Te o Au io, Liisa Hakala & Tiina Kujala ( oim.)
Sii ymiä ja ajan me kkejä koulu uksessa. Ope ussuunni elma u kimuksen näkökulmia
Tampe e: Tampe e Uni e si y P ess 2019, 377–409.
h p://u n. i/URN:ISBN:978-952-359-008-3
The knowledge-compe ence
ension in he con ex o
he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
The case o Li huania
Rū a Pe ku ė
SINCE THE INCEPTION o he Bologna p ocess, he e has been an ongoing
wa e o ambi ious highe educa ion e o ms ac oss Eu ope which ha e sough
o shi he ocus o he Eu opean uni e si y cu icula away om he adi ional
academic knowledge owa ds p ac ically applicable, ma ke -o ien ed
compe ences and skills. The b oad pu pose o he ollowing chap e is o
explo e he eme gen ensions be ween he ecen ly in oduced compe ence
(ou come)-based concep ion o he cu iculum and he adi ional knowledge-
based idea o he cu iculum in he Eu opean highe educa ion con ex .
Mo e speci ically, I seek o analyze wha kind o assump ions he Eu opean
compe ence-based cu iculum policies and app oaches, as endo sed
h oughou he ongoing Bologna p ocess, appea o make abou he pu pose
and he na u e o he uni e si y, i s knowledge and cu iculum. Then, I look a
how hese Eu opean assump ions a e aken up a he na ional policy le el and
in e p e ed and esponded o a he indi idual le el by p o essional academics
in he speci ic con ex o he pos -so ie Li huania. The inqui y in o his subjec
seeks o con ibu e o he educa ional deba es in he ield o he sociology o
highe educa ion and cu iculum s udies.
Rū a Pe ku ė
378
The eme gen knowledge-compe ence ension
in he Eu opean highe educa ion con ex
‘Which knowledge is he mos aluable?’ is a classical cu iculum ques ion,
he impo ance o which was i s a icula ed by He be Spence (1860).
The ques ion was emphasized by he classical Eu opean educa ional
philosophe s, such as Immanuel Kan (1724–1804) and Wilhelm on
Humbold (1767–1835), who s essed he libe al pu sui o knowledge o
knowledge’s sake as subs an ia ed by he p inciples o academic au onomy
and eedom (Wa d 2012, 4). In he ligh o he Ge man Bildung-Didak ik
adi ion, cu iculum was concei ed o be eache - ocused and knowledge-
based (Lilliedahl 2015; Wes bu y e al. 2000; Willbe gh 2015). Howe e ,
knowledge was concei ed no in na ow ins umen al bu b oad in ellec ual
e ms. Au io (2007, 3) s essed ha Bildung-in o med academic adi ions
concep ualized he cu iculum knowledge as “la ge cul u al and his o ical
bodies o knowledge and human achie emen s o en ca ying a mo al o
a ional la ou , like humani y, humankind, Wo ld, objec i i y, gene al”.
This Bildung concep ion o he pu pose and na u e o he adi ional
Eu opean academic knowledge goes along wi h Be ns ein’s (2000, 31)
amous a gumen , which cohe en ly builds on Du kheim’s (1995) social
heo y o knowledge, ha he adi ional heo e ical knowledge as acqui ed
a schools o uni e si ies allows socie y o hink he “un hinkable” and he
“no -ye - hough ”. Fu he mo e, acco ding o Au io, he Ge man Bildung-
Didak ik adi ion posi ioned eache s as ela i ely au onomous and ac i e
agen s who can use hei p o essional judgemen o eely decide on wha
knowledge should be p oduced and passed on o s uden s. E en mo e,
hese no ma i e cu iculum decisions we e seen as ha ing mo al, e hical
and cul u al implica ions.
The impo ance o he knowledge ques ion has also been consis en ly
ei e a ed by con empo a y au ho s (Allais 2014; Au io 2016; Wheelahan
2007; Young 2008), who, howe e , ha e c i ically obse ed ha , as a esul
o he ecen ongoing educa ional e o ms ac oss Eu ope and beyond,
he ole o knowledge in cu iculum has been sys ema ically unde -
emphasized. In Eu ope, since he incep ion o he Bologna p ocess in 1999,
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
379
he highe educa ion policy end has been a shi away om he adi ional
knowledge o inpu -based uni e si y cu icula owa ds allegedly mo e
e icien compe ence o ou come-based cu icula, which si ua e compe ence
as a new cen al educa ional ca ego y (Magalhaes 2010). The so-called
‘pos - adi ional’ o ‘p og essi e’ compe ence (ou come) app oaches o
cu iculum a e based on cons uc i is assump ions abou knowledge
(Young & Mulle 2010, 14) and sugges ha s uden s “c ea e knowledge”
hemsel es and cons uc “ hei own meanings based on hei own in e es s
and expe iences” (De y 2008, 508–509). The e o e, hey place a g ea
emphasis on he choice o s uden s and he lea ning p ocess, a he han he
eache and he knowledge con en (Moo e & Young 2001). In addi ion o
his, a numbe o au ho s (Be ns ein 2000; De y 2008; Wheelahan 2007;
2010; Young & Mulle 2010) no e ha ano he impo an cha ac e is ic
o hese con empo a y app oaches o cu iculum is hei heigh ened ocus
on he in e disciplina y, gene ic compe ences o ans e able skills. These
new compe ences o skills a e hough o be mo e eadily applicable ac oss
di e en wo k con ex s han he academic disciplina y knowledge and,
hus, easie aded in he labou ma ke .
Howe e , despi e a high le el o poli ical op imism abou he
compe ence agenda, i has been subjec ed o di e en kinds o c i icism
ac oss Eu ope and he globe. To begin wi h, a poli ically p omo ed
concep o compe ence is said o ha e an ambi alen meaning (Adam
2008; Bohlinge 2007; Hyland 1993; Mehau & Winch 2011; Mulle
& Young 2014). Al hough knowledge, skills and a i udes a e he mos
common desc ip o s o compe ence (Baa man e al. 2007), he e a e
a ious inconsis en de ini ions o compe ence as he concep is o en used
in e changeably wi h skill (Adam 2008) and ou come (Adam 2008; Allais
2014). Ye , wha all hese concep s seem o ha e in common is ha hey
e e o di e en kinds o ’know how’ o p ac ical o ms o knowledge,
a he han he academic heo e ical o concep ual knowledge, he access
o which adi ionally has been conside ed o be he mos impo an
pu pose o he uni e si y cu iculum (Mulle & Young 2014).
A numbe o au ho s s ess ha he educ ionis app oach o knowledge
o , mo e speci ically, he neglec o he heo e ical o concep ual o ms o
Rū a Pe ku ė
380
knowledge in he cu iculum, can be explained by he beha iou is ic oo s
o he compe ence (ou come) app oach (E au 1994; Hodge 2007; Hyland
1993; Mo cke, Do nan & Eika 2013; Swee man, Ho dhaugen & Ka lsen
2014; Talbo 2004; Young 2008; Willbe gh 2015), which is a gued o be
pa icula ly un i o he b oad in ellec ual pu pose o highe educa ion
(Hyland 1993; Mulde e al. 2009). Au io (2016, 12) unde lines ha he
nega i e e ec o he cu en ly p e ailing cu iculum app oaches is ha
hey eplace he classical cu iculum ques ion ‘Which knowledge is he
mos aluable?’ wi h “ agmen ed ques ions abou wha skills, compe encies
and, pa icula ly, pe o mances a e mos wo hwhile in he in e na ional
compe i i e labou ma ke o he global economy (...)”. In addi ion o
his, a numbe o au ho s poin ou ha he cu en ocus on job- ele an
gene ic compe ences and ans e able skills ha he compe ence app oach
p omo es uns he isk o diminishing he impo ance o he disciplina y
knowledge in cu iculum, as well as s anda dizing o ‘de-di e en ia ing’
(Mulle & Young 2014), agmen alizing and ins umen alizing
educa ional knowledge (Wheelahan 2007).
Fu he mo e, he compe ence o ou comes-based app oach while
shi ing he ocus away om he disciplina y heo e ical knowledge ha
adi ionally has been a he cen e o he uni e si y cu iculum owa ds
ex e nally de ined, ma ke -o ien ed compe ences and skills, is said o
diminish he academic eedom o p o essional academics in he ealm o
cu iculum (Allais 2012; Young & Mulle 2016). As some au ho s (Ha den
2007; Talbo 2004) explain, he cu en ly p edominan compe ence o
ou come-o ien ed app oach o cu iculum has been in oduced as a ool
o make educa ional sys ems and ins i u ions mo e accoun able. Also, o
uni e si ies in he No h-Con inen al Eu ope he Bologna-led cu iculum
es uc u ing was no an unp oblema ic echnical change. Ra he , in his pa
o Eu ope i has mean a mo e away om he classical Humbold ian ideal o
he uni e si y (Lo enz 2010), as unde pinned by he p inciples o he libe al
pu sui o knowledge and academic eedom, owa ds he philosophically
alien, neolibe al Anglo-Ame ican ou comes-based cu iculum (Hohendahl
2011, 196).
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
381
In his chap e , I seek o analyze wha kind o assump ions Eu opean
compe ence-based cu iculum policies and app oaches appea o make
abou he pu pose and he na u e o he uni e si y, i s knowledge and
cu iculum. Also, I look a how hese Eu opean assump ions a e aken
up a he na ional policy le el and in e p e ed and esponded o a he
indi idual le el by p o essional academics in he speci ic con ex o he
pos -so ie Li huania. I am pa icula ly conce ned wi h how uni e si y
academics pe cei e he implica ions o he cu iculum es uc u ing o he
cu iculum and knowledge in he con ex o hei discipline, also, ine i ably,
o hei own p o essional wo k. I will begin by analyzing he assump ions
ha Eu opean compe ence-based cu iculum policies and app oaches
appea o make abou he pu pose and he na u e o he uni e si y, i s
knowledge and cu iculum.
The Eu opean policy assump ions abou he
uni e si y, i s knowledge and cu iculum
behind he new compe ence app oach
In o de o s udy bo h explici and implici assump ions ha he Eu opean
compe ence-based policies and e o ms make abou he pu pose and
he na u e o he uni e si y, i s knowledge and cu iculum, as well as
hei e e be a ions wi hin he na ional con ex o Li huania, I se ed a
concep ual con en analysis o ele an Eu opean and Li huanian policy
documen s. As he Eu opean Bologna p ocess, which was ini ia ed by he
adop ion o he Bologna Decla a ion in 1999, is unde s ood he e as an
in eg al pa o o e a ching Eu opean ‘knowledge economy’ policies and
he Lisbon S a egy (2000), i is i s and o emos impo an o unde s and
hei unde pinning objec i es. The key s a egic goal o he Eu opean
Lisbon s a egy and he conco dan ‘knowledge economy’ policies has
been o u n Eu ope in o “ he mos compe i i e and dynamic knowledge-
based economy” (Lisbon Eu opean Council 2000). In his wide Eu opean
policy con ex , Eu opean uni e si ies ha e been asc ibed a decisi e ole

Rū a Pe ku ė
382
in sol ing socio-economic p oblems and con ibu ing o he economic
g ow h (Eu opean Commission 2010), which implies ha i is p ecisely
he economic alue o he uni e si y knowledge ha has been poli ically
emphasized. The o en-decla ed ul ima e in en ion o he Bologna-ini ia ed
highe educa ion e o ms is o make Eu ope’s di e en highe educa ion
sys ems mo e anspa en , compa ible and compa able, which is o inc ease
s uden s’ academic mobili y ac oss Eu ope. Howe e , a close look a he
Eu opean educa ional policy documen s sugges s ha a he e y hea o
he Bologna-ini ia ed highe educa ion e o ms is no an educa ional bu
an economic ambi ion, which is o imp o e Eu ope’s compe i i e ad an age
in he global highe educa ion ma ke and make highe educa ion a
mo e ac i e playe in he de elopmen o ‘knowledge economy’ (London
Communiqué 2007). Agains his wide policy backg ound, Eu opean
uni e si ies ha e been consis en ly accused o being ine icien and lagging
behind hei US compe i o s in p oducing and ansmi ing knowledge
ha can be eadily ans o med in o p ac ically applicable inno a ions
and con ibu e o he EU’s economic g ow h. I has been insis ed ha he
adi ional cu icula o Eu opean uni e si ies a e ine icien and oo slow
in equipping s uden s wi h he igh compe ences and skills needed in he
e e -changing labou ma ke and economy (Eu opean Commission 2012).
Agains he backg ound o his poli ical c i icism, Eu opean
uni e si ies ha e been u ged o mode nize hemsel es in o de o be
able o mo e swi ly and e ec i ely espond o he changing needs o he
knowledge-based socie y and economy (Eu opean Commission 2012;
Lisbon Eu opean Council 2000). Na ional go e nmen s ac oss Eu ope
ha e been inc easingly called o shi he ocus o uni e si y cu icula
owa ds he de elopmen o ma ke - ele an compe ences and skills
(Eu opean Commission 2012). Thus, he compe ence o ou come app oach
o cu iculum has been endo sed as an al e na i e o he adi ional
Eu opean knowledge o inpu -based cu iculum (Tuning n.d.a., 11) which
use ully enables he explica ion o an icipa ed compe ences and ou comes
and gi es he basis o anspa ency, compa ibili y and compa ison o
cu iculum ou pu s ac oss di e en con ex s (London Communiqué
2007; Tuning n.d.a.). Ye , wha eme ges om he Eu opean policy
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
383
documen s is ha he key unde pinning eason o he poli ical ad ocacy
o he compe ence-agenda is an a emp o inc ease he employabili y
and he socio-economic ele ance o he Eu opean highe educa ion and
knowledge (Eu opean Commission 2012). I is said ha he compe ence
amewo k is pa icula ly sui able o his pu pose as i ins i u es a
demand-d i en cu iculum a ionale ha is lexible and open o he needs
o employe s and s uden s. Also, a he han ocusing on he disciplina y
heo e ical knowledge, i gi es a special a en ion o he de elopmen o
lexible, p ac ical gene ic compe ences and ans e able skills which a e
assumed o ha e a pa icula employabili y ele ance as hey help g adua es
o success ully ope a e wi hin he knowledge economy. As i is a gued, “In
a changing socie y whe e demands end o be in cons an e o mula ion,
hese gene ic compe ences also become e y impo an because hey can
o e mo e possibili ies o employmen ” (Tuning p ojec n.d.). In gene al,
i could be a gued ha he e-o ien a ion o he Eu opean highe educa ion
cu iculum om educa ional inpu s o ou pu s, as well as he heigh ened
ocus on wo k- ele an , gene ic compe ences o ans e able skills ha e
been la gely jus i ied on e iciency a he han educa ional g ounds. These
ecen cu iculum ends ha e been based on he assump ion ha he
con empo a y uni e si y, knowledge and cu iculum should ha e a mo e
ins umen al, oca ional pu pose and economic alue han adi ionally
i has been assumed. Wha is mo e, he Eu opean policy discou se on he
cu iculum es uc u ing c ea es an imp ession ha he endo semen o he
compe ence o ou come-based cu iculum amewo k is ine i able and he
only possible al e na i e ac oss di e en na ional and disciplina y con ex s
in Eu ope. Also, i implies ha he cu iculum es uc u ing ac oss hese
di e en con ex s is a simple, echnical p ocess and he only p e equisi e
o i s implemen a ion is o p o ide he ones who a e esponsible o he
change wi h echnical guidelines and inancial suppo .
To da e, howe e , i can be seen om na ional epo s ha no all
Eu opean coun ies ush o implemen he Bologna-spawned educa ional
changes in highe educa ion and ha esponses o hem a e mixed no
only be ween coun ies (Eu opean Commission/EACEA/Eu ydice 2015;
Méhau & Winch 2011; Su sock 2015) bu also wi hin coun ies (Méhau
Rū a Pe ku ė
384
& Winch 2011). Wha is common ac oss he Eu opean coun ies, hough,
is ha he e is a gap be ween academics’ less en husias ic esponses and
mo e posi i e esponses o poli ical and ins i u ional leade s (Su sock 2015).
Also, acco ding o Ma in Oxenham’s (2013, 109) c i ical obse a ion,
he e y ac ha he Eu opean compe ence cu iculum amewo k has
been consis en ly ein o ced h ough he EU unding mechanism makes
economically mo e ulne able membe s a es espond o he Eu opean
cu iculum e o m ini ia i es mo e eage ly, a leas a he o mal le el. The
pos -so ie Li huania could be conside ed o be one hese coun ies.
The case o Li huania
In o de o be e unde s and he backg ound agains which he Eu opean
Bologna-ini ia ed highe educa ion cu iculum es uc u ing was
in oduced in Li huania, i is necessa y o i s and o emos b ie ly ske ch
some con ex ual peculia i ies o his coun y. Li huania is an in e es ing
case s udy o explo e he way he ambi ious Eu opean cu iculum
es uc u ing is pe cei ed a he na ional le el due o i s unique his o ical
backg ound. In he i s hal o he wen ie h cen u y, Li huanian highe
educa ion was appa en ly in luenced by he Humbold ian idea o he
uni e si y and la e on, when he coun y ell unde he so ie ule, by
he u ili a ian so ie model o he uni e si y. In he in e -wa pe iod,
(1918–1940), he academic cul u e o he i s independen Republic o
Li huania was shaped by libe al humanis ideas o Eu opean hinke s,
especially Ge man philosophe s. Meanwhile, while unde he so ie ule,
he in ellec ual li e o Li huanian uni e si ies was e-shaped in acco dance
wi h he communis ideology and o ien ed owa ds he ins umen al
unc ion – he p epa a ion o specialis s o he so ie planned economy
and indus y. I is impo an o no e, howe e , ha du ing he ansi ional
pe iod in he 1990s, he policy-make s and educa ionalis s o independen
Li huania we e e hinking he idea o Li huania’s highe educa ion and
inding inspi a ion p ecisely in he in e wa libe al humanis i ues
which seem o ha e su i ed h oughou he i y-yea pe iod o he so ie
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
385
occupa ion. Howe e , e y soon his idealis pu sui o he libe alisa ion
o poli ics in Li huania ha s a ed wi h he ansi ional pe iod ook
he o m o wha Li huanian sociologis No kus (2008, 595) calls
“neolibe al shock he apy poli ics”. Li huania apidly mo ed away om
he communis o he capi al sys em o he wes e n coun ies and, wi h he
accession in o he Eu opean Union, swi ly adop ed neolibe al app oaches
o policy-making. Gi en he his o ical backg ound o Li huanian highe
educa ion, i could be a gued ha , o Li huanian uni e si ies, jus like o
o he No h-Con inen al uni e si ies, he Bologna-ini ia ed shi owa ds
he compe ence and ou come-based cu iculum model has no been an
unp oblema ic change. Ra he , i has ma ked a undamen al b eak om
he adi ional knowledge o inpu -based cu iculum and a adical mo e
owa ds a mo e alien neolibe al Anglo-Saxon compe ence and ou comes-
o ien ed cu iculum.
Since he accession o he Bolognian p ocess in 1999, Li huania
o mally endo sed he compe ence app oach o educa ion a he policy le el
and in 2010 app o ed he Li huanian compe ence-based Quali ica ions
F amewo k, which is closely aligned wi h he Eu opean compe ence-based
Quali ica ions F amewo k (Go e nmen o he Republic o Li huania
2010, 1). Wha can be seen om Li huanian highe educa ion policy
documen s is ha , in acco dance wi h he Eu opean Bologna agenda,
Li huanian highe educa ion policy has sys ema ically s essed he need
o highe educa ion o become mo e esponsi e o he labou ma ke
(Republic o Li huania 2015). Also, i has been insis ed ha i is necessa y
o include employe s and o he social pa ne s in o he s udies p ocess
(Go e nmen o he Republic o Li huania 2012, 4) and, in his way, ensu e
ha s uden s de elop en ep eneu ship (Pa liamen o he Republic o
Li huania, 2013) and “compe encies equi ed o u u e jobs” (Go e nmen
o he Republic o Li huania 2012, 4). Howe e , he na ional epo o
Li huania (Eu opean Commission/EACEA/Eu ydice 2015) has shown
ha in his coun y he o e all e-o ien a ion o highe educa ion sys em
owa ds ou comes has been slowe han expec ed. While acknowledging
Li huania’s o mal poli ical e o s o adap he cu iculum e o m, he
Eu opean Commission c i ically obse es ha , in eal li e, Li huanian
Rū a Pe ku ė
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he amilia wo ld in a new way, he wo ld which is no longe
amilia .” (Benas, physicis )
Bu he main ool has o be his [poin s o his head]. Because
i has o check all he ools, and his, and ha one, and his
one, and o look a i c ea i ely and sys ema ically, oo. (Lukas,
enginee )
In addi ion o his, s uden s’ mas e y o he adi ional heo e ical
knowledge is seen by some as a p e equisi e o s uden s’ de elopmen
o p ac ical knowledge and hei abili y o make sys ema ic p ac ical
decisions.
So ha hey could ake some so o p oblem, sol e i
sys ema ically, and un i h ough all hese a ian s hey ha e
in hei heads, all hese p o ec o s, check i , and hen make he
decision. (Lukas, enginee )
Bu you mus ha e his abili y, ‘cause a e his abs ac edness,
gene al phenomena and he abili y o ecognise hei meanings,
come p ac ical decisions o e e y momen in ou li es – wha do
you choose, wha a e you doing? (Jus as, his o ian)
Ano he impo an heme eme ging om mos o he na a i es is
academics’ exp essed desi e o eel ee o ex e nal o ces and cons ains
and be able o make independen decision ela ed o cu iculum.
In ee Ame ican uni e si ies I go used o he p inciple,
ha , when he doo s o an audi o ium a e closed, nobody
[accen ua es] can command me. I can only be kicked ou ,
eplaced. And, essen ially, nobody is commanding me. (Jus as,
his o ian)
In e es ingly, while a he beginning o ou con e sa ions academics made
an imp ession ha hey do no eel any es ic ions on hei academic
eedom, e e y ime we s a ed o alk abou he ecen highe educa ion
e o ms and cu iculum es uc u ing, hei one would became highly
sa cas ic and c i ical, e ealing a ulle and less idealis pic u e o he
p esen -day academic eali y in Li huanian uni e si ies. All academics a

The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
393
leas hea d o knew some hing abou he Eu opean Bologna p ocess and
i s cu iculum e o m ini ia i es in highe educa ion. While mos o he
academics admi ed ha he Bologna p ocess posi i ely enhanced he
oppo uni ies o academic mobili y, hey ended o alk abou i s e ec s
on he academic cu iculum, knowledge and hei own p o essional wo k
in a nega i e and, some imes, hos ile way. “I dunno, e e ybody’s cu sing i ,
bu , maybe, o he people don’ dislike he idea o making e e ybody uni o m…
No, I know no hing. Really, I don’ ”, says a his o ian Zakas. Academics
a e gene ally c i ical o he Bologna-endo sed uni e si y cu iculum e-
s ipula ion a ound compe ences and ou comes because hey pe cei e
i as an ex e nally imposed change ha begins o egula e he way hey
app oach cu iculum and eaching. A jou nalis Ma ilda e lec s: “Le ’s
ake his Bologna P ocess, i ’s so o e y manda o y, i ’s being en o ced on us
somewhe e om up abo e, his uni ica ion, so, well, you’ e so o managed,
you’ e pu in a ce ain ame ha de e mines you beha io .” Acco dingly,
academics ind he newly in oduced educa ional concep s, such as
compe ences, gene ic compe ences and ans e able skills, as bu eauc a ic
and concep ually alien. Wha mos o hem no e is ha his ocabula y
has been in oduced p ecisely h ough accoun abili y p ocedu es, such as
sel -examina ion.
The p oblem is ha hose concep s ha e been come up by
somebody somewhe e (…) They a e o ally om ou e space…
We can google wha hey mean, and w i e abou hem, bu , so,
yeah, hey we e speci ically in he sel -examina ion. (Tomas,
physicis )
Well, su e, I’ e hea d hese concep s, bu , o me, hey all in o
his black lis o nas y, ugly bu eauc a ic ools. (Jus as, his o ian)
As he new educa ional concep s we e ex e nally imposed, academics
s uggle in unde s anding hei meaning and educa ional alue.
I ’s been lying a ound e e ywhe e, in pape s, and he e, oo,
e e ywhe e… compe ences, compe ences… And wha is his
compe ence, may I ask? [i onically] (Alex, enginee )
Rū a Pe ku ė
394
Some imes, i seems o me, you ha e his bubble in on o you
and you wonde wha i means, some imes you eel so s upid,
you can’ unde s and whe e’s i come om. (Ma ilda, jou nalis )
As some academics sugges ed, he e was no need o change he adi ional
knowledge- ocused cu iculum as i has se ed i s pu pose well. Academics
main ain ha , e en wi hou he ex e nal in e en ions, hey cons an ly
change hei augh cu iculum in acco dance wi h hei own p o essional
unde s anding. Whe eas he cu en ly ongoing cu iculum e-s ipula ion
a ound compe ences and ou comes is gene ally pe cei ed by academics as a
decla a i e ac , which se es o demons a e he ‘p og essi e’ na u e o he
uni e si y cu iculum. Also, as i can be in e ed om he na a i es, o
academics, he ex e nally imposed change shows he sys em’s dis us in
hei p o essional judgemen .
Bu his mo ing o he sake o mo emen , when we need o
change e e y hing only o he sake o changing and showing
ha we wan o change, le ’s mo e o wa d… i ’s a bi suspicious.
The need o change should be jus i ied (…) People, who wo k
in his a ea, hey see pe spec i es and he like, well, and, mos
p obably, i he e had been a need o change, mos p obably,
hey did ha , and hey imp o ed, and hey did i quie ly, maybe,
wi hou making his noise. (Alex, enginee )
Mo eo e , some academics sha ed hei insigh ha he compe ence
app oach is a ool o he economically-d i en Eu opean policies o inc ease
he applicabili y and in e na ional compe i i eness o he knowledge
gene a ed in Eu opean uni e si ies.
A lo o ime ago I a ended a semina p esen ing ha Bologna
P ocess. (…) The idea i sel is good, bu he e we hea d eu o-
bu eauc a s say he main mo i a couple o imes, ha 80 pe cen
o he wo ld’s undamen al esea ch akes place in Eu ope and
only 10 pe cen o ha ans o ms in o applica ions. The bigges
pa is applied in Ame ica and now in China. So he e was his
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
395
wish exp essed o ou un Ame ica and ca ch up in his a ea…
i s ly, ca ch up and hen – ou un. (Tomas, physicis )
Wha he in e iew exce p abo e in e es ingly illumina es is ha
academics in he pos -so ie coun ies, such as Li huania, a e mo e
skep ical o he ambi ious Eu opean Bologna-ini ia ed e o m agenda and
i s e o o compe e wi h Ame ica o he in e na ional highe educa ion
ma ke . Fo academics o he pos -so ie Li huania and o he coun ies
ha sha e a simila pas , he cu en Eu opean policy en husiasm o he
compe i ion unpleasan ly esembles he economic ambi ion o he o me
So ie Union o ou ace Ame ica. As Tomas says, “And i was ex emely
unny o he ep esen a i es o he pos -so ie wo ld, because many people s ill
emembe Kh ushche and ha idea ha we’ e going o ou un hem ‘wi h
milk’, ou un hem ‘wi h mea ’. So, he e we a e once again ying o ca ch up
wi h Ame ica.”
Mos academics sha e a belie ha he compe ence and ou come
app oach o cu iculum may ha e mo e nega i e, a he han posi i e e ec s
because i is incompa ible wi h a speci ic na u e and pu pose o uni e si y
educa ion. They name a numbe o dange s ha he use o his app oach
in he uni e si y con ex in ol es. To begin wi h, i is seen as en o cing
an o e ly na ow and p agma ic unde s anding o he pu pose and na u e
o he uni e si y, i s knowledge and cu iculum. Wha academics la gely
ag ee upon is ha he uni e si y cu iculum and knowledge should no
be p ima ily aimed a p epa ing s uden s o employmen and mee ing
he p esen alis needs o he p agma ic and sho -sigh ed labou ma ke .
As an enginee Lukas a gues, “Science, i ’s no an elemen o he ma ke ,
he shee p epa a ion o a specialis shouldn’ be unde s ood as an elemen
o he ee ma ke .” They di ec ly and indi ec ly sugges ha uni e si ies
should ollow hei adi ional co e mission o de eloping knowledge
and unde s anding, which can be used o hink abou socie al p oblems
in a b oade pe spec i e. A physicis Benas exp esses his posi ion, saying
ha “Bu I don’ hink ha , ha we need o, how can I pu i , associa e
uni e si y educa ion and employmen ” and adding “I mean, we, a
uni e si ies, don’ ha e o simply sol e he cu en p oblems he s a e o
employe s ha e, ac ually, bu o ake a longe pe iod in o conside a ion.”
Rū a Pe ku ė
396
Mo eo e , he ‘p og essi e’ compe ence o ou come-based a ionale, wi h
i s emphasis on he employabili y goal, is hough o esul in a “ ac o y-
ype” app oach o uni e si y educa ion. In addi ion o his, wha some
na a i es in e es ingly sugges s is ha , in he speci ic pos -so ie con ex
o Li huania, he in oduc ion o his cu iculum model is pe cei ed by
academics no as a p og ess bu as a s ep backwa ds o he limi ed so ie -
ype model o he uni e si y, which was na owly ocused on p epa ing
echnoc a ic specialis s o he so ie planned economy and indus y. As a
his o ian Jus as obse es, “one way o he o he , e e y hing s ill goes back o a
p imi i e eplica o his so ie , indus ial e a uni e si y ha imagined i sel
as a o ge o specialis s.” This exp esses he wo y ha he cu en p agma ic
p essu e o employabili y, gene ic compe ences and skills is c owding ou
he academic heo e ical knowledge and he uni e si y educa ion is being
oca ionalized.
Some academics pu o wa d an a gumen ha he p esen -day
shi away om heo y and in ellec ual ideas o p ac ice is indica i e o
a p oblema ic end owa ds echnoc a izing academic knowledge and
educa ion, which in i s essence is in a deep con lic o hei “classical idea”
o uni e si y as a si e o knowledge and in ellec ual de elopmen .
Bu I am a membe o he Jou nalism Bachelo ’s S udy
P og amme Commi ee, so, you know, I can some imes see
how, ac ually, he e ha e been many sel -e alua ions and
assessmen s by expe s, and you can cons an ly see, how, usually,
hey concen a e on p o essional compe ences mo e, mo e on
his echnoc acy, and no on, you know, he way we unde s and
– and, I don’ know, bu belie e you unde s and i he same way,
oo – uni e si y as a classical idea, igh ? (Faus a, jou nalis )
Compe ences and all hese hings seem e y much o ien ed
owa ds ins umen ali y. (Zakas, his o ian)
In addi ion o his, a his o ian Jus as obse es ha he o ien a ion o
he uni e si y cu iculum owa ds he p ac ical needs o he ma ke and
disc e e measu able ou comes ins i u es no only an o e ly ins umen al,
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
397
commodi ied app oach o uni e si y educa ion, bu also leads o he
agmen aliza ion o academic knowledge. As he explains, he cu en
p io i iza ion o he immedia ely u ilizable o ms o knowledge o e o he
o ms o knowledge has he e ec o dis up ing he de elopmen o all-
ounded p o essional knowledge and unde s anding.
(…) p o essionals a en’ wha his me ciless ma ke needs
anymo e. The ma ke needs only ce ain body pa s o a
p o essional and only o abou wo yea s un il hey’ e s ill
o ally esh, abula asa, when hey’ e mos inno a i e, so hey
can gi e away, I mean, esou ces o ideas hey ha e and which
a e usually mean o be used o he es o hei li es. Two yea s,
and hen hey mus be eplaced by o he s, ‘cause hey’ e al eady
been used up. (Jus as, his o ian)
Also, some academics explici ly o implici ly a gue ha he igid
speci ica ion o an icipa ed lea ning ou comes o cu iculum h ea ens
o unde mine he open-ended lea ning in he uni e si y. This poin o
iew was exp essed by a physicis Benas: “(…) s ic de e mina ion o aims,
especially i hese aims a e eached, i limi s he possibili ies o g ow and
de elop. And i ’s no a e y good p ac ice, in my opinion, o such an e e -
g owing o ganism as a uni e si y is.” Fu he mo e, in he con ex o his
ins umen al, ma ke -o ien ed and s uden -cen ed app oaches, academics
eel p essu ed and cons ained by he ma ke , policy-make s, uni e si y
manage s and e en s uden s o make he uni e si y cu iculum mo e
p ac ically and wo k ele an . As a jou nalis Ma ilda says, uni e si y
s uden s make a p essu e on academics o p io i ize p ac ical compe ences
o e heo y and unde s anding.
Ac ually, hey wan less… e en much less… We s ill y o
include all hese, I mean, hese p inciples o media philosophy,
hese shee … I dunno, some discussions, deba es and so on. Bu
hey hink ha i ’s o ally unnecessa y. And i some imes pu s
you o , ‘cause, well, you see ha hese a e he undamen al
hings ha explain why he media ope a es in his way, how i
ope a es, and why i has his e ec and no a di e en one, and

Rū a Pe ku ė
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so on, so you wan o con ey hese hings… Bu , no, “ heo y is
oo a apa om p ac ice, we don’ need i . (…) They eally,
you can see ha hey a e able o do mo e han jus simply pu
some so o adio s o ies oge he o some hing. So ha ’s why I
hink we need mo e o hose. (…) a he Bachelo ’s le el, all ha
uni e si y educa ional ounda ion has been e ased in an o e ly
adical way. (Ma ilda, jou nalism)
Wha she wi nesses and c i icizes is ha he sys em ea s s uden s as
cus ome s and, hus, le s hei o en p agma ic, sho -sigh ed expec a ions
de e mine he e y cons i u ion o he cu iculum:
Well, you know, s uden s a e e en bigge agen s o he
p epa a ion o he ma ke . (…) Because, ac ually, e e y hing’s
o ien ed owa ds s uden s, so hey, I mean ha … Bu some imes
s uden s lack unde s anding o de ine wha hey need and so
on, bu , well, his no wi hs anding, s uden s occupy his cen al
posi ion none heless. And wi h his li le knowledge abou
wha s uden s need, he e a e e o s o sa is y o , well, a leas
o make hem eel good, I dunno…
Simila ly, jou nalis Faus a is upse ha , i ea lie uni e si y had “i s
ce ain s a us, ce ain inne logic” and uni e si y eache s’ p o essionalism
was espec ed, oday i is s uden s who “can e alua e he p o essionalism
o a eache , ‘cause hese a e he inqui ies you migh ind in su eys”. The
uni e si y adminis a ion’s use o s uden s’ su eys as a means o assess
academics’ eaching quali y makes Faus a eel dep o essionalized and
demo alized. Also, all hese p essu es, she main ains, ins i u e he ma ke -
o ien ed ision o uni e si y educa ion ha is de oid o he adi ional
unde pinning academic alues and mo al goals. She e lec ed: “(…) he e
we e eally a lo o people he e who’ e con ibu ed o he mo al upb inging o
jou nalis s one way o he o he , ‘cause i was necessa y in hose imes. Now i ’s
a li le, no, no a li le, i ’s diame ically a di e en si ua ion. And I dislike
he ac ha uni e si ies a e dependen on business.”
Fu he mo e, wha academics ha e expe ienced is ha he ou come-
based cu iculum p o oundly econ igu es he na u e o hei own
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
399
p o essional wo k. Fo example, a jou nalis Ma ilda no es ha he
o ien a ion owa ds s ic ly de ined ou comes is bu eauc a ically
bu densome and ime-consuming: “I hink ha i pu s his huge load o
adminis a i e wo k on he shoulde s o ou eache s, ‘cause you ha e o hink
abou hese hings”. A physicis Benas ei e a es ha he ou come app oach
shi s he a en ion away om he e y subs ance o cu iculum and he
lea ning p ocess o he bu eauc a ic, measu able end esul s: “Bu I mean
his isn’ he aim o s udying. And he ac ha I’m o ced o hink abou he
compe ences s uden s a e going o ha e a e he lec u e ins ead o hinking
abou wha I wan o con ey o hem, ha al eady is, well, a o al was e o
ou ime, essen ially.” As he sees i , s ipula ing all cu icula a ound disc e e,
compa able ou comes as well as basing hem on he ex e nally de i ed
uni e sal c i e ion o employabili y ele ance no only leads o a simplis ic
s anda diza ion o academic ou comes, bu also subjec s uni e si ies and
academics o a g ea e ex e nal accoun abili y:
I is my deepes belie ha , when we alk abou uni e si y, i ’s
ha m ul o o mula e hese aims and objec i es in a s ic ly
bu eauc a ic o m e e y s ep o he way. Maybe i ’s no ha m ul
o o mula e hem, bu he inal o mula ion always has in i sel
ha some people, whose job is o supe ise highe educa ion, so
hey can ake ha o mula ion and s a checking li e ally wo d
a e wo d whe he he esul s and ha uni e si y comply wi h
wha ’s been o mula ed. (…) i so o implies ha he e’s his
pe ec uni e si y, which, well… we’ e gi en his in o ma ion
abou wha i has o be, so uni e si y comes, concen a es, hi es
good specialis s, pays good money o hem, eaches ha esul ,
and e e y hing’s eally wonde ul.
The way Benas pe cei es i , he ex e nally p esc ibed ou come-based
cu iculum empla e de-p o essionalizes uni e si y academics and
unde mines hei c ea i e eedom:
I e e y hing’s been egula ed o such a le el ha a bus d i e
can ake he desc ip ion and each a a uni e si y, ha ’s bad o
e e ybody. I ’s bad o hose who’s done he egula ion, and o
Rū a Pe ku ė
400
hose who s udies, and o hose who… Because, well, I mean,
ne e heless, a uni e si y mus … The e has o be some so o
o de , bu I belie e ha i has o ha e as much c ea i e eedom
as possible.
Gi en hese a gumen s, mos academics conside he compe ence and
ou come-o ien ed cu iculum e o m o be educa ionally ine ec i e o
e en de imen al o s uden s’ open-ended lea ning. A his o ian Jus as
says, “And I don’ belie e ha hese measu es will help hem e o m i . I don’
belie e i one bi . Coun e - e o m (accen ua es)”, adding, “i we do espec
he p inciple o knowledge o knowledge’s sake, so, again, his wo dplay o
bu eauc a ised e ms, i leads nowhe e.” Wha an enginee Alex misses
in he ongoing cu iculum es uc u ing p ocess is i s ini ia o s’ clea
a icula ion o i s mo i es, meaning and possible consequences. He akes
a posi ion ha any in oduced educa ional change needs o be p ima ily
jus i ied in educa ional e ms:
“Wha ’s i gonna gi e us, is i eally gonna gi e us some hing?
O is i jus a e olu ion wi h no di ec ion, jus as i was wi h
[pauses] a omic bomb, igh , when he o eseen esul s we e
oggy, unknown, so… Bu i can change some hings, and,
ins ead o ge ing a posi i e, we can ge a nega i e esul . Yes,
i can look like we’ e mo ing o wa d, bu , in eali y, i ’s gone
sideways”.
Thus, uni e si y academics gene ally end no o suppo and passi ely
esis he cu iculum es uc u ing: hey ew i e desc ip ions and plans o
hei augh cou ses in he equi ed compe ence and ou come ocabula y
bu in eali y end o igno e hem.
“We’ e scep ical, hey’ e he ad oca es. By “we”, I mean eache s,
and “ hey” a e bu eauc a s, he Minis y o Educa ion wi h all
i s ins i u ions. (…) Well, I don’ know any mo e ad oca es, I
ha en’ seen any among my colleagues.” (Tomas, physicis )
“So, pe sonally, I don’ pa icula ly ca e o hese compe ences.
(…) So, yeah, he e a e many o such documen s, and I usually go
h ough hem e y quickly, ‘cause I eel i ’s a was e o my ime,
The knowledge-compe ence ension in he con ex o he Eu opean uni e si y
cu iculum es uc u ing
401
ac ually, i is. (…) I do i wi h my ee h clenched and ha ’s i
[laughing].” (Ma ilda, jou nalis )
A his o ian Jus as is he only academic om all he p ojec pa icipan s
ha openly e uses o ew i e his cou se cu iculum in line wi h he
ou come-based amewo k. He wa ns ha , i no esis ed by “conscious and
c ea i e people”, he ex e nally imposed p agma ic educa ional logic will
g adually push ou he p inciple o “knowledge o knowledge’s sake” om
uni e si ies o some o he al e na i e places and, as a esul , will impo e ish
Li huanian uni e si ies. “And I belie e ha i he e a e s ill no such places, in
he u u e, o ally in o mal, non-ins i u ional o mo e o less symbolic places
o high le el knowledge o knowledge’s sake will o m.”, he concludes.
Conclusions
This s udy has illumina ed he eme gen ension be ween he ecen ly
in oduced compe ence (ou come)-based concep ion o he cu iculum and
he adi ional knowledge-based idea o he cu iculum in he Eu opean
highe educa ion con ex . The o e iew o he ele an Eu opean policy
documen s e eals ha he new Eu opean compe ence-based cu iculum
app oaches, as based on he Anglo-Ame ican cu iculum model, a e
la gely unde pinned by educ ionis , ins umen al assump ions abou he
uni e si y, i s knowledge and cu iculum. This unde pinning is in a s a k
con as wi h he Eu opean Kan ian o Humbold ian idea o he uni e si y
ha s essed he p inciple o academic eedom and he pu sui o knowledge
o knowledge’s sake.
A close look a ele an Li huanian policy documen s shows ha
Li huania swi ly adop ed he Bologna-endo sed compe ence o ou come-
based cu iculum model a he o mal le el and uned i s highe educa ion
policy agenda closely in line wi h he new Eu opean concep ion o he
uni e si y, i s knowledge and cu iculum. Wha his sugges s is ha
Li huania, when o mula ing i s own highe educa ion policy and
cu iculum e o m agendas, unc i ically up akes he eady-made Eu opean,
Bologna-endo sed agenda.
Rū a Pe ku ė
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