Theo izing Feminis S uggles
in he T iangle o Neolibe alism,
Conse a ism, and Na ionalism
Anna Eloma¨ki*
1
and Johanna Kan ola
2
Wi h he igu e o a iangle as ou analy ical ool, we analyze he challenges ha
he con e gence o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism poses o gende
equali y and eminism. Focusing on he cu en Finnish poli ical con ex , we a gue
ha eminis c i ique o hese h ee gende ed poli ical p ojec s is compa men al-
ized: women’s o ganiza ions and eminis ac o s ocus on one poin o he iangle
o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism ins ead o engaging wi h he in-
e sec ions and coali ions o he h ee p ojec s. Compa men aliza ion leads o
limi ed eminis analysis o he poli ical con ex and policies.
In oduc ion
Since he economic ecession in 2008, he Eu opean Union (EU) and a
numbe o membe s a es ha e op ed o s ic aus e i y poli ics o ackle he
c isis. Such aus e i y poli ics ha e signi ied he in ensi ica ion o p e ious neo-
libe al policies, including cu ing down wel a e se ices and public sec o jobs.
The implica ions ha e been gende ed, as illus a ed by a numbe o s udies
om di e en pa s o Eu ope (Ba gawi, Cozzi, and Himmelwei 2017;Be io
e al. 2012;Kan ola and Lomba do 2017;Ka amessini and Rube y 2014).
Despi e commi men s o gende mains eaming, nei he he EU no i s mem-
be s a es ha e e alua ed he gende ed impac s o he policies le alone
changed hem o a mo e gende equal di ec ion (Jacquo 2017). Ins ead, due
o he new p io i y gi en o he economy and aus e i y, eminis analyses and
deba es ha e ound i di icul o en e he public and poli ical agenda and
ha e an impac on he adop ed policies (Ca aghan 2017). A he same ime,
he inc easing popula i y o conse a i e and igh -wing populis pa ies p o-
mo ing “ amily alues” and adi ional unde s andings o gende as well as he
1
Depa men o Cul u es, Facul y o A s, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
2
Gende S udies, Facul y o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland
*[email p o ec ed]
socpol: Social Poli ics, Fall 2018 pp. 337–360
doi:10.1093/sp/jxy013
#The Au ho (s) 2018. Published by Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-
NoDe i s licence (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial ep oduc ion and
dis ibu ion o he wo k, in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is no al e ed o ans o med in any way, and ha
he wo k is p ope ly ci ed. Fo comme cial e-use, please [email p o ec ed]
Ad ance Access publica ion Ap il 17, 2018
Social Poli ics 2018 Volume 25 Numbe 3
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eme gence o a b oade “an i-gende ” mo emen has u he sidelined gende
equali y as a poli ical goal (e.g. Ko a` s and Poim 2015;Ko¨ ig, Bi zan, and
Pe o¨2017;Kuha and Pa e no e 2017). In many coun ies, he neolibe aliza-
ion o economic and social policies has been accompanied by he s eng hen-
ing o hei conse a i e aspec s, o ins ance h ough ma e nalis amily
policies o es ic ion o abo ion igh s (e.g. Lomba do 2017;Szelewa 2014).
The inc easing an i- eminism in public discou ses has been closely linked o
he exclusiona y na ionalism and acism o he eme ging igh -wing populis
pa ies (Keskinen 2012).
The di e poli ical si ua ion has had he pa adoxical e ec o s eng hening,
ins ead o unde mining, eminis s uggles and c i ique in some coun ies.
Despi e he ac ha inancial esou ces ha e been cu om adi ional emi-
nis ac o s as a esul o aus e i y poli ics, o ins ance in Spain, eminis ac i -
is s ha e played a cen al ole in he new social mo emen s and populis le
pa ies which ha e esponded o he go e nmen ’s aus e i y poli ics
(Lomba do 2017). A he same ime, he plans in Spain, Poland, and o he
Eu opean coun ies o es ic abo ion ha e spa ked s ee p o es s and soli-
da i y mo emen s ac oss Eu ope (Zbyszewska 2017). Fu he mo e, ollowing
he example o he Swedish Feminis Ini ia i e pa y, eminis and women’s
equali y poli ical pa ies ha e been es ablished in Finland and in he Uni ed
Kingdom (Eloma¨ki and Kan ola 2017;E ans and Kenny 2017).
We explo e hese dynamics in one poli ical con ex , namely Finland, whe e
he igh -conse a i e-populis go e nmen in powe since 2015 has signi i-
can ly in ensi ied aus e i y poli ics, weakened gende equali y policy, and
ha shened immig a ion policy. Ou a icle is based on he insigh ha Finnish
poli ical con ex and he go e nmen ’s policies a e unde pinned by h ee po-
li ical p ojec s—neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism. These gende ed
p ojec s con e ge in public policies and discou ses in a manne ha poses pa -
icula challenges o gende equali y and eminism. Much o he eminis li -
e a u e on he ela ionships be ween hese h ee p ojec s has ocused on he
combined e ec o neolibe alism and conse a ism (e.g. And ew and
Maddison 2010;B own 2006;Coope 2017;Phipps 2012;Po e 2012). We,
howe e , explo e how a ious policies in Finland d aw no jus on neolibe al-
ism and conse a ism bu also on na ionalism o ensu e hei success. In o he
wo ds, we explo e a poli ical momen whe e he h ee poli ical p ojec s o
neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism come oge he o o m a “ ian-
gle” in o ming public poli ics.
Wi h he igu e o a iangle as ou analy ical ool, we analyze he pa icula
challenges ha he con e gence o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ional-
ism poses o eminism. Finland has a s ong s a e eminis adi ion whe e he
women’s mo emen has co-ope a ed closely wi h he s a e (mani es ed in pa -
e ns o s a e-based unding, p ac ices o consul a ion and hea ings on legisla-
i e and policy p oposals, and close pe sonal ne wo ks be ween ac o s), which
has made he mo emen s ongly co-op ed o s a e discou ses and p ac ices
338 A. Eloma¨ki and J. Kan ola
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(Holli 2003;Kan ola 2006). Pa s o he women’s mo emen ha e u he mo e
become no only inc easingly p o essional bu also specialized. The coun y
has an es ablished se o women’s o ganiza ions ha wo k on hei speci ic
niche issues: mains eam gende equali y policy, mino i y women, sexual
equali y, o human igh s. Each has specialized in ad ancing ce ain o ms o
equali y o challenging pa icula inequali ies. In such a con ex , he new dy-
namics c ea ed by aus e i y poli ics, and inc eased isibili y o conse a i e
alues and an i-immig a ion s ances need o be analyzed.
Ou key esea ch ques ion hen becomes: how does eminism engage wi h
he gende ed o ms o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism ha
unde pin he poli ics o he Finnish go e nmen ? To answe his ques ion we
ha e ga he ed an ex ensi e body o da a o he public s a emen s and p ess
eleases o key ac o s om he yea s 2011 o 2016. The ma e ial consis s o
abou 300 ex s om se en ac o s. Ou key inding is ha eminis c i ique is
compa men alized: ac o s ocus on he poin s o he iangle ins ead o
engaging wi h he in e sec ions and coali ions o he h ee poli ical p ojec s.
Compa men aliza ion has se e e epe cussions: eminis c i ique is co-op ed
o conse a ism and neolibe alism, and he c i ique o na ionalism is ma gin-
alized. Ou analysis sugges s ha he abili y o women’s and eminis mo e-
men ac o s o add ess he iangle as a whole depends on he deg ee o which
hey pay a en ion o in e sec ional inequali y.
While mind ul o he ac ha he poli ical p ojec s o neolibe alism, con-
se a ism, and na ionalism a e each highly con ex speci ic, we d aw b oade
conclusions abou how eminis and poli ical heo is s should add ess hese
poli ical p ojec s. Ou key heo e ical a gumen is ha hese h ee poli ical
o ces ha shape he cu en poli ical con ex —in Finland and in o he con-
igu a ions in o he pa s o he wo lds—a e o en discussed in pai s, o in-
s ance a he in e sec ions o neolibe alism and conse a ism, o conse a ism
and na ionalism. We a gue ha ins ead hey should be concep ualized as a i-
angle, whe e each poin and side a e co-cons i u i e o he o he s. In o he
wo ds, unde s anding he possibili ies and limi a ions o eminis c i ique in
he cu en economic and poli ical con ex shaped by neolibe alism, conse a-
ism, and na ionalism equi es a holis ic analy ical app oach ha add esses
he con e gence o and coali ions be ween he h ee poli ical p ojec s.
Towa d a Feminis Theo y o he T iangle o
Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism
In his sec ion, we d aw upon eminis heo ies o neolibe alism, conse a-
ism, and na ionalism and hei in e sec ions o build owa d a heo e ical and
concep ual amewo k o analyze he con e gence o he h ee poli ical p oj-
ec s and i s e ec s o gende equali y and eminism. Ou sugges ion—based
on he Finnish case—is ha while i has been use ul in he pas o p o ide
Feminism in he T iangle o Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism 339
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eminis c i iques o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism sepa a ely,
unde s anding eminis s uggles in he cu en poli ical con ex equi es a
mo e holis ic app oach ha pays a en ion o he in e ac ions be ween he
h ee poli ical p ojec s. We use he Finnish con ex o illus a e wha we call
“ he iangle o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism” and i s gen-
de ed e ec s.
We ecognize ha he concep s o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ion-
alism a e used in di e en ways and ha he dis inc ions be ween he h ee
poli ical p ojec s a e no always clea cu . Fo example, in eminis li e a u e
conse a ism has been heo ized as a mul i ace ed phenomenon including ele-
men s connec ed o neolibe alism (B yson and Heppell 2010), na ionalism
(B own 2006), o bo h (Ve loo 2016). We a gue, howe e , ha o he pu -
poses o analyzing eminis s uggles in he cu en poli ical con ex , i is use-
ul o add ess neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism as h ee dis inc ,
ye pa ly o e lapping and in e connec ed p ojec s.
The poli ical p ojec s o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism ha e
long his o ies in he Finnish con ex . Thei s eng h and way hey may wo k
in coali ion became appa en when he economic libe al Na ional Coali ion
Pa y, conse a i e Cen e Pa y, and na ionalis The Finns pa y o med a
coali ion go e nmen in May 2015. The h ee pa ies adop ed a “s a egic
go e nmen p og am,” which pu o wa d s ic aus e i y poli ics and a
ha she immig a ion policy. Feminis commen a o s we e quick o poin ou
he o al sidelining o gende equali y om he go e nmen ’s agenda: gende
equali y was deemed bo h i ele an and incompa ible wi h he new policies
and s a egic go e nance (Eloma¨ki e al. 2016).
O he h ee poli ical p ojec s, he de imen al impac s o neolibe alism—
ma ke iza ion o public se ices, ans e ing o cos s and isk om he s a e
o indi iduals and amilies, employmen and social policies ha esponsibilize
indi iduals, and go e nance e o ms ha ex end p i a e sec o managemen
p ac ices o he public sec o —on he Finnish “women iendly” wel a e s a e
ha e been ex ensi ely explo ed (e.g. Heiskala and Kan ola 2010;Julkunen
2010;Kan ola and Kananen 2013). As elsewhe e, he ecen economic and
inancial c isis has p o ided oppo uni ies o ad ance he neolibe al p ojec
(Kan ola 2018;Walby 2015). The conse a i e- igh -populis go e nmen
implemen ed signi ican cu s in public se ices and bene i s, including he dis-
man ling o he hallma k o he women- iendly wel a e s a e, namely he s a -
u o y igh o public childca e o all child en. I has also p oposed o
co po a ize and ma ke ize public social and heal h ca e p o ision and ans e
cos s om employees o p i a e employe s in o de o inc ease in e na ional
compe i i eness (Eloma¨ki and Kan ola 2017).
The long-s anding in luence o conse a ism, which we in his a icle de ine
na owly as a conse a i e s ance on mo al and e hical issues ha in ol es he
p omo ion o con en ional amily s uc u es and gende oles, has mean ha
he Finnish wel a e s a e has been weake and less social-democ a ic han i s
340 A. Eloma¨ki and J. Kan ola
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No dic coun e pa s. The in luence o conse a ism is isible, among o he
hings, in he Finnish ca e egime ha p o ides inancial incen i es o pa en s
o ake ca e o hei child en a home as well as in he long-s anding poli ical
neglec o in ima e pa ne iolence (Kan ola 2006). The isibili y o adi-
ional iews on gende and amily has in ecen yea s inc eased in public
speech, and hey now shape go e nmen ’s gende equali y policies h ough
he Cen e Pa y and The Finns. The 2015 go e nmen p og am was he i s
in 20 yea s ha did no men ion gende equali y as he goal o he go e n-
men , and gende equali y policy has been na owed down wi h ega d o he
long-s anding goal o mo e equal di ision o ca e be ween women and men
(Eloma¨ki e al. 2016;Eloma¨ki and Ylo¨s alo 2017). The highe s a us gi en o
he amily is isible in ha o he i s ime he e is a designa ed go e nmen
minis e o amily a ai s. While he an i-abo ion iews o wo o he h ee
leade s o he coali ion pa ies ha e no lead o new es ic ions in he a ea o
ep oduc i e igh s, he conse a i e agenda has gained isibili y h ough a
ci izen’s ini ia i e o allow heal h ca e pe sonnel o abs ain om p esc ibing
o pe o ming abo ions due o easons o conscience.
The hi d poli ical p ojec in o ming go e nmen policy is na ionalism,
which we in his a icle de ine as an exclusiona y poli ics o closed bo de s
and acialized dis inc ions be ween “us” and “ hem” exp essed in he g owing
suppo o a - igh populis pa ies (see No ocel 2013).
1
An i-immig a ion,
an i-mul icul u al, and acis a gumen s ha e become mo e isible and ac-
cep able in public speech since The Finns inc eased i s suppo in he munici-
pal elec ions o 2008 and gained he posi ion as he hi d bigges pa y in he
pa liamen a y elec ions o 2011 (Kan ola 2018;Keskinen, No ocel, and
Jø gensen 2016;Yla¨-An ila and Luh akallio 2017). While s ic immig a ion
policy has been cha ac e is ic o Finnish policy o decades, he policies ha e
subs an ially ha dened since The Finns en e ed he go e nmen in 2015 and
we e able o se he poli ical agenda and domina e he poli ical discou se
abou immig a ion and mul icul u alism in he ace o he inc easing numbe s
o e ugees en e ing Eu ope. The pa y wo ked o ensu e ha Finland would
no be an a ac i e coun y o e ugees, educing bene i s, legisla ing on
s ic e ules on amily euni ica ion (Pellande 2015), and shaping Finland’s
EU ela ionship by e using o ag ee o he common compulso y e ugee allo-
ca ion policy and a quo a mechanism. The an i-immig a ion policies and he
acis he o ic ha e been gende ed: Finnish women we e o be p o ec ed om
he iolence o o he cul u e’s men (Keskinen 2012,2013).
As e iden om he Finnish case, gende plays a cen al ole in all h ee po-
li ical p ojec s, and each o hem poses challenges o gende equali y and em-
inism. While neolibe al discou ses and policies po ay bo h women and men
as a ional economic ac o s and push women o he labo ma ke , policies
ha disman le he wel a e s a e and e-p i a ize and in o malize ca e ely on
and in ensi y women’s unpaid o poo ly compensa ed wo k, inc easing class-
based and acialized inequali ies among women (e.g. Bakke 2003;Ba gawi,
Feminism in he T iangle o Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism 341
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Cozzi, and Himmelwei 2017;B own 2015). Conse a ism, in u n, can be
seen as an explici ly an i- eminis o ce ha elies on and p omo es adi ional
iews on gende and he amily and esis s changes in hese a eas (Ve loo
2016). Gende ela ions play a c ucial ole in all na ionalis p ojec s (Yu al-
Da is 1997), and acializing na ionalis p ojec s app op ia e no ions o gende
equali y and gende ed iolence o hei own pu poses and a e closely con-
nec ed o an i- eminism, misogyny, and iews ha “gende equali y has gone
oo a ” (Keskinen 2012,2013;Mulina i and Nee gaa d 2014).
Al hough neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism a e gende ed in
di e en ways and pose dis inc challenges o gende equali y and eminism,
hey may wo k agains gende equali y in mu ually ein o cing ways. Feminis
heo is s ha e concep ualized he ela ionships be ween he h ee poli ical
p ojec s mainly in pai s, ocusing on he ela ionship be ween neolibe alism
and conse a ism. One o he mos well-known accoun s is B own’s (2006)
analysis o he con e gence o he “economic-poli ical a ionali y” o neolibe -
alism and he “mo al-poli ical a ionali y” o conse a ism. In di e en
na ional con ex s, he coali ion be ween neolibe alism and conse a ism has
been seen o lead o doubly un a o able condi ions o he women’s mo e-
men (And ew and Maddison 2010;Knigh and Rodge s 2012). I has also
been sugges ed ha due o he con e gence o neolibe alism and conse a-
ism, i has become di icul o eminis s o ejec one wi hou emb acing
ano he (Phipps 2012, 12). In addi ion, neolibe alism and conse a ism ha e
been ound o ind common g ound in ques ions o amily esponsibili y in a
manne ha has ein o ced adi ional amily alues (Coope 2017).
The ela ionship be ween conse a ism and na ionalism and i s signi icance
o eminism has been add essed mainly in esea ch on igh -wing populism,
in which conse a i e iews on gende and he amily mee a ha sh an i-
immig a ion s ance and acism (e.g. Ko¨ ig, Bi zan, and Pe o¨2017). The links
be ween neolibe alism and na ionalism ha e been explo ed in esea ch on he
connec ion o “wel a e chau inism” a ge ing mig an s o he neolibe al
es uc u ing o he s a e (e.g. Keskinen, No ocel, and Jø gensen 2016), bu
he signi icance o his connec ion o gende equali y and eminism emains
o be analyzed. Theo e ical deba es which would b ing he h ee poli ical p oj-
ec s oge he a e sca ce.
We a gue ha in he cu en poli ical con ex s i is c ucial o unde s and
how neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism con e ge in posing chal-
lenges o gende equali y and eminism. In o de o make isible he in e -
connec ions be ween he h ee p ojec s and he signi icance o hei
con e gence o eminis s uggles, we concep ualize he ela ions be ween
neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism as a iangle, whe e each poin
and each side a e connec ed o o he s. As an analy ical ool, he idea o he
iangle goes beyond acknowledging he simul aneous p esence o he h ee
poli ical p ojec s in speci ic geog aphic con ex s: i d aws a en ion o how
342 A. Eloma¨ki and J. Kan ola
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neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism may, despi e hei di e ences,
o m coali ions and con e ge in public discou ses and policies.
The Finnish case demons a es how he h ee p ojec s in e wine in in-
o ming policies in di e en ields, including aus e i y, gende equali y, and
immig a ion policy. In aus e i y poli ics, conse a ism coincides wi h neolib-
e alism in he es ic ion o s a u o y childca e igh s while he home ca e
allowance has been kep in ac . In gende equali y policy, conse a i e enden-
cies in e ac wi h neolibe alism and na ionalism: neolibe al go e nance e-
o ms and aus e i y policies ha e shaped he p oposed policy measu es, and
ce ain gende equali y p oblems—including di ision o ca e—a e po ayed
as p oblems o mig an amilies a he han s uc u al p oblems conce ning
he socie y as a whole (Eloma¨ki and Ylo¨s alo 2017).
No ably, we unde s and neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism as
“poli ical p ojec s” ins ead o o example “ideologies” o “go e nance s a e-
gies” ( o di e en unde s andings o neolibe alism, see La ne 2000;
Fe guson 2009). As poli ical p ojec s, hey aim a he ans o ma ion o social
s uc u es, p ac ices, and ela ions and ha e ce ain co e p inciples hey seek
o ex end o di e en sphe es o socie y. These p ojec s a e ad anced by mul i-
ple ac o s and in ol e high le els o con es a ion and s uggle (c . Connell
2010;Walby 2009). As poli ical p ojec s, neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na-
ionalism a e dynamic, changing, and con ex ual. Fo example, he p ocess o
neolibe aliza ion has been his o ically and geog aphically con ingen (e.g.
Peck and Tickell 2002), and conse a ism in a pa icula Eu opean coun y is
no he same as conse a ism in he US con ex (Ve loo 2016).
We u he emphasize ha he ela ionships be ween he h ee p ojec s as
well as he si es o hei con e gence a e cons i u ed h ough pa icula na-
ional and local coali ions (c . Po e 2012). The e o e, he iangle o neolib-
e alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism and he ela ionships i en ails a e
empo a y, con ex ual cons ella ions. In line wi h his unde s anding, ou o-
cus is on how he h ee p ojec s mani es hemsel es in poli ical discou ses
and policies in a speci ic geog aphic con ex , how hey wo k in coali ion wi h
one ano he , and how hey a e esis ed.
Feminism is as a con es ed concep as he h ee poli ical p ojec s discussed
abo e. Feminism oo can be unde s ood and de ined in a numbe o di e en
ways. I s opponen s call i an “ideology” ha blinds i s p oponen s (see
Ika¨ alko and Kan ola 2017). Fo eminis schola s, in con as , i is a se o
heo e ical app oaches, which a e on ologically, epis emologically, and me h-
odologically di e se bu sha e ce ain e hical and some imes poli ical commi -
men s o ans o m unjus gende ela ions (see Acke ly and T ue 2011). Like
neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism, eminism oo can be unde -
s ood as a poli ical p ojec ha aims a socie al change and ha akes mul iple,
con ex ual o ms and in ol es s uggle and con es a ion. As a poli ical p ojec
eminism o en opposes, c i iques, and s uggles agains neolibe alism, conse -
a ism, and na ionalism as hei e ec s on gende equali y can be so
Feminism in he T iangle o Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism 343
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de imen al. Howe e , eminism can also become co-op ed by o complici
wi h he o he poli ical p ojec s ei he willingly—using hem s a egically—o
unwillingly (e.g. de Jong and Kimm 2017).
Feminism is a con o e sial e m in Finland as in o he coun ies and, in
public discou se, he e is a s ong dis inc ion be ween “good” gende equali y
and “bad” eminism (Holli 2012). Some o he women’s mo emen and emi-
nis ac o s s udied in his a icle a e explici ly eminis and o he s unde s and
hemsel es in e ms o “women” o “gende equali y.” To illus a e hese dy-
namics we ollow he sel -de ini ions o he ac o s and pinpoin whe he he
c i ique comes om an explici ly eminis pe spec i e o is a he amed as a
women’s o gende equali y issue. Women’s and gende equali y ac o s a e
clea ly pa o he eminis poli ical p ojec , bu ou analysis sugges s ha
whe he he ac o s ame hemsel es as eminis has c ucial epe cussions o
hei abili y o espond o he iangle o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and
na ionalism.
Resea ch Ma e ial and Me hodology
To analyze empi ically how Finnish women’s mo emen and eminis ac-
o s ha e esponded o he iangle o neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na-
ionalism, we ha e collec ed an ex ensi e esea ch ma e ial o publicly
a ailable s a emen s, documen s, posi ion pape s, and p ess eleases. Included
in he esea ch ma e ial a e se en ac o s (see able 1) ep esen a i e o he di -
e en pa s o he women’s and eminis mo emen . The esea ch ma e ial
consis s o nea ly 300 indi idual ex s.
We ha e selec ed he h ee key adi ional women’s mo emen ac o s,
namely he Feminis Associa ion Unioni (Naisasialii o Unioni, an explici ly
eminis and since 2014 also an i- acis , au onomous associa ion wi h indi id-
ual membe ship es ablished in 1892), he Na ional Council o Women o
Finland NJKL (Naisja¨ jes o¨jen Keskuslii o, an umb ella o ganiza ion es ab-
lished in 1911, whose nea ly 60 membe s include adi ional women’s o gani-
za ions and some poli ical women’s o ganiza ions), and he Coali ion o
Finnish Women’s Associa ions NYTKIS (Naisja¨ jes o¨ Yh eis yo¨ssa¨, a c oss-
pa y o ganiza ion o poli ical pa ies’ women’s o ganiza ions es ablished in
1988 ha also includes as membe s Unioni, NJKL, and he Finnish Gende
S udies Associa ion). We ha e also included he Council o Gende Equali y
TANE (Tasa-a oasiain neu o elukun a), which is a consul a i e pa liamen-
a y council o gende equali y ep esen a ion o all pa liamen a y poli ical
pa ies. NYTKIS and TANE a e examples o he way in which he Finnish
women’s mo emen has been closely in eg a ed in o he s a e and which ha e
been p e iously shown o be powe ul in se ing he agenda o gende equal-
i y policy (Holli 2006).
344 A. Eloma¨ki and J. Kan ola
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Unlike p e ious s udies, we ha e included in ou case selec ion h ee
ecen ly es ablished women’s mo emen and eminis ac o s. Monika—
Mul icul u al Women’s Associa ion (Monika-Naise Lii o) is a g owing NGO
ha p o ides se ices and ad oca es o immig an women. I was ecen ly
been aken in o he s a e budge a y ame and ecei es di ec s a e unding.
TASAN! is a new eminis ac o c ea ed in 2015, which has chosen no o be-
come an associa ion in line o Finnish adi ion bu ope a es as a ne wo k o
indi iduals. We ha e also included he Feminis Pa y es ablished in 2016 ha
won i s i s sea in he municipal elec ions in 2017. The la e wo ha e been
o med in clea eac ion agains he cu en poli ical con ex . Inclusion o
hese new ac o s adds complexi y o he analysis and b ings o ligh new
dimensions abou Finnish eminis s uggles ha would be o e looked i he
ocus was only on adi ional women’s o ganiza ions.
A key c i e ion selec ing he ac o s has been he ex en o which hey seek
o in luence go e nmen policy and he iangle o neolibe alism, conse a-
ism, and na ionalism unde pinning i . This has mean lea ing ou smalle
and mo e local ac o s, which do no aim a in luencing go e nmen policies
o he same ex en as he ones selec ed. We ha e also le ou ou own aca-
demic eminis s uggles, which we ha e discussed ex ensi ely elsewhe e
(Eloma¨ki e al. 2016;Eloma¨ki and Kan ola 2017).
The esea ch ma e ial co e s he yea s 2011–2016. This ime ame con ains
he g adual in oduc ion o aus e i y policies as well as he de elopmen
o The Finns in o a majo poli ical pa y. The ma e ial was collec ed om he
websi es o he o ganiza ions in Janua y 2017. I co e s all documen s ha e-
lec he posi ion o he o ganiza ions on opical issues.
2
Because wha
Table 1. Women’s and eminis mo emen ac o s and collec ed ma e ial pe yea
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 To al
Feminis Associa ion Unioni
(Naisasialii o unioni)
3 3 6 11 19 13 55
Na ional Council o Women o Finland
NJKL (Naisja¨ jes o¨jen Keskuslii o)
5748171253
Coali ion o Finnish Women’s
Associa ions NYTKIS (Naisja¨ jes o¨
Yh eis yo¨ssa¨)
6 11 11 7 16 11 62
Council o Gende Equali y TANE
(Tasa-a oasiain neu o elukun a)
11 11 21 19 9 12 83
Monika—Mul icul u al Women’s
Associa ion (Monika-Naise Lii o)
12811
TASAN! 14 5 19
Feminis Pa y (Feminis inen puolue)1010
To al 293
Feminism in he T iangle o Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism 345
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he imp ession ha he policy would be legi ima e i only a gende analysis
was unde aken. The eminis ac o Unioni is he only es ablished o ganiza-
ion ha has explici ly aken an an i-aus e i y s ance and ejec ed p oposed
expendi u e cu s. The c i ique o neolibe al aus e i y policies has been cu -
ailed by he p esence o go e nmen pa ies in he o ganiza ions’ decision-
making bodies (Eloma¨ki and Kan ola 2017).
Fu he mo e, es ablished women’s mo emen ac o s ha e o a la ge ex en
adop ed he concep s and amings o he go e nmen , which wa e s down
hei c i ique. Fo ins ance, ins ead o alking abou “aus e i y” o “spending
cu s” ( alousku i,leikkaukse ), many o ganiza ions use he e ms a o ed by
he go e nmen : “sa ings” (sa¨a¨s o¨ ) and “adjus men s” (sopeu ukse ).
Women’s mo emen ac o s do no ques ion he dominan discou se abou
he c isis which is used o jus i y aus e i y and neolibe al e o ms. They egu-
la ly e e o “di icul economic imes,” “ ecession,” o “cu en economic
si ua ion,” he eby accep ing he dominan in e p e a ions o he economic
condi ions o go e nmen policies.
Thi d o m o co-op a ion o neolibe alism a e a gumen s ha d aw a en-
ion o he economic bene i s o gende equali y and ollow he neolibe al,
economized logic o e iciency and cos –bene i calcula ion. F aming gende
equali y in e ms o economic bene i s is no as common among Finnish
women’s and eminis mo emen ac o s as in many o he con ex s (e.g.
Eloma¨ki 2015), bu appea s o be inc easing. One es ablished women’s mo e-
men ac o a gues in i s c i ique o he go e nmen ’s gende equali y ac ion
plan ha “gende equali y c ea es a sus ainable basis o economy and
g ow h” (NJKL 6/2016), and ano he backs up i s conce n o women’s po -
e y wi h a mac oeconomic a gumen abou he impo ance o women’s pu -
chase powe o public inance (NYTKIS 2/2015). One o he new ac o s was
explici ly buil on a gumen s abou “gende equali y as a na ional success ac-
o ” and abou he need o a “compe i i eness leap in wo king li e” (TASAN
1/2015, 3/2015).
All ac o s u ilize a gumen s abou e iciency and cos s in deba es connec ed
o all h ee poli ical p ojec s. Fo example, he lack o poli ical will o comba
iolence agains women is challenged wi h a gumen s abou he cos s o io-
lence (e.g. Unioni 12/2015, NYTKIS 4/2016, FP 8/2016), and aus e i y mea-
su es a e esis ed on he g ounds o hem no leading o he desi ed cu s in
spending (e.g. NYTKIS 14/2015, TANE 5/2015, Unioni 17/2015). While he
usage o a gumen s abou economic cos s and bene i s can be in e p e ed as a
u he sign o co-op a ion o neolibe alism, hei compa a i ely a e usage
also ells ha Finnish women’s mo emen and eminis ac o s ha e li le expe-
ience o s a egic use o neolibe al amings in o de o in luence policy-
make s.
Al hough c i ique o conse a ism is cen al o he Finnish women’s mo e-
men , a close analysis e eals high le els o co-op a ion o conse a ism.
These co-op a ions a e closely connec ed o he inside posi ion o women
352 A. Eloma¨ki and J. Kan ola
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om conse a i e poli ical pa ies in he es ablished women’s mo emen o -
ganiza ions: in he 2010s, h ee o he ou es ablished o ganiza ions ha e had
ep esen a i es o conse a i e pa ies in hei decision-making bodies.
4
Al hough he p esence o pa ies ad ancing he conse a i e p ojec has
no p e en ed women’s mo emen ac o s om aming key eminis issues
such as iolence agains women in an i-conse a i e e ms (e.g. h ough
s essing consen as he main de ini ion o ape), i has lead o isible silences
on sexual and ep oduc i e igh s and LGBTI ques ions. While he explici ly
eminis women’s mo emen ac o Unioni has consis en ly de ended abo ion
and sexual and ep oduc i e igh s (Unioni 3/2013, 10/2014, 18/2015), o he
es ablished women’s o ganiza ions ha e nei he c i icized Finland’s al eady
s ic abo ion law no commen ed on he ecen ci izens’ ini ia i e on g an -
ing heal h ca e pe sonnel he igh o e use o pa icipa e in abo ion.
Fu he mo e, al hough ques ions abou gende iden i y and gende di e si y
(gende as nonbina y), ansgende igh s and law, same-sex ma iage, and
o he LGBTI issues ha e gained in p ominence in he agenda o Finnish wom-
en’s mo emen and eminis ac o s o e he ecen yea s, hey s ill emain
con o e sial. Fo example, unlike he eminis Unioni, NYTKIS and NJKL
ha e no issued s a emen s o p ess eleases in suppo o he e o m o he
ans law o he equal ma iage ac . Co-op a ion o conse a ism hus signi i-
can ly na ows down he spec um o issues ha can be discussed and esis ed.
I also makes i ha de o es ablished women’s o ganiza ions o ques ion bi-
na y gende and see LGBTI issues as an in eg al pa o eminis s uggle.
The combined e ec o compa men aliza ion and co-op a ion is ha
Finnish women’s mo emen , and eminis ac o s a e no able o g asp and
c i icize he way neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism in e wine in
shaping he poli ical con ex and in o ming go e nmen ’s policies. Fo exam-
ple, es ablished o ganiza ions ha e been ei he unable o see o unable o oice
he ole o conse a ism in some neolibe al aus e i y policies, and hei eac-
ions ha e o en shi ed a en ion away om he conse a i e unde pinnings
o hese policies. Fo ins ance, he lack o p og ess in e o ming he pa en al
lea e sys em ends o be linked o he unwillingness o he go e nmen o allo-
ca e esou ces o he pu pose in imes o aus e i y (NYTKIS 6/2016, Unioni
7/2015), al hough he main eason o inac ion is he esis ance o he conse -
a i e coali ion pa ne s, in pa icula The Finns pa y. A common way o
ame he c i ique o limi ing he s a u o y igh o childca e is ha he cu -
ailmen is an ine ec i e sa ing me hod: he sa ings es ima ed by he go e n-
men a e no ealis ic and inc eased bu eauc acy migh e en inc ease he cos s
(NYTKIS 14/2015; TANE 5/2015; Unioni 17/2015). Only he eminis Unioni
has challenged he dominan in e p e a ion o he es ic ion o s a u o y
childca e igh s as a neolibe al expendi u e cu and poin ed ou ha he deci-
sion is also unde pinned by “mo al a gumen s abou dayca e being unneces-
sa y when one pa en can ake ca e o he child a home” (Unioni 1/2014).
Feminism in he T iangle o Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism 353
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Ma ginali y o C i ique o Na ionalism
Finnish eminism and he women’s mo emen ha e been p one o cha ges
o ha ing an uncon es ed and unp oblema ized ela ionship o Finnish
na ionalism. This his o y can be seen in he weak posi ion ha c i iquing
na ionalism has in he esea ch da a as men ioned abo e in ela ion o ables 2
and 3. The c i ique o na ionalism by women’s mo emen and eminis ac o s
has clea ly inc eased in he 2010s, in pa icula a e he en y o he igh
populis pa y The Finns o go e nmen and he so-called e ugee c isis in
2015. Howe e , na ionalism and acism and s ic immig a ion policy as i s
mani es a ions a e explici ly men ioned only by some eminis and women’s
mo emen ac o s, and esis ance o i c ea es dis inc p o iles o ac o s. A
peculia i y o he Finnish sys em, whe e poli ical pa ies a e ep esen ed in he
decision-making bodies o key women’s o ganiza ions, is ha The Finns’
women’s o ganiza ion The Finns Women (Pe usnaise ) is ep esen ed on he
boa d o NYTKIS and he pa y’s MPs si on he Council o Gende Equali y
(TANE), gi ing hem inside oles in he Finnish women’s mo emen .
Fo mos adi ional women’s o ganiza ions, c i ique o na ionalism e-
mains ma ginal in compa ison o he c i ique o conse a ism and neolibe al-
ism: some o hese o ganiza ions add ess na ionalism in only 10 pe cen o
less o hei s a emen s ( able 3). Fu he mo e, adi ional women’s o ganiza-
ions a ely issue s a emen s in which he s uggle agains na ionalism, o ex-
ample denouncing inc easing acism o challenging s ic e amily
euni ica ion policy, is he main ocus. The only such s a emen s a e on he
igh s o undocumen ed mig an women (NYTKIS 2/2013) and e ugee
women (NJKL 15/2015) and could be cha ac e ized as weak s a emen s ha
do no add ess he p oblems o immig a ion policy and equi e changes o i .
Violence agains women is he one issue in ela ion o which he adi ional
women’s o ganiza ions egula ly men ion igh s o immig an and e hnic mi-
no i y women. Feminis esea che s ha e indeed poin ed ou he endencies o
cul u alize iolence agains women in his way, aming i as a p oblem o ce -
ain mino i y cul u es only (Rolandsen Agus ı´n 2013).
The ma ginali y o c i ique o na ionalism o es ablished women’s o ganiza-
ionsise idencedbyo he aspec saswell.Fi s , o ganiza ions a e mo e likely o
add ess na ionalism and make demands ega ding immig a ion policy in join
s a emen s wi h o he human igh s o ganiza ions a he han when ac ing alone
(e.g. NYTKIS 8/2015). Second, he p essu e o esis acism o en comes om
he in e na ional commi men s, o example om he need o epo o he UN
on he na ional implemen a ion o a ious human igh s con en ions, including
he In e na ional Con en ion on he Elimina ion o All Fo ms o Racial
Disc imina ion (ICERD) (e.g. NYTKIS 2/2015; NYTKIS 5/2013). Howe e , he
ac ha some s a emen s on he implemen a ion o ICERD ei he men ion ac-
ism only in passing (TANE 20/2013, TANE 7/2011) o no a all (NJKL 5/2015)
354 A. Eloma¨ki and J. Kan ola
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is a good example o how unimpo an esis ing acism and i s di e en mani es-
a ions in Finnish socie y is o hese o ganiza ions.
Resis ing na ionalism and acism and s ic immig a ion policy as i s mani-
es a ions a e no hus seen as poli ical p io i ies, which would equi e hei
own independen demands on he public discou se o poli ical sys em. The
ma ginal posi ion o na ionalism means ha Finnish women’s o ganiza ions
ail o see how he di icul poli ical con ex o gende equali y is no only
shaped by conse a ism and neolibe alism, bu by na ionalism as well, and
how na ionalism in o ms neolibe al and conse a i e policies. Fo example,
he acialized consequences o aus e i y policies and he na ionalis unde pin-
nings o he weak gende equali y policy a e le unadd essed.
Ou analysis illus a es ha an explici commi men o eminism makes a c i-
ique o na ionalism as well as an unde s anding o he acialized dynamics o
neolibe alism and conse a ism mo e likely. In addi ion o he mul icul u al
women’s associa ion Monika ha egula ly d aws a en ion o he needs o mi-
g an women and sho comings o immig a ion and in eg a ion policies, only
he explici ly eminis ac o s egula ly add ess na ionalism. O he es ablished
women’s o ganiza ions, he eminis and an i- acis Unioni issued o pa ici-
pa ed in a signi ican numbe o s a emen s ocusing on na ionalism in 2015 and
2016, he opics o which anged om o ganized acism, ea men o e ugees
and small e ugee quo as, es ic i e igh o amily euni ica ion o p o ec ing
Roma women sleeping ough on he s ee s in he win e (e.g. Unioni 1/2016, 3/
2016, 8/2016, 12/2016). Fo he new Feminis Pa y, na ionalism is a a mo e
impo an poli ical opponen han conse a ism and neolibe alism: 80 pe cen
o i s s a emen s add ess na ionalism in some way ( able 3). Na ionalism and
acism a e key pa s o he pa y’s analysis o he poli ical con ex (e.g. FP 1/
2016), and some o i s i s public s a emen s add essed amily euni ica ion, ac-
ism, and wa in Sy ia and Sy ian e ugees (FP 2/2016, 6/2016, 7/2016). As e-
ga ds aus e i y, he pa y does no exclusi ely ocus on gende impac s and akes
in o accoun he impac s on mino i ies as well (FP 4/2016, 9/2016).
Indeed, bo h eminis ac o s explici ly ep esen eminism as an opposing
o ce o na ionalism. Whe eas Unioni a gues ha “ eminism is he an ido e o
na ionalis and acis ideology” (Unioni 4/2015), he Feminis Pa y “unde -
s ands ha he socie y is a he momen e y di ided and ha he di iding
line is be ween na ionalis and eminis wo ld iew” (FP 10/2016). This jux a-
posi ion o eminism and na ionalism, which ollows he example o he
Swedish Feminis Ini ia i e pa y, in oduces a new way o ame eminis
s uggle in he Finnish con ex and dis inguishes hese wo eminis ac o s
om o he women’s mo emen and eminis ac o s.
Conclusions: Compa men alized S uggles
In his a icle, we ha e analyzed how Finnish eminis and women’s mo e-
men ac o s engage wi h he gende ed o ms o neolibe alism, conse a ism,
Feminism in he T iangle o Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism 355
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and na ionalism ha unde pin con empo a y poli ics in Finland. Ou heo e -
ical aim has been o concep ualize he idea o he “ iangle o neolibe alism,
conse a ism, and na ionalism” and how hese h ee poli ical p ojec s con-
e ge in in o ming policies and posing challenges o gende equali y and emi-
nism. We ha e a gued ha unde s anding he possibili ies and limi a ions o
eminis c i ique in he cu en economic and poli ical con ex equi es a ho-
lis ic analy ical app oach ha add esses he con e gences and coali ions o he
h ee poli ical p ojec s. Ou key empi ical inding is ha eminis s uggles a e
compa men alized: mos women’s mo emen and eminis ac o s ocus on
one poin o he iangle ins ead o engaging in in e sec ions and coali ions o
he h ee poli ical p ojec s. The abili y o ac o s o engage wi h he iangle as
a whole is connec ed o di e ences wi hin hei eminisms and o he deg ee
o which hey ake in e sec ional inequali ies in o accoun .
Ou analysis sugges s ha compa men aliza ion has se e al epe cussions
o eminis s uggles. I leads o limi ed analysis o he poli ical con ex and
policies simul aneously unde pinned by neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na-
ionalism and limi ed o e en w ong in e p e a ions o easons behind he
adop ion o hese policies. Fo example, as ega d o aus e i y measu es, mo e
in e sec ional app oaches o he gende ed consequences a e ma ginalized, and
he conse a i e unde pinnings o he some o mos p oblema ic expendi u e
cu s om a gende pe spec i e, such as he es ic ion o s a u o y childca e
igh s, emain unchallenged. Compa men aliza ion may also make women’s
and eminis mo emen ac o s ulne able o co-op a ion by he h ee poli ical
p ojec s. Fo example, limi ed c i ical engagemen wi h neolibe alism means
ha c i iques o conse a ism and na ionalism may be based on neolibe al a -
gumen s abou e iciency and economic cos s and bene i s. Finally, compa -
men aliza ion is closely connec ed o he ma ginali y o na ionalism.
Opposing na ionalism is an eme ging end o Finnish women’s and eminis
mo emen s, due o he inc easing isibili y o na ionalis and acis agendas in
poli ical and public deba e. Howe e , c i ique o na ionalism is limi ed o
some ac o s only and emains ma ginal and weak o mos es ablished wom-
en’s o ganiza ions.
The indings o he a icle u he illus a e ha in pa icula adi ional
women’s o ganiza ions ha e di icul ies add essing he join impac o neolib-
e alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism on gende equali y. Thei close ela-
ionships o poli ical pa ies ha ad ance hese poli ical p ojec s make oicing
a s ong c i ique impossible and lead o co-op a ion and silences ha can be
in e p e ed as suppo . The poli ical con ex shaped by he iangle o neolib-
e alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism has also p o ided a e ile g ound o
new eminis ac o s ha do no shy away om di ec ly opposing he h ee po-
li ical p ojec s and a e also mo e in e es ed in esis ing he combined e ec s o
neolibe alism, conse a ism, and na ionalism. Ou analysis also sugges s ha
explici ly eminis ac o s ha ake in e sec ional app oach se iously a e mo e
likely han adi ional women’s o ganiza ions o engage wi h he in e sec ions
356 A. Eloma¨ki and J. Kan ola
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o he h ee poli ical p ojec s and ea na ionalism and acism as co e eminis
conce ns.
No es
Anna Eloma¨ki is a pos -doc o al esea ch ellow in Gende S udies a he
Uni e si y o Helsinki. He esea ch in e es s a e ela ed o he in e connec ions
be ween gende , poli ics, and he economy. He cu en esea ch p ojec ocuses
on he economiza ion o gende equali y policies and ad ocacy in he Eu opean
Union.
Johanna Kan ola is a p o esso o Gende S udies a he Uni e si y o Tampe e.
He books include Gende and Poli ical Analysis (wi h Lomba do, Palg a e 2017),
Gende and he Eu opean Union (Palg a e, 2010), and Feminis s Theo ize he S a e
(Palg a e, 2006). She is one o he edi o s o Gende and he Economic C isis in
Eu ope (Palg a e, 2017), The Ox o d Handbook on Gende and Poli ics (2013),
and Palg a e’s Gende and Poli ics Book Se ies.
1. While some heo is s o na ionalism hold ha na ionalism and acism a e
comple ely sepa a e phenomena (Ande son 2006), we d aw on hose who
conside discou ses o na ion and ace as connec ed and con end ha na-
ionalis poli ical mo emen s, in pa icula in al eady cons i u ed na ion
s a es, ha e o en acism unde lying hem (Baliba 1991).
2. Fo TASAN!, which has issued only ew o icial s a emen s o p ess e-
leases and emphasizes he con ibu ion o indi iduals, blog pos s ha e
been included.
3. We can see, o example, ha Monika has no included all s a emen s on
he websi e. The ma e ial includes join s a emen s ha ha e been signed
by Monika, bu could no be ound om Monika’s websi e.
4. NYTKIS and TANE ha e ep esen a i es o conse a i e- alue pa ies
(Cen e Pa y, Ch is ian Democ a s, The Finns) in hei decision-making
bodies. NJKL was chai ed by a conse a i e Cen e Pa y woman MP
om 2007 o 2015.
Acknowledgemen s
Ea lie e sions o his pape we e p esen ed a he wo kshop o The Fu u e o
Feminism in he No dic Region Ne wo k (FFNN) a Lund Uni e si y in Ma ch 2017
and a he ECPR Join Sessions wo kshop “Explo ing he da k side. Theo izing
esis ances and opposi ion o gende þequali y in compa a i e pe spec i e” a he
Uni e si y o No ingham in Ap il 2017. We would like o hank hose p esen o
hei commen s and discussion. We would also like o hank esea ch assis an
Elisabe h Wide o collec ing he esea ch ma e ial. This wo k was suppo ed by he
Academy o Finland [298419 o A.E., 259640 o J.K.].
Feminism in he T iangle o Neolibe alism, Conse a ism, and Na ionalism 357
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