Con ac s, exchange and ma ble supply in La e An ique
Ra enna and he po o Classe
Helena Tůmo á– En ico Ci elli
ABSTRACT
e a icle ocuses on he comme cial mechanism in La e An iqui y wi h special ega d paid o he La e An ique
sedes impe ii, Ra enna, and i s ma i ime po o Classe om he poin o iew o quali a i e and quan i a i e
analyses o ma ble and poe y impo a ion h ough long-dis ance ade wi hin he Medi e anean. In he 5 h
and 6 h cen u ies, Ra enna ep esen ed an impo an poli ical, comme cial, and cul u al cen e, in ol ed in
in e egional sea ade h ough i s po o Classe, and ep esen ed asigni ican p oduc ion and edis ibu i e
cen e. e esea ch is based on a chaeological ma e ial e idence: he p o enance and quan i y o impo ed
s one a e ac s om he La e An ique complex o S. Se e o in Classe, and he p o enance o poe y inds om
he ha bou a ea o Pode e Chia ichea in Classe. e mechanism o comme cial exchange o La e An ique
Ra enna and Classe wi h a ious egions o he Medi e anean is based on he quan i a i e and quali a i e
compa ison o impo ed ma ble and poe y. e ques ion o he s a io ma mo um in he po a ea o Classe is also
discussed on he basis o bo h he a chaeological e idence and acompa ison wi h he s one supply om Rome.
KEYWORDS
Ma ble supply; poe y; impo a ion; comme cial exchange; p o enance; s a io ma mo um; La e An iqui y;
ea ly Middle Ages; Ra enna; Classe; Rome; Po us.
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In e es in he his o y and his o ical monumen s o La e An ique Ra enna (Fig. 1) emains
ali e and a ac s many schola s as an i esis ible and pe manen challenge. Despi e he cen-
u ies o esea ch e o , he e a e s ill many unanswe ed ques ions and missing pieces in he
‘mosaic’ o his amous sedes impe ii, which expe ienced he pe iod o i s g ea es de elopmen
in he age o he ansi ion om La e An iqui y o he Middle Ages.
1
e La e An ique Ra enna
a ep esen s acomplex in which a is ic s eams o bo h he wes e n and eas e n pa s o
1In 402, Ra enna became he sedes impe ii o he Wes , he sea o he Empe o Hono ius who ans e ed
his cou he e om Mediolanum. e decision o Hono ius was in luenced by se e al ac o s, including
he ci y’ss a egic posi ion nea he seapo s and agood ma ine connec ion (Wa d-Pe kins e en s a es
as one o he easons as o why he building ac i i y in 5 h cen u y Ra enna was no as de eloped as in
Cons an inople ha i was an ‘eme gency esidence’, see Wa d-Pe kins 2000, 75, no e 17), he p esence
o amili a y po , and good accessibili y along he Ad ia ic coas line h ough Ad ia ic seapo s and o
Cons an inople, he c ucial pa ne o he Ra enna e ade and he sea o he Empe o pe O ien em.
Howe e , his decision had also apoli ical mo i e. Ra enna was aci y a om he éli es, sena o ial and
uling class in Rome: i was a‘disembedded ci y’, as Deliyannis called i (Deliyannis 2010, 1–5, esp. 3,
49) and o e ed ad an ages o ace ain poli ical au onomy o he empe o . Ra enna hus ollowed he
adi ion o o he empo a y impe ial esidences, such as T ie , Milan, Nikomedeia, o essaloniki,
al hough Rome had ne e ceased o be he eal capi al (capu o bis) o he empi e (c . Ci elli 2008, 29;
C is o 1975, 17; Deliyannis 2010, 1–5, 48–54; Humph ies 2012, 162; see also He in 2020).
STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2, 55–88
56 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
he Roman Empi e joined and in luenced each o he .2 Ra enna main ained comme cial ela-
ionships wi h dis an egions such as No h A ica (Tunisia, Egyp ), Asia Mino , he Aegean
islands, Pales ine, Sy ia, and Cons an inople,3 bu also wi h nea by egions (sou he n I aly,
Sicily, Is ia, and Dalma ia), as we can ace h ough he a chaeological e idence based on
he impo a ion o poe y, glass a e ac s,4 s one (ma ble, sands one, and o he li ho ypes)
ma e ial (a chi ec onic elemen s and deco a ion), as well as sa cophagi (Fig. 2).5
e supply o ‘ma bles’6 in Ra enna always depended on impo s gi en he o al lack o
qua ies in he icini y. I is gene ally assumed ha ma ble a e ac s7 we e impo ed om
2 Gi en he close ela ionships o Ra enna wi h Cons an inople, he capi al o he Eas , especially
in he 5 h and 6 h cen u ies, he Ra enna e a was also in luenced by he Eas e n koiné. As Wa d-
-Pe kins a i ms, ‘ he e is no doub ha by he la e 5 h cen u y i was Cons an inople, no any
wes e n cen e, ha was he s yle-leade ’ (Wa d-Pe kins 2000, 73). I was F. W. Deichmann who
suppo ed he hypo hesis o close a is ic ela ionships be ween Ra enna and Cons an inople
when he ound close analogies o he Ra enna e columna sa cophagi (sa cophagus o Libe ius
III and ‘anicchie’ sa cophagus), loca ed in he S. F ancesco basilica in Ra enna in a agmen a y
columna sa cophagus in he A chaeological Museum in Is anbul. e Is anbul agmen (ca . no.
5639), ound in 1959 in he Topkapi Sa ay, is da ed o he 4
h
cen u y (Fi a li 1990, 48) and bea s he
a chi ec u al deco a ion o apilla wi h he composi e capi al ‘ali a’ and ashell niche simila o ha
o he sa cophagus o Libe iusIII. Deichmann p esupposed he close collabo a ion o Eas e n and
Ra enna e a is s as ea ly as a he end o he 4 h cen u y and especially in he i s hal o he 5 h
cen u y (c . Deichmann 1969; 1974; 1982a; 1982b; 1995). Close pa allels be ween he Ra enna e and
Cons an inopoli an sculp u al a we e demons a ed also by G. Bo ini (Bo ini 1968) o Ma inelli
(Ma inelli 1992, 159–176). Deichmann’scon ibu ion was eally a u ning poin because un il his
disco e y, he columna sa cophagi we e p ima ily conside ed o be aWes e n (Ra enna e) ‘spe-
cial y’ (c . Fa ioli 1977a, 720, no e 9). Some yea s la e , M. Law ence also p esen ed he possibili y
o apossible mic oasia ic o igin o columna (niche) sa cophagi (Law ence 1970).
3A he end o he 4
h
cen u y he ela ions be ween Cons an inople, he eas e n cen es o Asia Mino
and he island o P oconnesos we e pa icula ly e i ed (Kollwi z 1956a; Koch 1998, 439–478).
Cons an inople became a a ou i e des ina ion o many a is s om he Eas (Asia Mino ), and
i s a is ic p oduc ion g ew apidly by expo ing ma ble p oduc s and sa cophagi o he Wes , so
Cons an inople played he ole o amedia o o he Eas e n a and is oÁen conside ed as acen e
o i s dis ibu ion in he wes e n egions. Fa ioli conside ed he ole o Cos an inople as a‘ il e ’ o
s ylis ic in luences om Asia Mino o he Wes (Fa ioli 1983, 205–253). We can ind many s ylis ic
and iconog aphic analogies o Cons an inopoli an a o he 5 h and 6 h cen u ies on ypical elie
slabs deco a ed wi h ci cle o namen s (e.g. a ypical inus g oup wi h wo c osses on ei he side
o a ound monog am, widesp ead mainly in he 6 h cen u y on plu ei) o some ypes o capi als
(e.g. ‘capi ello impos a’) in Ra enna.
4 Ci elli 2008, 29–30; Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 49, 52–53.
5 Many li ho ypes ex ac ed du ing La e An iqui y in qui e dis an qua ies in he Medi e anean
basin (Asia Mino , G eece, No h A ica), bu also in smalle quan i ies in Spain and no h I aly
ha e been iden i ied among s one a e ac s om he ecclesias ical complex o San Se e o in he
icini y o he po o Classe (Tůmo á 2013, 256; Tůmo á– Ci elli 2019, 57, ig. 2). AÁe all, he
ex ensi e adius o hese comme cial con ac s co ela es wi h wha was claimed al eady in he
1980s by Wa d-Pe kins in ela ion o he P oconnesian sa cophagi: ‘ he impo ing cen e (which
was also awo kshop) was no Aquileia, bu Ra enna’ (Wa d-Pe kins 1980, 329).
6By he e m ‘ma bles’ we mean di e en ypes o s one used in An iqui y, as is cus oma y in a chae
-
ologically (no a all in geologically) o ien ed scien i ic li e a u e. e e m ‘ma bles’ is in ended,
bo h in ancien sou ces and in a chaeological e minology as well, o e e o all polishable, deco-
a i e s ones.
7 Ra enna e sa cophagi and a chi ec onic elemen s in Ra enna e basilicas such as columns, bases,
capi als, ambo o elie slabs o he apse enclosu es.
57HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
Fig. 1: Loca ion map o he ci y o Ra enna (Emilia– Romagna, I aly); he ed a ow indica es he
posi ion o Classe (ancien Ci i as Classis); Map by Helena Tůmo á.
Fig. 2: Map o he p o enance o ma ble and o he s ones om he basilica o he San Se e o si e
in Classe. 1– Ra enna, I aly; 2– Mon i Lessini, Ve ona, I aly; 3– S . Gi ons, F ance; 4– Chem ou,
Tunisia; 5– La issa, essaly, G eece; 6– K okees (Le e so a), Spa a, G eece; 7– E e ia, Eu-
boea, G eece; 8– Ka ys os, Euboea, G eece; 9– Ma ma a Adasi (P okonnesos), Tu key;
10– Vezi han, Tu key; 11– Iscehisa , Tu key; 12– Sigacik (Izmi ), Tu key; 13– Güllük, Tu key;
14– Lomba d Alps, I aly, 15– Gebel Dokhan, Eas e n Dese , Egyp (a¢e Tůmo á 2013, 233, ig.
258, basemap: Es i).
58 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
he Eas (esp. Asia Mino , Cons an inople) in La e An iqui y. Pa icula ly in he 6 h cen u y,
du ing he eign o Jus inian and especially be o e he Go hic Wa (AD 535–554), many eas e n
in luences, wo kshops, and ma e ials came o he e i o y o p esen -day I aly, s a ing om
Rome o he no h Ad ia ic ci ies o Ra enna, G ado, and Aquileia.8 ‘Ma bles’ and hei impo
o Ra enna in An iqui y is s ill ali ely opic.9
C aÁ in luences mus ha e eached Ra enna di ec ly om qua y wo kshops, as hei
exis ence is aes ed in many ancien qua ies, he P oconnesian ma ble (which is conside ed
he mos widesp ead whi e ma ble in he Ra enna egion, as al eady men ioned) qua ies no
excluded.
10
In he Ra enna e Ch is ian basilicas, buil in he pe iod o he g ea es cons uc ion
de elopmen in he 5 h and 6 h cen u ies (as shown in G aph 1), many a chi ec onic elemen s
we e iden i ied ha a e supposed o be impo ed om he P oconnesian wo kshops.11
Some ma ble p oduc s, such as sa cophagi (Fig. 3),12 we e impo ed o he Ad ia ic egion
as p e ab ica ed (‘semi-wo ked’) a e ac s, and hen inalized in loco. e ac ha he ma ble
was wo ked– a leas oughly– al eady in he qua y is no hing new, as we also see in many
8 Many a chi ec u al elemen s in Ch is ian basilicas in he no h Ad ia ic egion a e supposed o be
om he P oconnesian ma ble (Pensabene– Ba san i 2008, 455–490; o Ra enna see Rizza di
2016, 192, 196). As can also be seen om he s udy o he s one (ma ble) ca gos o ancien shipw ecks
in he Medi e anean, one o he peak pe iods o impo s o goods om he Eas was du ing he 6 h
cen u y (Russell 2013a, 348, ig. 5). e peak o impo s o (p esumably P oconnesian) ma ble also
in Ra enna co ela es wi h his endency (Rizza di 2016, 192, 196). Fo an app oxima e o e iew
o he quan i y o impo ed ma e ial (ma ble), especially on he basis o an es ima ion acco ding
o he p ese ed a chi ec onic elemen s and deco a ion see Ha pe 1997, 131–148.
9 Fo an o e iew see: Baldini e al. 2019, 90–97; Po a– Degli Espos i 2019, 98–105.
10 ese wo kshops gene ally p oduced mainly p e ab ica ed elemen s such as sa cophagi and a chi-
ec onic elemen s des ined o expo , and p obably also c aÁsmen a elled oge he wi h hei
p oduc s o comple e hei wo k a he inal des ina ion (c . Guidobaldi 2002, 1479–1524; Sodini
2002, 129–146; Pensabene– Ba san i 2008, 455–490). e P oconnesian wo kshops p oduced
mainly a chi ec onical elemen s such as capi als ha we e expo ed o many Medi e anean egions,
also o no he n I aly. e impo ance and long p oduc i e pe iod o he P oconnesian wo kshops
was condi ioned by he lowe cos o he P oconnesian ma ble, compa ed o o he ma bles, and by
he in e up ion o he ac i i y o he main qua ies in Asia Mino (Aph odisias, Ephesos) in ha
pe iod (Kollwi z 1956a).
11 Rega ding he p o enance o whi e ma bles p ese ed in he Ra enna e basilicas o he 5 h and 6 h
cen u ies (column shaÁs, capi als, bases, ambo, elie panels, sa cophagi, wall e e men ), hei
p o enance om P oconnesos is oÁen men ioned in he scien i ic li e a u e o hey a e iden i ied
simply as a‘G eek ma ble’, based on mac oscopic s udies (c . Fa ioli 1969; Ma inelli 1968;
Zucchini– Bucci 1968). Fa ioli indica es an aes a ion o ma ble impo a ion in Ra enna which is
he agmen ed slab (plu eum) in he Na ional Museum in Ra enna bea ing asigna u e o aG eek,
p obably P oconnesian, wo kshop (Fa ioli 1983). e p esence o P oconnesian ma ble in Ra enna
is epo ed by aRa enna e p o ohis o ian o he i s hal o he 9 h cen u y, And eas Agnellus, in
his Libe Pon i icalis Ecclesiae Ra enna is. Agnellus men ions P oconnesian ma ble (ma mo p o-
connisus) in his desc ip ions o Ra enna e buildings. Agnellus men ions he ma ble walls om he
P oconnesian ma ble in he monas e ium, ounded by he Bishop Pe us II du ing his episcopa e in
AD 494–520 (LPR L). In he Libe Pon i icalis Ecclesiae Ra enna is he e a e o he no es ela ing o he
P oconnesian ma ble, such as he ma ble columns in he S . And ew basilica (LPRLXXVI), ama ble
sa cophagus in he S . James o a o ium nea he basilica Pe iana (LPR XXVI). C . also Guidobaldi
2002, 1479–1524.
12 As we see on many un inished sa cophagi in he no h Ad ia ic, o example sa cophagi in he
ga den o he San Vi ale basilica in Ra enna (Fig. 3); he sa cophagus o Vibius P o us om he
second hal o he 3 d cen u y (Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 29); on nume ous a chi ec onic elemen s
(column shaÁs, o example), leÁ a he qua ies (Wa d-Pe kins 1980, 328), o on ma ble ca gos
59HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
examples o abandoned, oughly wo ked ma ble elemen s di ec ly in Medi e anean qua -
ies.13 is p ac ice p esupposes he exis ence o bo h p oduc ion and s o age acili ies. e
impo a ion o p e ab ica ed, pa ially wo ked elemen s acili a ed anspo and educed
cos s.14 e mobili y o bo h c aÁsmen and p oduc s15 encou aged local wo kshops o de elop
hemsel es as is appa en in he case o Ra enna whe e he local p oduc ion, imi a ing o eign
models, is aes ed in La e An iqui y.16 Cassiodo us in o ms us indi ec ly o he ma ble ci cu-
la ion, speci ically o asupply o ma ble sa cophagi in Ra enna in his Va iaeEpis ulae (Lee s)
whe e he men ions aconcession o he igh o u nishing ‘ he ma ble ches s’ in Ra enna ( he
ques ion is, i his could also mean hei impo ), g an ed by he Os ogo hic King eodo ic
o ace ain Daniel, ama ble wo ke esponsible o ‘p epa ing and o namen ing ma bles’.17
e minimiza ion o anspo , p oduc ion, and pu chase cos s we e undoub edly one o
he decisi e ac o s also o he e-use o cons uc ion (s one) ma e ial and sa cophagi.
18
Much
o he eused ma e ial could ha e been p ocu ed om abandoned buildings a ound Classe and
Ra enna: his p ac ice has accompanied he conu ba ion o Ra enna, Caesa ea, and Classe
(Fig. 4) h oughou i s whole exis ence.19 Many uninhabi ed, abandoned buildings emained
om ancien shipw ecks (e.g. p e- ab ica ed sa cophagi om he San Pie o w eck, see Wa d-
-Pe kins– Th ockmo on 1965, 201–209).
13 Un inished column shaÁs had been abandoned in si u, o example, in one o he qua ies o cipollino
Tena io in Mianes on he Mani peninsula (B uno 2002, 22, igs. 6–8); p e ab ica ed a chi ec onic
elemen s we e ound in many ancien qua ies on he island o P oconnesos (Asga i 1978, 467–480;
Asga i 1988, 115–125; Asga i 1992, 73–80). Toma conside s he main commodi y du ing he Impe ial
e a, which belongs o he ca ego y o ‘semi- ab ica ed pieces’, o be column shaÁs (Toma 2018, 167;
see also Maischbe ge 1999, 325–334). J.-P.Adam belie es ha ma ble p ocessing and s onewo king
ook place bo h a he qua y wo kshops, a he deposi s, and a he cons uc ion si es o he inal
des ina ions, gi en he inds o ma ble elemen s a a ious s ages o p ocessing, om he phase
o ough s onewo king o he inal inishing (c . Adam 1999, 21–87).
14 See Wa d-Pe kins 1980, 328. e p ac ice o semi-wo ked pieces was u ilised a many qua ies
and wo kshops. Aic sa cophagi, o example, we e impo ed as p e ab ica ed and hen inalised
a he des ina ion. e P oconnesian sa cophagi, we e mainly inalised a he local wo kshop, so
hey we e cos compe i i e (c . Fe a i 1966).
15 e a is mobili y allowed o he expansion o local a is ic s yles and also o he gene al a is ic
koiné. Fo an o e iew and discussion on he mobili y o c aÁsmen (‘cons uc ion companies’ e sus
‘o e seas agencies’ e sus ‘wo kshops’) see Toma 2018, 182.
16 We can see his phenomenon on he p oduc ion o Ch is ian sa cophagi and a chi ec u al deco a ion.
We can suppose ha he local Ra enna e p oduc ion g ew signi ican ly om he beginning o he
5 h cen u y as aconsequence o he ans e o he impe ial cou in 402 (which also signi ied he
a i al o Impe ial and a is oc a ic in es men s in he ci y). I is ob ious ha also many a is s o
he impe ial wo kshops came hand in hand wi h he impe ial cou (c . Kollwi z 1956b, 55–59).
As is well known om ecen a chaeological esea ch, also some ypes o poe y p oduced in
local wo kshops we e imi a ed on he basis o impo ed poe y, mainly om he eas e n egions
(Mic oasia ic and he Aegean) o om No h A ica (Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 47–54). See also
Rizza di 2016, 191 and Cosen ino 2020.
17 Cassiodo us, Va iae III,19.
18 As a esul o he gene al c isis o he empi e in he 3 d cen u y, he p ac ice o eusing sa cophagi
had sp ead om he middle o he 4 h cen u y (Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 29).
19 C . Augen ie al. 2007b, 257–295; Ci elli 2011, 209–218; Fio ini 2007, 32–34; Tůmo á 2013, 254–257.
e p esence o spolia in he Ra enna e a chi ec u e ep esen s a ypical example o a ai ly wide-
sp ead and cha ac e izing phenomenon o he euse o ancien ma e ial in he La e An ique and
ea ly Medie al building ac i i y ( o ade ailed s udy o he Ra enna e spolia see Tůmo á– Ci elli
2019, 55–78, esp. 60–61, 73).

60 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
in he a ea o Classe especially s a ing om he 8 h and 9 h cen u ies,20 when he ci y wi h i s
po a ea g adually los i s p oduc i e, comme cial, and economic p ospe i y.21 I is clea ha
bo h economic powe and demand consequen ly diminished and po en ial s ocks o s o ed
s one ma e ial (ma ble, p e ab ica ed p oduc s) we e mos likely used.
20 C . Laszlo szky 2007, 14.
21 Augen ie al. 2007a, 170; Cosen ino 2016, 133–149.
G aph 1: Aba cha o he Ra enna e basilicas cons uc ed om he 4 h o he 7 h cen u y
(acco ding o Ci elli 2007, 314).
Fig. 3: An un inished, p e ab ica ed sa cophagus des ina ed o be inalised in acco dance o he
speci ic demand o he clien ela ing o he deco a ion o bo h sides lanking he cen al abula
ansa a, insc ip ions and side panels and he back o sa cophagus, now in he ga den o he
basilica o S. Vi ale in Ra enna. Pho o by H. Tůmo á.
61HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
REASSESSMENT OF THE PORT AREA OF CLASSE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
e ci y o Classe (ci i as Classis) wi h i s inne po was pa o he Ra enna e conu ba ion
and se ed also as ahin e land o he Ra enna e egion and an impo an comme cial and
p oduc ion cen e, bu was also adi e en ci y wi h i s own popula ion and iden i y.22 Ra enna
wi h i s ci y-po o Classis played an impo an ole in he impo a ion and s o age o goods
22 Ci i as Classis ep esen ed an impo an cen e o local– egional and in e egional– and long-
-dis ance ade, dis ibu ion o goods and p oduc ion un il he 7 h cen u y (Ci elli 2008, 27–29; o
an o e iew o i s u ban de elopmen see Augen i 2011, 20–42). In he no he n pa o he ci i as,
whe e he canal connec ing he inne lagoon o he po wi h he sea lowed, he small island wi h
he p oduc i e a eas was loca ed (c . Augen i 2011, 23; Pensabene– Ba san i 2008, 455–490; Fa-
ioli 1977a, 717–739; Ci elli 2008, 27–28; o he impe ial po o Classe see also Deliyannis 2010,
26–31; desc ip ion o he po o Classe in La e An iqui y c . Luciano 2019, 26, 50–52).
Fig. 4: Topog aphic diag am o he conu ba ion o Ra enna, Caesa ea, and Classe depic ing he
coas line in La e An iqui y. Map by En ico Ci elli.
62 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
and hei edis ibu ion o he wide hin e land;23 and a he same ime i made use o he
supply capaci ies o se e al la ge u al es a es, he so-called illae us icae, such as illa us ica
in Russi (Fig. 5), loca ed abou 20 km om Ra enna. is ole o Ra enna was s eng hened
by an a i icially cons uc ed canal Fossa Augus a ha connec ed he ci y wi h he Ri e Po,
which ep esen ed he connec ing, c ucial axis h oughou he whole p o ince o Aemilia.24
We can classi y Classe among he mos impo an po s, which pa icipa ed in long dis ance
ade in he la e ancien Medi e anean, such as Caesa ea, Ca hage, Cons an inople, Os ia
and Po us,25 as well as Ma seille.26 e impo ance o his ci y-po can be pe cei ed om
he La e An ique mosaic in he main na e o he basilica San Apollina e Nuo o in Ra enna,
ounded by he Os ogo hic king eodo ic and depic ing on one side he pala ium, and on
he opposi e wall he amous ships o Classe (Fig. 6).
As we know om he es imonies o ancien au ho s and om he a chaeological e idence
as well, he seapo o Classe was no he only po in he Ra enna egion. And eas Agnellus
in o ms us in his Libe pon i icalis Ecclesiae Ra enna is abou se e al po s in he conu ba ion o
Ra enna. Howe e , i is no clea whe he he au ho himsel ai h ully ook he in o ma ion
om p e ious sou ces, o whe he he desc ibed he si es as he could see hem, e en pa ially,
23 C . Guidobaldi 2002, 1479–1524. To unde s and he mechanisms o edis ibu ion also in he Ra en-
na e a ea, he hypo hesis o S. Keay ega ding he s o age and edis ibu ion capaci ies in Po us
and Os ia is e y in e es ing: ahuge s o age capaci y in Po us could se e bo h o supplying he
popula ion o Os ia, Rome, and o he hin e land, and o he e-dis ibu ion o goods in he hin-
e land and ia shipping in o he Medi e anean cen es (Keay 2022, 108).
24 Besides his main channel, ade owa ds he hin e land was mos ly done h ough i e ou es and
canals which also c ossed he ci y o Ra enna.
25 e ancien po o Po us, no h o Os ia, has been he subjec o a chaeological esea ch o
many decades. Along- e m esea ch ini ia i e ‘Po us P ojec ’ o he Uni e s iy o Sou hamp on
is cu en ly yielding signi ican esul s: o alis o ele an bibliog aphy, see hps://www.po -
usp ojec .o g/ou pu s/ [ci . 10.6.2022]. Fo s udies ela ing Os ia and Po us see Descoeud es
ed. 2001; Keay 2022, 92–113 ( o Po us P ojec esp. 92, 98, 100); Kockel 2001, 1246–1253; Luciano
2019, 13–16; Pensabene 2001, 201–302.
26 Boni ay– Ca e– Rigoi 1998; Boni ay 2004. Fo o he Medi e anean po s c . also Ca e– Ex-
co on 2021.
Fig. 5: Remains o he illa us ica in he a chaeological si e in Russi, I aly. Pho o by H. Tůmo á.
63HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
in he i s hal o he 9 h cen u y. Agnellus also men ions o he ‘en ances’ and s a egic po
places loca ed along he coas s a ing om he Ri e Sa io.27 Howe e , we can assume ha
hese we e a he smalle po s, as we know hem om An iqui y along he Ad ia ic coas
o p esen -day I aly. Ne e heless, he impo an mili a y po o Augus us was mos likely
loca ed inside Ra enna.28 is po was es ablished in he Julio–Claudian pe iod as he sea o
he impe ial lee (classis) and assumed i s s a egic ole in he impe ial adminis a ion and
27 Fo example, Agnellus desc ibes he po us Lionis and loca es i as ‘six h mile om Ra enna’ (LPR
XX,39: ‘…in Po e Lione, ubi pos ea pala ium modicum haedi ica e iussi in insula, non longe ali o e ma is,
ubi nunc monas e io sanc ae Ma iae esse ide u , in a balneum, non longe ab Ra enna milia io6.’).
Acco ding o Fabbi and No a a is mus ha e been loca ed on ia Popilia, o he no h o Ra enna
(Fabbi– No a a 2003, 623–630).
28 I s p ecise loca ion, howe e , emains unce ain. I could p obably ha e been loca ed a ca. 5 km
sou heas o he ancien ci y. Howe e , we mus ealize ha Ra enna was igh by he sea in La e
An iqui y. Topog aphical and geomo phological ci cums ances changed du ing La e An iqui y and
he Middle Ages: subsidence, sedimen s (allu ial deposi s) om i e s, lowing h ough his a ea
om he Apennines, caused he g adual clogging o he po s and shiÁing o he coas line. e La e
An ique landscape dissapea ed (c . Augen i– Boschi 2013, 4, ig. 3: T aces o he ancien coas al
dunes in he mode n landscape om ae ial su ey; see also Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 21). Fo he
geomo phology o he egion see Boschi 2011a, 65–74.
Fig. 6: Mosaic in he main na e o he San Apollina e Nuo o basilica in Ra enna wi h a ep esen a-
ion o he po o Classe. Pho o by H. Tůmo á.
70 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
G aph 6: P o enance o poÇe y inds om he po a ea o Pode e Chia ichea in Classe.
Fig. 8: Compa ison o he p o enance o poÇe y ound a Pode e Chia ichea in Classe (in black)
and s one ma e ial om he basilica o San Se e o si e in Classe (in g ey). Dimensions o colou-
ed ci cles co espond o he quan i y. A¢e Tůmo á 2013, 235, ig. 260; Basemap: Es i.
he 6 h cen u y ce amic impo s p e ailed om he p oduc ion cen es o No h A ica, om
he middle o he 6 h cen u y o ien al impo s p e ailed.58
Based on wha has been men ioned abo e we can assume ha comme cial con ac s wi h many
cen es o he eas e n and cen al Medi e anean, and No h A ica ha e been main ained
58 C . Augen i 2010, 150; Augen i 2011, 26; Ci elli 2014, 541–552; Ci elli 2019, 14–15. C . Sa ini 2011b,
esp. 246, g aph 5.4.3.6.

71HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
h ough he seapo in Classe.59 I is highly p obable ha ma bles and o he s one a e ac s
we e also anspo ed h ough he same ade ou es.60 As ega ds he p o enance o ma bles
and o he s one ma e ial ound a he si e o he basilica o San Se e o in Classe, da ed o he
6 h cen u y; an eas e n p o enance de ini ely p e ails: Asia Mino (mainly he qua ies on
he wes e n coas o p esen -day Tu key, and P oconnesos), in second place No h A ica
(p esen -day Tunisia and Egyp ); ollowed by G eece, I aly, and sou he n F ance. Howe e ,
no li ho ype om he Sy ian-Pales inian egion was iden i ied wi hin he examined s one
ma e ial. As we can see om he p o enance compa ison o poe y inds and s one ma e ial,
in mos cases hei o igin, and hus also ade ou es, almos c ossed (Fig. 8). Acompa ison
o s one and ce amic a e ac s in Classe shows and con i ms he hypo hesis ha he comme -
cial ela ions o Ra enna in La e An iqui y we e ocused mainly on he eas e n and sou he n
Medi e anean.61
MARBLE SUPPLY AND THE QUESTION OF DEPOSITIO MARMORUM IN THE
PORT OF CLASSE
As al eady men ioned, he Ra enna egion expe ienced ape iod o g ea building ac i i y
om he beginning o he 5 h cen u y. I would be logical ha he demand o ma ble in Ra-
enna in his pe iod, bo h o cons uc ion p ojec s in he ci y and o u he ade in he
hin e land, equi ed he a ailabili y o ma ble deposi s, whe he empo a y o pe manen .62
e ques ion we ha e o ask ou sel es is he possible exis ence o as o age (‘ya ds’) sys em o
s one (ma ble) in he Ra enna e conu ba ion, simila o he exis ence o wa ehouses which
is assumed o documen ed in o he ci y-po s and in la ge coas al ci ies, oÁen in he icini y
o hei po s.63 Ma ble wa ehouses, oÁen aes ed in he Roman wo ld, p esupposed awell-
-o ganized and de eloped sys em o in e egional exchange.
64
ey, o cou se, exis ed also
nea he qua ies, om whe e he ma ble p oduc s we e u he dis ibu ed– some imes ia
o he ans-shipmen poin s– o he inal des ina ion.65 La ge ma ble s o age acili ies had o
59 C . Tůmo á 2013, 204–209. Fo he ce amics ne wo k be ween Eas and Wes see V oom 2017, 285–310,
esp. 295–296.
60 C . Zanini 1994, 132–134.
61 Tůmo á 2013, 269. C is o 1975, 17: ‘Ra enna in he iÁh cen u y was hus a once an empo ium o
O ien al ade like Ma seilles in Gaul…’.
62 Ap esump ion o J. P.Sodini should be men ioned in his con ex , conce ning he p esumed use
o ma ble o he u nishing o he basilica in Pa enzo, o de ed by he Bishop Euph asius di ec ly
om he Ra enna o Classe ma ble deposi s. Based on he opinions o E. Russo and A. Te y (Te y
1986, 147–164), Sodini assumes he exis ence o such deposi s o ma ble (s a io ma mo um) as an
‘o ganized cen e o he collec ion o impo ed ma ble’ also in Ra enna o Classe (Sodini 2002,
133–135, no e 20, see also Pensabene– Ba san i 2008, 455–490).
63 As Aanasio admi s, deposi s we e always in he capi al bu p obably also in o he la ge ci ies
(A anasio 2003, 21).
64 Ma ble deposi s assembled ma bles impo ed om qua ies. ese wa ehouses oÁen belonged o
he impe ial iscus, and hey had been managed and di ec ed by an impe ial o icial ( edemp o o
dispensa o ) who di ec ed he dis ibu ion o ma bles (in ough blocks and/o semi- inished piec-
es), in ended o impe ial, public ( a io u bica) o p i a e demand (Pensabene– Ba san i 2008,
455–490). C . also Ka agio gou 2001, 171–187; Wa d-Pe kins 1980, 325–338; o an o e iew o he
ma ble supply and ex ac ion in La e An iqui y see Tůmo á 2013, 38–51.
65 In some cases he ma ble was sold locally and deli e ed di ec ly o he inal des ina ion; in he
case o mo e p ecious a ie ies, hey we e oÁen sen o Rome o be sold and hen sen o he inal
72 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
con ain eno mous quan i ies o he ma e ial.66 On he o he hand, monumen al (monoli hic)
a chi ec onic elemen s (especially column shaÁs) e.g., o a ious Ch is ian basilicas, had o
be impo ed di ec ly ‘on eques ’ om he qua y.
In he case o Classe, ecen a chaeological exca a ions e ealed s uc u es o s o age
wa ehouses in i s po a ea.67 Asys em o canals and wa e ways was iden i ied hanks o ecen
geophysical and ae ial su eys based also on acompa ison wi h his o ical ae ial pho og aphs.68
Also, amain channel connec ing he po basin wi h he Ad ia ic Sea was disco e ed by means
o he geophysical and geomagne ic su eys as we can obse e i s isible aces nea he po
dis ic o Pode e Chia ichea, as a esul o geomagne ic and geophysical e idence.69 e e-
cen disco e y o a chaeological emains in he a ea o Pode e Chia ichea has shown a egula
ne wo k o po wa ehouses and p oduc ion acili ies, mainly poe y and glass p oduc ion,70
si ua ed along he canal, on i s sou he n side.71 Howe e , no aces o ma ble wa ehouses ha e
been ound in his a ea so a . I we assume he exis ence o awa ehouse (o a he a‘ma ble
ya d’, as is oÁen men ioned in he scien i ic li e a u e) o s one/ma ble p oduc s (whe he
impo ed o , o example, collec ed as ma e ial o e-use),
72
we should suppose i s loca ion o be
in he po a ea o Classe, whe eas he Fossa Augus a canal, which connec ed Ra enna wi h he
Po, was al eady bu ied wi hin he ci y by he 4 h cen u y, so ha all p oduc ion and s o age acil-
i ies we e concen a ed a he po o Classe and along he canal connec ing he po o he sea.73
des ina ion (A anasio 2003, 20–21).
66 Aanasio assumed ha e en aÁe he eopening o some ma ble qua ies, e.g. ha o Ca a a a he
end o he 12 h o a he beginning o he 13 h cen u y, he ma ble deposi in Rome s ill ep esen ed
a ele an compe i o o he new p oduc ion o ma ble (A anasio 2003, 165–170).
67 A chaeological exca a ions a he si e o he la e ancien and Byzan ine po a ea in Classe (mode n
Pode e Chia ichea: ‘Qua ie e A’) began in 1974, bu i con inued in he ollowing decades, un il
ecen ly (Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 40). Fo an o e iew o he a chaeological ac i i ies in Classe
see Augen i 2011, 15–20. e a chaeological esea ch o he po acili ies and o he hin e land is
un o una ely agg a a ed by geomo phological ci cums ances, such as subsidence; s a ig aphy
o La e An ique a chaeological emains ha lie a adep h o abou 2.2 m; high g oundwa e le el;
un a ou able clay soil agg a a ing geophysical and magne ic p ospec ion and la ge changes o he
landscape: especially ala ge di usion o u banized a eas and in ensi e ag icul u e (c . Augen i–
Boschi 2013, 12).
68 Augen i– Boschi 2013, 1–16; Boschi 2012, 220–224.
69 Augen i– Boschi 2013, 12–13, ig. 12. Boschi supposes he channel was abou 50 m wide in i s wides
pa inside he po (Boschi 2012, 222, 229, o geomagne ic e idence o he channel see Boschi
2012, 251, a . 2:29). e a e age channel wid h o ca. 50 m is– based on a chaeological esea ch–
also men ioned in Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 37.
70 Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 44–46.
71 Due o asubsidence e ec , many po wa ehouses had o be eno a ed as ea ly as in La e An iqui y,
a ound he middle o he 6 h cen u y (Augen ie al. 2011, 108; Boschi 2012, 220). Fo hose se ies
o wa ehouses along he channel and a anged a leas in wo ows see also Augen i 2011, 26.
72 A chaeological e idence o ancien shipw ecks es i ies o he anspo o spolia– ma bles des ined
o e-use– in An iqui y and also in he Middle Ages, as we see o example in he ca gos om
he Salak a shipw eck, whe e he ma e ial (whi e ma ble blocks, a chi ec onic elemen s) da ed
o 195–220 was anspo ed oge he wi h he ma e ial om ala e pe iod; in he ca go om he
Kizilbu un 2 shipw eck whe e ma ble da ed o he 5 h–6 h cen u ies was anspo ed oge he wi h
ampho ae da ed o he 10 h cen u y; o in he ca go om he Şile shipw eck whe e a chi ec onic
elemen s ‘ ypically da ed o he ea ly 2
nd
c. AD bu he sa cophagus is la e ’. Asimila si ua ion
occu s in he ca go om he shipw eck in Lixou i (Russell 2013a, 334, 338–339, 341).
73 Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 30.
73HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
Mo eo e , in he case o e-used s one a e ac s (especially o whi e ma ble)74 om ala e
pe iod, we canno es ablish wi h ce ain y whe he hey ha e been eused as spolia75 coming
om ancien abandoned buildings in he icini y o Ra enna and Classe, o i he s one ma-
e ial (e.g., ough blocks, semi- inished a e ac s o ma ble impo ed in La e An iqui y) could
ha e been used om apo s o ehouse, whose hypo he ical exis ence in Ra enna o Classe
has no ye been a chaeologically p o en.76
In e ms o e-use, especially in he 7 h cen u y, due o he p og essi e decline in o e seas
ade, i was acommon p ac ice o use a ailable ma e ial om abandoned buildings and s uc-
u es in he a ea. I is he e o e ob ious ha i he s one ma e ial (especially ma ble), s o ed
hypo he ically in he po wa ehouse, was s ill a ailable a ha ime, i mus ce ainly ha e
been used as well, as also happened in he case o Rome, whe e he ancien deposi s se ed
as a‘qua y’ un il he 19 h cen u y.77
Especially in he Ch is ian La e An ique a chi ec u e (basilicae) we e y oÁen encoun e
he use o spolia, whe he o apu ely p agma ic eason (as a ough cons uc ion ma e ial) o
implying an ideological message.78 In he Ra enna e La e An ique a chi ec u e, we mee bo h
o ms o he common use o spolia and also he employmen o ma ble à la demande.
79
As ega ds
he impo o ma ble à la demande, we ha e ex ao dina y examples om Ra enna and Classe
(Fig. 9), pa icula ly a chi ec onic elemen s (columns, capi als), o na us basilicae (al a s, ambons,
cancelli) o une a y sculp u e (sa cophagi).80 Ne e heless, ma ble o he Ra enna e a chi ec-
u e means asign o luxu y, which sui ably complemen s and a he same ime con as s wi h he
b ick buildings ep esen ing he in en ion o apowe ul clien : impe ial o ecclesias ical iscus.81
74 As shown by ade ailed analysis o he s one a e ac s in he basilica a San Se e o, me amo phic
ocks– ma bles– p e ail (63%), o which 96% a e whi e ma bles (Tůmo á 2013, 96).
75 e la ges use o whi e ma ble in he case o he San Se e o complex was ound in he 12 h–14 h
cen u ies (Tůmo á 2013, 64).
76 We should conside ha he po en ial ma ble s o age could ake place unde he open sky, i.e. i did
no equi e aco e ed space. On he o he hand, i had ce ainly g ea e space equi emen s han,
e.g., apoe y wa ehouse.
77 We would like o exp ess ou g a i ude o p o .Pa izio Pensabene o much p ecious in o ma ion
ega ding he anspo o ma ble in Os ia, Po us, and Rome.
78 Tůmo á– Ci elli 2019, 55–78. Fo a ious meanings o he employmen o e-used ma e ials in
Rome see Pensabene 2017, 175–231, esp. 177–178, 189–191.
79 Howe e , based on he impo ance o he po o Classe and on i s indispu able comme cial ac i i y
linked o ma ble, he impo a ion o he en i e o na us basilicae, wo ked o pa ially-wo ked (p e-
ab ica ed) ma ble a e ac s such as sa cophagi, columns, bases, e c., i s exis ence is he subjec o
li ely discussion (C . Tůmo á 2013, 215–235).
80 To name he mos signi ican : huge monoli hic column shaÁs o whi e-g ey ma ble, ‘a a alla’ (o
‘a oglie d’acan o mosse dal en o’) capi als and bases in he basilica o San Apollina e in Classe;
columns, bases and capi als in he basilica o San Vi ale, bo h basilicae da ing back o he 6 h cen u y;
homogeneous se ies o capi als (‘ali a’) and pul ini in he San Gio anni E angelis a basilica, in he
basilica Apos olo um, in he cappella pala ina o eodo ic, mode n San Apollina e Nuo o; composi e
capi als ‘a oglie d’acan o mosse dal en o’ om he Ecclesia Go ho um (c . Rizza di 2016, 191–197;
see also G eenhalgh 2009, 79).
81 In addi ion, we mus dis inguish be ween he mode o anspo o ‘u ili y’ a e ac s, i.e. awell dis-
ibu ed ci cula ion o semiwo ked pieces, as we ha e al eady seen in he example o he Ra enna e
sa cophagi, and monumen al and/o monoli hic a chi ec u al elemen s, such as monoli h column
shaÁs, huge capi als, s one blocks, des ina ed o slab cuing and weighing se e al onnes and
o de ed à la demande. Howe e , in asimila way, also semiwo ked smalle (bu monoli hic) column
shaÁs o capi als we e anspo ed, as we can see om examples in he Museum o Ma bles in Os ia
o om he esul s o Asga i’smas e ul esea ch o semiwo ked a chi ec onic pieces abandoned
74 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
One o he easons why he exis ence o he po wa ehouse o s one a e ac s has no ye
been a chaeologically p o en, is he signi ican p ac ice o e-use (spolia io) o cons uc ion
ma e ial in he Ra enna e a ea, which occu ed o e many cen u ies (and o his mus be added
i s logis ical isola ion in la e pe iods). is makes i i ually impossible o expec (gi en he
o al es ima ed quan i y o impo ed s one/ma ble a e ac s) o ind esidual blocks o ma ble
o p e ab ica ed shaÁs, capi als, and bases, as– o example– in he case o Rome o Os ia and
Po us.
82
We mus also no o ge he la e in e es o Cha lemagne in he ancien monumen s
in Ra enna, especially ma ble a e ac s, and his e o o ake as many mas e pieces o he
cen e o his empi e o Regnum F anco um, Aachen, as possible.83
e hypo hesis o he exis ence o as o ehouse o ma ble blocks and s one a e ac s in
Ra enna o Classe seems o be suppo ed by he oponym o he hypo he ical basilica o S. Gio-
anni (Bais a) in Ma mo a o nea he Co iand o po in Ra enna, ou side he Anas asia Ga e84–
whe e one o he wa ehouses o he s o age o s one and ma ble simila o s a io ma mo um
(Ma mo a a) and o he ma ble ya ds in Rome could pe haps ha e been loca ed. Howe e , he
ques ion a ises as o whe he acompa ison o he ma ble ci cula ion mechanism in Ra enna as
in he ancien qua ies o P oconnesos (Asga i 1978, 467–480; Asga i 1988, 115–125; Asga i 1992,
73–80). Mo eo e , some eused a e ac s we e newly ca ed, as Pensabene poin s ou in he example
o capi als in Roman Ch is ian basilicas, esp. hose om he 5 h cen u y (Pensabene 2017, 190–191).
Fo he issue o eused a e ac s in La e An iqui y and he ea ly Middle Ages in Rome and No h
A ica see Al ekampe al. 2017.
82 No e en he une al s elai o classia ii we e spa ed seconda y use, so o many o hem we ha e no idea
o hei o iginal loca ion. Also, many s uc u es in he po dis ic o mode n Pode e Chia ichea, as
e idenced by a chaeological esea ch, we e demolished and disman led o he ounda ions in he 7 h
and 8 h cen u ies and he ma e ial was eused o o he cons uc ions (Maioli– S oppioni 1987, 27, 35).
83 As i was g an ed o him by he Pope Had ian Iin alee da ed o he yea o his isi o Ra enna,
787 (Deliyannis 2003, 173). Agnellus, LPR XXXVI, CXIII c . Tůmo á 2013, 252–253.
84 Ci elli 2008, 103. Rizza di men ions he loca ion o he San Gio anni Bais a basilica, consec a ed
by he A chbishop Maximianus om Pula in on o he Gua cino um ga e (mode n Po a Se a a)
nea he San Vi ale basilica and denomina ed ad Ma mo a a (Rizza di 2016, 199).
Fig. 9: Monoli hic ma ble columns, bases, and capi als ‘a oglie d’acan o mosse dal en o’ in he
basilica o San Apollina e in Classe (Ra enna). Pho o by H. Tůmo á.
75HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
sedes impe ii wi h Rome, and i s hin e land in Os ia and Po us is ele an .85 We can e e abo e
all o he case o he ancien ha bou s o Os ia and especially Po us wi h i s ma ble deposi s86
om whe e he ma bles we e u he anspo ed along he Tibe o o he ma ble ya ds in Rome,
in he a ea called Ma mo a a unde he A en ine hill (Fig. 10)87 which was used o he s o age
o an eno mous quan i y o ma ble:88 Ma ble (and o he s one) ese es we e s ill a ailable
he e in he 19 h cen u y.89 Cases o ewo king o semi- inished bu damaged ma ble elemen s
(e.g. damaged column shaÁs), des ined o di e en pu poses a e also known om he s a io
ma mo um, as can be seen in he open ai A chaeological Museum o Os ia an ica (Fig. 11).90
Ade ailed o e iew o wa ehouses o ‘ma ble ya ds’ in Rome has ecen ly been gi en by
M. Maischbe ge , who conside s a ious s o age places in Rome: among he la ges and mos
impo an om he ea ly Impe ial e a was Empo ium, sou hwes o he A en ine (whe e he
g ea es quan i y o s one ma e ial was disco e ed and whe e s a io ma mo um was p obably
loca ed), he zone on Campus Ma ius, whe e anumbe o dispe sed ma bles was ound, and
he a ea o he ma i ime ha bou o Po us, in he no h o Os ia.91
When we conside whe he and how he e en ual s o ages o s one (ma ble) ma e ial
in Classe and Ra enna could unc ion, we should no neglec he di e si y o examples in
Rome i sel and i s su oundings (Po us, Os ia). Fi s ly, i should be no ed ha in Rome i sel ,
ma ble ese es we e no concen a ed in asingle loca ion, bu hei dis ibu ion depended
on logis ic demands and on he anspo o huge ma ble elemen s h ough na ow s ee s o
he cons uc ion si es. ey we e scae ed along he banks o he Tibe , wi h he ac ha he
la ges ans-shipmen poin s included he Empo ium (Ma mo a a) and he zone a Campus
Ma ius. Unlike Rome, he wa ehouse in Po us was loca ed on he pe iphe y (whe e he ma -
ble ya ds we e si ua ed in adensely u banized a ea):92 Ma ble a e ac s we e ound along he
85 We ha e o ask his ques ion especially wi h ega d o he la es knowledge abou he ac ual (p edic ed)
size o s o age capaci ies in Os ia and Po us ha in o al encompassed almos 6 hec a es ( o exac
dimensions see Keay 2022, 107). I is also necessa y o poin ou ha we a e no compa ing he conu -
ba ion o Ra enna wi h he ci y o Rome in quan i a i e o e i o ial e ms: he Ra enna e conu ba ion,
in e ms o i s su ace, should a he be compa ed wi h o he impo an La e An ique ci ies such as
Augus a T e e o um, Ca hage o Mediolanum (c . Augen i 2011, 24–25; Wa d-Pe kins 2000, 67, ig. 2),
bu in e ms o he unc ioning o he anspo sys em, edis ibu ion, and ma ble supply.
86 As was men ioned– hough a ely– on he ancien insc ip ions (Maischbe ge 1999, 325).
87 An ique Ma mo a a should be loca ed nea he Tibe Ri e , p obably whe e he mode n ia Ma mo-
a a passes. Subsequen ly ama ble deposi nea he ha bou o Po us de eloped (A anasio 2003,
21). See also Wa d-Pe kins 1980, 327 who loca es he Ma mo a a qua e be ween he A en ine and
Mon e Tes accio in Rome.
88 Asimila sys em o s o age, s ockpiling, and anspo om he po s o he ma ble wo kshops is
gene ally assumed also in o he la ge dis ibu ion and comme cial ci ies and po s in he ancien
Medi e anean: Alexand ia, An ioch, A hens, Caesa ea, Ca hage, Ephesus, e c., whe e in mos
cases, howe e , we do no ha e di ec e idence. e deposi simila o ha o Ma mo a a in Rome,
howe e , is no aes ed in he capi al o Cons an inople (Sodini 2002, 134–135).
89 As hey had been s udied by Luigi Ma ia B uzza in he 19 h cen u y (B uzza 1870; see A anasio
2003, 21; Pensabene 2007, 389, 392; c . Tůmo á 2013, 58). Co si desc ibed he aces o he ancien
wa ehouse: ‘(…) p esso l’es emi à dell’A en ino nel luogo deo la ma mo a a i sono anco a le
o ine ci cola i de’ magazzini, e gli a anzi della as a dogana’ (Co si 1833, 30; see also Ma chei–
Pe inau 1998, 117–128).
90 Pensabene 1998, 333–390.
91 Maischbe ge 1999, 325, 328. Fo Os ia, Po us and i s s a io ma mo um see Keay 2022, 92–113.
92 C . Maischbe ge 1999, 325–334, esp. 330 whe e he p esen s he logical easons o he es ablis-
men o he ma ble ya ds in Po us, when he capaci y o s o ages a he Empo ium was p obably
insu icien due o he inc easing ma ble demand unde he eign o Domi ian.

76 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
Fig. 10: Ma ble column sha¢s and semi-wo ked ma ble blocks in he supposed s a io ma mo um,
now in he open-ai museum o Pa co a cheologico di Os ia an ica. Pho o by H. Tůmo á.
Fig. 11: Me hod o in e en ions and epai s o ancien s onemasons in o he sha¢s o he columns
le¢ in he s a io ma mo um om he Os ia/Po us a ea, now in he open-ai museum o Pa co
a cheologico di Os ia an ica. Pho o by H. Tůmo á.
77HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
sou he n bank o he Fiumicino canal ( he so-called Fossa T aiana), linking he Tibe wi h he
Ty henian Sea, in he no h-eas pa (‘Capo due ami’) o he Isola sac a.93
In his espec , mo eo e , we mus no o ge ha he way and opog aphy o ma ble s o -
ages in Rome and i s ‘economic backg ound’ (Os ia, Po us) depended on he speci ic si ua ion
o ma ble supply in each pe iod: in he ime o he la ges demande (ea ly Impe ial pe iod,
especially om he eign o Domi ian on), he ma ble supply o Rome inc eased signi ican ly,
and i made sense o c ea e an adequa e s o age capaci y o ma bles, qua ied and aded
unde he s a e monopoly.
94
Also he ma ble ya d is conside ed con olled and managed by he
s a e adminis a ion. e quan i y and quali y o he p ese ed s one a e ac s in he assumed
ma ble ya ds and supposed wo kshops in Rome a ies so much ha i p o okes li ely deba e
abou he exis ence i sel o hese wa ehouses and s a iones. So, he e a e di e en iews on
he ma ble s o age sys em, s ockpiling, and ‘mass’ p oduc ion in gene al.95 e iews on he
exis ence o ma ble ya ds, o mo e p ecisely o he p oduc ion ‘ o-s ock’ (P.Pensabene, J. Wa d
Pe kins)96 a e amended by opinions o pe sis ing qua ying o o de also in La e An iqui y.97
e non-exis ence o ma ble ya ds (e.g. in Os ia o mo e speci ically Po us) is jus i ied as
he e a e only a ew ma ble emains (which a e conside ed ‘sc aps o damaged pieces’) o
he olume ha had o be impo ed o Rome. Howe e , as is gene ally assumed– and as also
ollows logically– he e mus ha e been aplace ( ans-shipmen poin ) inside he po whe e
he ma e ial was s o ed be o e i was u he anspo ed o ans-shipped o he ci y o o he
hin e land. I is logical ha as onemason’swo kshop had o ope a e he e, which deal wi h
he epai o damaged pieces: and hose ha could no longe be epai ed we e leÁ in place.
We should also assume ha ce ain losses du ing anspo we e expec ed and he ma e ial
was o de ed wi h ace ain ma gin o a he ese e. Some easonable syn hesis ollows om
Saho sky’sdesc ip ion, whe e he belie es smalle ma ble elemen s (‘ inishing ma bles’) em-
ployed o e e men s o pa emen s in he cons uc ion o he Maxen ius basilica in Rome
could p obably be used om adeposi io o Empo ium, om ‘ he la ges s ockpile o ma ble in
Rome’, while he eigh huge monoli h columns had o be deli e ed à la demande, in aspeci ic
o de .98 So i seems ha – as usual– he u h will be ‘somewhe e in be ween’.
In he case o Ra enna, we should conside mos ly he si ua ion ha occu ed om he be-
ginning o he 5 h cen u y onwa ds, when he ci y became he sedes impe ii. As we ha e al eady
seen, he ci y expe ienced inc eased cons uc ion ac i i y o wo cen u ies. I is no excluded
ha he mechanism o ma ble s o age, aÁe i had been unloaded om he ship, was simila
o wha we encoun e in he zone o Campus Ma ius and along he banks o he Tibe in Rome,
namely he exis ence o indi idual pa ial places (o empo a y wa ehouses) ha bes sui ed
93 Ge moni e al. 2018, ig. 2, 6 [open access: hps://books.openedi ion.o g/e /3734, ci . 10.6.2022].
94 Fo he si ua ion in Rome and Po us see Maischbe ge 1999, 330, ci . 334: ‘… he phenomenon o
s ockpiling in Rome obse ed by Wa d-Pe kins seems o ha e peaked jus a ew decades om he
end o he i s o he middle o he 2nd cen u y AD’. Pensabene conside s an inc easing demand o
p ecious whi e ma bles and colou ed s ones o ma bles du ing he Domi ian eign and gene ally in
he 2
nd
cen u y as a eason o he c ea ion o eno mous s a io ma mo um and o he es ablishmen
o as ic s a e con ol sys em o e he ma ble impo a ion (Pensabene 1998, 338).
95 Fo u he discussion see Be na d 2010, 35–54, esp. 35, n. 1; Toma 2018, 161–191, esp. 161–162.
96 In gene al, Wa d-Pe kins assumes he exis ence o ma ble ya ds ‘ei he a he qua ies o aÁe
shipmen ’, and in his con ex he speci ically men ions he example o Rome (Ma mo a a) and Os ia
(Wa d-Pe kins 1980, 327).
97 Russell 2013b, 207–208.
98 He belie es he usage o ma bles om wa ehouses should be explained by he ac ha he con-
s uc ion o he basilica had be ealized in a e y sho pe iod o ime (Saho sky 2016, 49).
78 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
he logis ics o apa icula deli e y.99 is assump ion o se e al la ge o small ma ble deposi s
would co espond o he men ion o he place o disco e y o a ious ‘ma bles’ ha was made
by he Ra enna e schola G. Fab i in his 17 h cen u y ‘guide’ o Ra enna: Fab i desc ibed aso o
a‘qua y’ (i . ca a) nea he canal sou h o Ra enna, p esen -day Fiumi Uni i (Fig. 12), a he poin
whe e he canal bends owa ds he sea.100 Based on his, he loca ed he po wha es in his a ea.101
I we ake in o accoun he a chaeologically unco e ed po s uc u es, Fab i may no ha e been
a om he u h… Should we aemp o econs uc he mechanism o ma ble manipula ion
in he po , he mos likely assump ion seems o be he exis ence o se e al modes ( empo a y)
deposi s along he canals in Classe (like along he Tibe in Rome), connec ing he po lagoon in
Classe wi h he sea and wi h he ci y o Ra enna, nex o which s one wo kshops could also ha e
been loca ed. e assump ion o deposi s o ans-shipmen poin s being localised nea wa e -
ways (po s, pie s along canals) is based on an e o o minimize he handling o hea y ca gos.102
Ali ely deba e is cu en ly aking place no only on he exis ence o wa ehouses o a he
ma ble ya ds, bu also on he s a e in which impo ed s one and ma ble ma e ial was ans-
99 C . Maischbe ge 1999, 331–334.
100 ‘(…) oua e e in dis anza di n qua o di miglio dalla S ada pubblica na Caua, oue pochi anni
sono ú scope a na quan i à g andissima di Ma mi.’ Fab i desc ibed ed and ‘dus ’ (cine i io)
ma bles ha we e used o e e men s in he chapel o he Vi gin in he Ca hed al and o ‘Sponde
del Pon e di Po a Ad iana’; he also men ioned ma bles, ha emained ‘bu ied’ in his pi (Fab i
1678, 187–188). Fo he ele an bibliog aphy see Augen i e al. 2011, 138.
101 Howe e , he iden i ied his po as Po us Cesa is o Condinianus/Candidius, so as he po o Au-
gus us (Fab i 1678, 188–189).
102 C . Russell 2018, 237–263, esp. 241. We mus also no o ge ha ship anspo a ion (especially o
such hea y ca gos) was signi ican ly cheape han o e land anspo a ion.
Fig. 12: Loca ion o he so-called ma ble deposi nea he Fiumi Uni i canal in ia A gine Sinis o
Fiumi Uni i, Classe. e a ow indica es he si e o ma ble indings. A¢e Augen i e al. 2011,
138, a . 2, basmap: google.com/maps.
79HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
po ed (semi/pa ially-wo kedo p e ab ica ed pieces e sus inished a e ac s). No only he
s udy o ma ble inds in si u in he ya ds, bu also he a chaeological e idence o s one ca gos
om shipw ecks in he Medi e anean basin con ibu es o unde s anding he sys em o
ma ble ci cula ion, al hough he shipw ecks wi h s one ca gos a e no pa icula ly common
compa ed o he o al amoun o ancien shipw ecks known o da e.103 As can be seen om
Russell’se idence o s one ca gos om a ious shipw ecks all a ound he Medi e anean
basin,
104
bo h oughly wo ked blocks, semi-wo ked and inished s one (ma ble) a e ac s we e
anspo ed h oughou he e e ence pe iod, om he 2nd cen u y BC o he 10 h cen u y AD,
as shown in G aphs 7 and 8.105 All ypes o s one a e ac p ocessing ( oughly wo ked blocks,
semi-wo ked, and inished a e ac s) a e p esen in he en i e moni o ed pe iod (G aph 7)
wi h he peak o incidence in he 1s –2nd cen u ies AD; and hen in La e An iqui y, speci ically
in he 5 h–7 h cen u ies, when we can obse e he peak o he cons uc ion and comme cial
ac i i y also in he Ra enna conu ba ion.106 Roughly wo ked blocks o s one (ma ble) we e
anspo ed he mos (52%), hen semi-wo ked a e ac s, such as sa cophagi o column shaÁs
(33%), and he leas ep esen ed g oup (15%) a e inished a e ac s (G aph 8).
e ac ha ma ble was also wo ked in he ‘s o ages’, aÁe hey we e unloaded a he po ,
seems o be p o en by nume ous inds o ma ble and o he s one esidues aÁe wo king, as we
can see om he huge quan i y o deb is ound nea he banks o he Tibe and in he a ea o
mode n Pon e Sublicio in Rome (whe e an undis u bed s a ig aphy om he 2
nd
cen u y BC o he
4 h cen u y AD was iden i ied), in he a ea nea Po icus Aemilia, and in he capi al’ssu oundings
(mode n Via Redipuglia in he no h o he Isola Sac a in Po us).107 As a esul o he esea ch o
s one ma e ial om he San Se e o complex in Classe, deb is om cuing o – possibly– dam-
aged slabs we e mos ly used o ope a sec ilia: he majo i y o wo ked a e ac s a e ep esen ed
by e e men slabs and iles, used o wall and loo ope a sec ilia (41% o wo ked a e ac s).108
Also he exis ence o local s one wo kshops nex o cons uc ion si es was he e o e ela ed o
he sys em o inal p ocessing, inaliza ion and ins alla ion o a chi ec u al elemen s.109
103 Especially A. J. Pa ke and B. Russell deal wi h he ca alogiza ion and esea ch o ancien shipw ecks
wi h s one (ma ble) ca gos (Pa ke 1992; Russell 2013a, 331–361). Russell s a es only 3.5% o he
shipw ecks wi h s one ca gos o he o al shipw ecks known up o 2013 (Russell 2013a, 331). Fo
nau ical a chaeology and s udy o shipw ecks in I aly see Bel ame ed. 2000; esp. Bel ame
2000, 7–9; Bel ame– An onelli 2022, 578–596; Gian o a– Maniscalco 2002; Medas 2000,
42–48; Pelaga i– Gian o a 1993; 1997; 2002.
104 Russell 2013a, 331–361.
105 Howe e , i is always necessa y o dis inguish s one ca gos o ough blocks, semi- o pa ially
wo ked o inished elemen s om ballas which is highly agmen a y (Russell 2013a, 343).
106 C . Augen i 2011, 18.
107 Maischbe ge 1999, 325–328, 330. A ecen a chaeological su ey e ealed s uc u al emains
‘po en ially associa ed wi h he Fossa T aiana and he S a io Ma mo um,’ (Ge monie al. 2018). Fo
loca ion o s a io ma mo um see Keay 2022, 100.
108 e majo i y o he ma e ial used o he San Se e o e e men slabs and ope a sec ilia was iden-
i ied as ma ble (85%), especially whi e ma ble (Tůmo á 2013, 69).
109 Such as ma ble e e men slabs o iles. As we know, he cuing o ma ble/s one e e men slabs
was highly e icien wi h aminimiza ion o sc aps and esidue. We know om a ecen s udy o
a e e men cladding om cipollino e de in aRoman own house in Ephesos in he 2nd cen u y
AD ha he e was aminimum o ma e ial loss when cuing he slabs and ha mechanical saw
cuing wi h awa e mill was highly e icien (i.e. he e was almos no damage o he slabs): ‘e
sawing and polishing p ocess was su p isingly e icien : only 5% o he slabs b oke du ing he
polishing p ocess o in pos -polishing anspo , and none du ing sawing’, Passchie e al. 2021,
1–7, ci . 6.
86 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
Kollwi z, J.– He dejü gen, H. 1979: Die Sa kophage de Wes lichen Gebie e des Impe ium Romanum 2. Die
Ra enna ischen Sa kophage. Be lin.
Laszlo szky, J. 2007: Il complesso monas ico. In: A. Augen i (ed.): La basilica e il monas e o di San Se e o
aClasse. La s o ia, gli sca i, Ra enna, 14–16.
Law ence, M. 1970: e Sa cophagi o Ra enna. Roma.
Lenzi, F. ed. 2003: L’a cheologia dell’Ad ia ico dalla P eis o ia al Medioe o. Ai del Con egno in e nazionale
Ra enna, 7–9 giugno 2001. Fi enze.
Luciano, A. 2019: Po i e app odi lu iali in I alia peninsula e. Dall’e à omana all’anno mille. Ox o d.
Maioli, M.G.– S oppioni, M.L. 1987: Classe e Ra enna a e a e ma e. Cià– nec opoli– monumen i. Un’a -
en u a della a cheologia. Gli sca i nella zona a cheologica di Classe. Ra enna.
Maischbe ge , M. 1999: Some ema ks on he opog aphy and his o y o impe ial Rome’sma ble impo s.
In: M. Sch oe e (ed.): ASMOSIAIV. A chéoma é iaux. Ma b es e au es oches. Ac es de la IVème Con é ence
In e na ionale de l’Associa ion pou l’E ude des Ma b es e Au es Roches U ilisés dans le Passé, Bo -
deaux–Talence, 9–13 oc ob e 1995. Talence, 325–334.
Ma chei, M.C.– Pe inau, B. 1998: Bibliog a ia agiona a. Risul a i e p oblemi degli s udi sui ma mi an ichi.
In: G. Bo ghini (ed.): Ma mi an ichi. Roma, 117–128.
Ma inelli, P.A. 1968: Al a i, amboni, cibo i, co nici, plu ei con igu e di animali e con in ecci, ansenne
e ammen i a i. In: G. Bo ini (ed.): Co pusI. Co pus della scul u a paleoc is iana bizan ina ed al omedie ale
di Ra enna. Roma, 1–85.
Ma inelli, A. 1992: La cul u a a is ica aRa enna. In: A. Ca ile (ed.): Ecclesiologia, cul u a e a e. Ra enna–
Venezia, 159–176.
Mazzocchin, S. 2003: Comme ci sull’Ad ia ico. Le de a e impo a e dall’O ien e. Il caso di Pado a. In:
Lenzi ed. 2003, 370–377.
Mazzo i, M. 1953: Il sa co ago di S. Ecclesio nella basilica di S. Vi ale. Felix Ra enna 62, 38–47.
Medas, S. 2000: e La e-Roman ‘Pa do di Teodo ico’ W eck, Ra enna, I aly. P elimina y Rema ks on he
Hull and Shipbuilding. In: Bel ame ed. 2000, 42–48.
Panella, C. 1989: Gli scambi nel medi e aneo occiden ale dal IV al VII secolo dal pun o di is a di alcune
«me ci». In: J.-Ch. Bal y– R. Delmai e– C. Bémon – C. Lepelley– C. Abbadie-Reynal (eds.): Hommes e
ichesses dans l’Empi e byzan in (Réali és byzan ines), I. IVe–VIIe siècle. Pa is, 129–141.
Panella, C. 1993: Me ci e scambi nel Medi e aneo a doan ico. In: A. Ca andini– L. C acco Ruggini– A.
Gia dina (eds.): S o ia di Roma 3. L’e à a doan ica II. Iluoghi e le cul u e. To ino, 613–697.
Pa ke , A.J. 1992: Ancien Shipw ecks o he Medi e anean and he Roman P o inces. B i ish a chaeological
epo s, In e na ional se ies 580. Ox o d.
Passchie e al. 2021 = Passchie , C.W.– Wex, S.– Ilhan, S.– de Kemp, E.– Sü melihindi, G.– Güngö , T.:
Analysis o Cipollino Ve de ma ble wall deco a ion in Ephesos, Tu key, using geological econs uc ion.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science, Repo s 37, 1–7.
Pelaga i, P.– Gian o a, P.A. eds. 1993: A cheologia subacquea. S udi, ice che e documen i 1. Roma.
Pelaga i, P.– Gian o a, P.A. eds. 1997: A cheologia subacquea. S udi, ice che e documen i 2. Roma.
Pelaga i, P.– Gian o a, P.A. eds. 2002: A cheologia subacquea. S udi, ice che e documen i 3. Roma.
Pensabene, P.1998: Il enomeno del ma mo nella Roma a do- epubblicana e impe iale. In: P.Pensabene (ed.):
Ma mi An ichiII. Ca e e ecnica di la o azione, p o enienze e dis ibuzione. S udi Miscellanei 31. Roma, 333–390.
Pensabene, P.2001: Os ie, la déco a ion sculp u ale. In: Descoeud es ed. 2001, 201–302.
Pensabene, P.2007:Os iensium ma mo um decus e déco . S udi a chi eonici, deco a i i e a cheome ici.
S udi Miscellanei 33, Roma.
Pensabene, P.2017: A chi ec u al Spolia and U ban T ans o ma ion in Rome om he Fou h o he i -
een h Cen u y. In: Al ekamp– Ma cks-Jacobs– Seile eds. 2017, 175–231.

87HELENA TŮMOVÁ– ENRICO CIRELLI
Pensabene, P.– Ba san i, C. 2008: Reimpiego e impo azione di ma mi nell’Ad ia ico paleoc is iano e
bizan ino. In: G. Cusci o ed.: La c is ianizzazione dell’Ad ia ico. An ichi à Al oad ia iche 66. T ies e, 455–490.
Po a, P.– Degli Espos i, S. 2019: Aspei e uoli della scul u a al omedie ale di Ra enna (secoli VIII–IX),
un aggio namen o. In: Ci elli– Gio gi– Lepo e eds. 2019, 98–105.
Reynolds, P.1995: T ade in he Wes e n Medi e anean, AD 400–700. e ce amic e idence. B i ish A chaeological
Repo s, In e na ional se ies 604. Ox o d.
Rizza di, C. 2016: Ra enna, il suo po o e isuoi o izzon i medi e anei. L’impo azione di ma e iali ma -
mo ei a dinamiche comme ciali ed ideologiche (V–VI secolo). Ho us A ium Medie alium 22, 190–199.
Russo, E. 1968: No a su due sa co agi del VI secolo inedi i conse a i nella chiesa di S. Aga a di Ra enna.
S udi Romagnoli 19, 321–330.
Russell, B. 2013a: Roman and la e-an ique shipw ecks wi h s one ca goes. Jou nal o Roman A chaeology 26,
331–361.
Russell, B. 2013b: e Economics o he Roman S one T ade. Ox o d.
Russell, B. 2018: S one Use and he Economy. Demand, Dis ibu ion, and he S a e. In: A. Wilson– A. Bow-
man (eds.): T ade, Comme ce, and he S a e in he Roman Wo ld. Ox o d, 237–263.
Saho sky, B.H. 2016: e Roman Cons uc ion P ocess. Building he Basilica o Maxen ius.,Ph.D. esis, Uni-
e si y o Cali o nia. Los Angeles.
Sal ini, M.– Pale mo, L. 2017: Le ai i à del po o omano di Ancona a Ve VIII sec. d.C. In: Gelichi–
Neg elli eds. 2017, 159–187.
Sa ini, E. 2011a: Ima e iali– una sin esi. In: Augen i ed. 2011, 167–180.
Sa ini, E. 2011b: Ima e iali. In: Augen i ed. 2011, 243–246.
Sodini, J.P.2002: Ma ble and S onewo king in Byzan ium, Se en h– FiÁeen h Cen u ies. In: A.E. Laiou (ed.):
e Economic His o y o Byzan ium. F om he Se en h h ough he Fieen h Cen u y. Washing on, 129–146.
Te y, A. 1986: e ‘Opus Sec ile’ in he Eu asius Ca hed al a Po eč. Dumba on Oaks Pape s 40, 147–164.
Toma, N. 2018: S anda diza ion and mass cus omiza ion o a chi ec u al componen s. New pe spec i es on
he Impe ial ma ble cons uc ion indus y. Jou nal o Roman A chaeology 31, 161–191.
Tůmo á (Seka o á), H. 2006: Ra ennské igu ální asymbolické sa ko ágy 4.–6. s . po K . Ikonog a ie, ypologie
ach onologie a ennských sa ko ágů. Unpublished Mas e esis, Facul y o A s, Cha les Uni e si y. P aha.
Tůmo á, H. 2013: Il comme cio del ma mo aRa enna nella Ta da An ichi à. Ima e iali del complesso di San Se e-
o.Ph.D. esis, Facul y o A s, Cha les Uni e si y– Uni e si à degli S udi di Bologna. P aha– Bologna.
Tůmo á, H.– Ci elli, E. 2019: Reimpiego e spolia nella a da An ichi à alla luce del ma e iale li ico p o enien e
dal complesso a cheologico di San Se e o aClasse. S udia he cynia 23/1, 55–78.
V oom, J. 2017: e Byzan ine Web. Poe y and Connec i i y Be ween he Sou he n Ad ia ic and he Eas e n
Medi e anean. In: Gelichi– Neg elli eds. 2017, 285–310.
Wa d-Pe kins, B. 2000: Cons an inople, Impe ial Capi al o he FiÁh and Six h Cen u ies. In: G. Ripoll– J.M.
Gu (eds.): Sedes Regiae (ann. 400–800). Ba celona, 63–81.
Wa d-Pe kins, J.B.– Th ockmo on, P.1965: New ligh on he Roman ma ble ade– he San Pie o w eck.
A chaeology 18/3, 201–209.
Wa d-Pe kins, J. 1980: e Ma ble T ade and I s O ganiza ion. E idence om Nicomedia. In: e Seabo ne
Comme ce o Ancien Rome. S udies in A chaeology and His o y. Memoi s o he Ame ican Academy in Rome
36, 325–338.
Zanini, E. 1994: In oduzione all’a cheologia bizan ina. Roma.
Zanini, E. 1998: Le I alie bizan ine. Te i o io, insediamen i ed economia nella p o incia bizan ina d’I alia (VI–VIII
sec.). Ba i.
Zucchini G.V.– Bucci, M. 1968: Isa co agi a igu e e aca ae e simbolico. In: G. Bo ini (ed.): Co pusII. Co pus
della scul u a paleoc is iana bizan ina ed al omedie ale di Ra enna. Roma, 1–66.
88 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVI/2
ANCIENT SOURCES
And eas Agnellus Ra enna ensis, Libe Pon i icalis Ecclesiae Ra enna is. In: G. Ca ducci– V. Fio ini 1917:
Re um I alica um Sc ip o es. Raccol a degli s o ici i aliani dal cinquecen o al millecinquecen o o dina a da L.A.
Mu a o i. Tomo II, pa e III. Bologna.
Cassiodo us, Va iae Epis olae, ansl. . Hodgkin. Ox o d, 1886.
Jo danes, Ge ica, ansla ion Doležal, S.: Gó ské dějiny. Římské dějiny. P aha, 2012.
Helena Tůmo á
Ins i u e o Classical A chaeology
Facul y o A s, Cha les Uni e si y
Cele ná 20, CZ-110 00 P ague 1
helena. umo a@ .cuni.cz
En ico Ci elli
Dipa imen o di S o ia Cul u e Ci il à
Alma Ma e S udio um– Uni e si à di Bologna
Piazza S. Gio anni in Mon e 2, 40124, Bologna, I aly
en ico.ci [email protected]