hi d
esea ch objec i e he educa ional implica ions a e:
The analysis o easoning p ac ices sugges s ha awa eness o
he o ical discou ses should be de eloped u he by eache s in o de
o help s uden s unde s and how hey iew biological p ocesses in wide
scena ios. To achie e his goal, i will be necessa y o p o ide eache s
wi h ins uc ion on his ma e , in addi ion o u he p o essional
de elopmen . We belie e ha by helping eache s o acknowledge he
impo ance o ‘ aming’, which is ela ed o he ways in which ames
a e connec ed o pa icula e ms (Flodin, 2017) and he manne in
which said e ms a e connec ed o cul u al belie s as his would help
s uden s o become amilia wi h he use o ames in hei discou se.
Following he he o ical pe spec i e, he me apho ical e ms which a e
commonly used in biology (A i i, 2017; an Dijk, 2016) should be
examined explici ly in he class oom and should be decon ex ualized in
o de o be able o examine he igu a i e meanings and help s uden s
unde s and bo h he biological implica ions and he me aknowledge
behind he o ic.
The indings o his s udy sugges ha epis emic ac ions a e ela ed
o he na u e o he in o ma ion p o ided. These ac ions play a ole in
he cons uc ion o sophis ica ed explana ions in gene ics and e olu ion
lea ning, gi en ha he biological p ocesses in bo h domains in ol e
di e en ac o s ha need o be conside ed in ela ion wi h each o he .
Tasks designed o mobilize ime- ela ed da a and/o concep s ha need
o be de ined may enhance he use o he epis emic ac ions o Loca ing
e en s and phenomena in ime and Designa ing e minological and
concep ual de ini ions. These epis emic ac ions a e impo an in o de
o unde s and e olu ion and na u al selec ion. In line wi h he ideas o
Fe a i and Chi (1998) we p opose ha in o de o p omo e an
unde s anding o he na u al selec ion p ocess, i is impo an o
s uden s o g asp he mul iple le els o o ganiza ion o li ing o ganisms,
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as well as he di e en empo al and spa ial scales in which e olu ion
ope a es. The impo ance o ime and space scales has p e iously been
epo ed o de eloping he s uden s’ unde s anding o his o ical e en s
(Pon eco o & Gi a de 1993), bu no o conside ing e olu ion and
gene ics lea ning oge he . An educa ional implica ion is he need o
add ess hese epis emic ac ions explici ly in ela ion o he da a
p o ided in a gumen a ion ac i i ies.
4.3 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE LINES OF RESEARCH
The limi a ions o his s udy co espond mainly o i s
me hodological design. Case s udies a e designed in o de o allow o
a deep analysis o he eali y (Cohen, Manion & Mo ison, 2011),
he e o e his would enable us o ge a be e unde s anding o a g oup
o seconda y s uden s lea ning gene ics and e olu ion’s engagemen in
scien i ic p ac ices. The d awbacks o he case s udies which canno be
con olled be o e he s udy is implemen ed (Yin, 2003) ela e o he ac
ha esul s a e speci ic o he con ex , he e o e a oiding he
gene aliza ion o he indings. Besides, by ca ying ou he s udy in a
eal class oom, his means ha ce ain elemen s canno be ully
con olled. Tasks we e designed in collabo a ion wi h he eache s,
howe e , he con en o he lessons abou gene ics and e olu ion ha
ook place p io o he implemen a ion o hese uni s we e no eco ded
o con olled. Aspec s such as he dynamics o he g oups and he
s uden s’ p io knowledge o mo i a ion may a ec he de elopmen o
he uni s. Mo eo e , he s uden s pa icipa ing in he s udy changed
sligh ly be ween he i s and second uni , as a new school yea esul ed
in new s uden s joining he school and o he s uden s lea ing i .
Ano he aspec ha limi s he implemen a ion and de elopmen o
he s udy was ela ed o he amoun o ime which was a ailable o
engaging in he asks. The Spanish cu iculum is ex ensi e and
engaging in scien i ic-based ac i i ies equi es ime and sus ained
p ac ice, as does he eache s’ aining on i s ins uc ion. A be e
pe o mance could be a ained i he e was mo e ime o engage in he
asks and o become mo e amilia wi h his scien i ic-based app oach.
Fu he mo e, s uden s we e no di ec ly ins uc ed on he me a-
Sec ion 4. Conclusions and educa ional implica ions
193
knowledge and epis emic c i e ia ega ding he use o e idence and
a gumen a ion. Ryu and Sando al (2012) p opose no only explici
lea ning abou he opic bu also he epis emic c i e ia o scien i ic
a gumen s in o de o imp o e he quali y o s uden s’ a gumen s.
We p opose h ee u u e lines o esea ch in ela ion o he indings
and he limi a ions o ou s udy:
The i s esea ch line is ela ed o analysing epis emic belie s.
Bay elman e al. (in p ess) ha e demons a ed ha epis emic belie s and
p io knowledge ega ding con o e sial socio-scien i ic issues
de e mine he di e en ypes o a gumen s ha s uden s cons uc
(social, economic, e hical, scien i ic and ecological). In his line, he
examina ion o how he s uden s' epis emic belie s migh a ec hei
abili y o include di e en pe spec i es such as gene ics o e olu ion
could help iden i y esou ces o p omo e s uden s lea ning.
The second line o esea ch is ela ed o a deepe analysis o he
me aknowledge o modelling. As he esul s ha e shown, di icul ies in
engaging in he c i iquing ope a ion indica e he need o add ess his
ope a ion explici ly in o de o p omo e a less manipula i e
unde s anding o modelling p ocesses han he one add essed in he
hesis.
A hi d line o esea ch ela es o he analysis o emo ions in he
s uden s' explana ions and a gumen s. The asks p esen ed in his hesis
deal wi h di e se human diseases. When designing hese ac i i ies, he
emo ional componen ha could accompany hem was no conside ed.
Howe e , his emo ional componen migh in luence how s uden s
pe o m a gumen a ion and unde s and he disease, as well as he way
in which he eache p esen s he asks o how he s uden s beha e
a ound he opic. We sugges ha he analysis o emo ions is a
dimension ha can in luence he cons uc ion o explana ions,
p o iding a g ea e unde s anding as o how o bene i om emo ions
in he class oom o p omo e s uden s lea ning. In line wi h he analysis
o emo ions in he class oom, an adap a ion o he AIR model (Ba zilai
NOA AGEITOS PREGO
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& Chinn, 2017) ha akes in o conside a ions emo ions and alues
could be de eloped in u he esea ch.
We hope ha he esul s o his hesis con ibu e o imp o ing he
unde s anding o scien i ic p ac ices such as modelling and
a gumen a ion. We aim o b oaden he cu en unde s anding o he ole
o a gumen a ion and modelling in os e ing he s uden s’
unde s anding o gene ics and e olu ion, placing pa icula emphasis on
human diseases. We also expec o shed ligh on he ole o he o ic in
s uden s' discou se, in pa icula when engaging in a ask which is
designed o use da a as e idence o build scien i ic a gumen s. Finally,
we hope ha his p ojec will help he communi y o eache s ha a e
in e es ed in knowing bo h how o in oduce a gumen a ion and
modelling p ac ices and how o guide hese ac i i ies e ec i ely when
eaching gene ics and e olu ion in ela ion o human diseases in hei
biology class ooms.
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