Me, My Bot and His Other (Robot) Woman? Keeping Your Robot Satisfied in the Age of Artificial Emotion

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Me, My Bot and His Other (Robot) Woman? Keeping Your Robot Satisfied in the Age of Artificial Emotion © 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Published version Rousi, Rebekah Rousi, R. (2018). Me, My Bot and His Other (Robot) Woman? Keeping Your Robot Satisfied in the Age of Artificial Emotion. Robotics, 7(3), Article 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics7030044 2018 robotics Article Me, My Bot and His Other (Robot) Woman? Keeping Your Robot Satisfied in the Age of Artificial Emotion Rebekah Rousi ID Department of Art and Culture Studies, University of Jyvaskyla, 40014 Jyväskylän yliopisto, Finland; rebekah.r[email protected]; Tel.: +358-40805-3100 Received: 14 June 2018; Accepted: 10 August 2018; Published: 15 August 2018   Abstract: With a backdrop of action and science fiction movie horrors of the dystopian relationship between humans and robots, surprisingly to date-with the exception of ethical discussions-the relationship aspect of humans and sex robots has seemed relatively unproblematic. The attraction to sex robots perhaps is the promise of unproblematic affectionate and sexual interactions, without the need to consider the other’s (the robot’s) emotions and indeed preference of sexual partners. Yet, with rapid advancements in information technology and robotics, particularly in relation to artificial intelligence and indeed, artificial emotions, there almost seems the likelihood, that sometime in the future, robots too, may love others in return. Who those others are-whether human or robot-is to be speculated. As with the laws of emotion, and particularly that of the cognitive-emotional theory on Appraisal, a reality in which robots experience their own emotions, may not be as rosy as would be expected. Keywords: emotions; robots; sex; infidelity; artificial intelligence 1. Introduction For some reason, the idea of not only artificial intelligence, but artificial emotions seems enticing from the perspective of the humanoid robots being developed [ 1 ]. Arguments are being made for emotions in robots that attempt to substantiate a belief that in order to have fully affective interactions between humans and robots, the robots themselves also need to feel [ 2 , 3 ]. By drawing on a hypothetical future scenario in which robots actually possess their own emotions, the aim of this article is to reflect a theoretical understanding of what the world would be like if robots did indeed possess their own emotions. Thus, for this reason, please imagine that the year is 2050. Advances in robots have come to such a point, that autonomous machines are not simply a luxury or novelty in the world, but an essential part of people’s daily existence. Yet, not only are robots occupying both utilitarian and hedonic (pleasurable or non-utilitarian) roles, they have already become the companions of people for various purposes. It is at this point in time, that marriage between humans and robots has been legalized in many countries for the past two decades. The characteristic that differentiates a robot partner in 2050 as compared to the older models evidenced in 2018, is that in 2050 robots have the capacity to really think and choose for themselves. These later forms of robots possess their own emotions, meaning that they also have the propensity to love their human partner in return. Yet, more and more often, and much to the dismay of human parties in this modern society, robots are choosing to be with other robots. Thus, the abilities to care for, to empathize, to reciprocate emotions, and to experience the exhilaration of pure, uncontrollable, unabashed love, is not held exclusively by human citizens, but also by robots. There are different types of love and emotions that arise from human-robot and robot-robot relationships. In relation to the type that leads to marriage (later on described in terms of ‘instrumentality’) it is observed that humans and robots alike are increasingly wanting the opportunity Robotics 2018,7, 44; doi:10.3390/robotics7030044 www.mdpi.com/journal/robotics Robotics 2018,7, 44 2 of 20 to reproduce-to have children, either their own, or to adopt. Thus, not perhaps dissimilar to the world of 2018, concepts of sex, gender and identity are constantly under debate. Yet, in the case of robotics, it is quite clear from a utilitarian perspective that biological sex does not fulfil any reproductive function. However, from the perspective of emotions as well as whom and how robots want to be identified as, gendered identity can be rife with tensions and feelings. What is more, in this era of advanced humanoid robotics, robots can be viewed as super humans. Being super humans, they are not only created by humans, but can create and replicate themselves. Thus, this stands to reason when considering the epitome of artificial intelligence (AI), in that they now possess the capacity to exist independently and autonomously, as well as to carry out activities involving creativity, flexible thinking and problem-solving [ 4 , 5 ]. In the year 2050, robots no longer feel like robots. They are global citizens with their own rights and liberties to exist side-by-side with humans in the modern society. In reflection of Isaac Asimov’s ‘Three Laws of Robotics’ [ 6 ], the robots indeed are obliged to obey the law: (1) robots are not permitted to injure human beings, or through passivity, allow humans to be injured; (2) robots are required to follow human given orders, except if these orders should threaten the first law; and (3) robots should protect their own existence providing that this does not interfere with the first and second laws. Yet, given the possibility that robots will then be emotional beings in their own right, will these laws still apply? If they would, then there is a clear case for a future vision of emotional and sexual slavery of robots. If not, robots with emotions would certainly be in the league of super humans with the power to overrule humans. Moreover, one extremely important fact about robots in the year 2050 is that, rather than being at the mercy of human-bound selection, robots have the right to express their own free will and exercise their powers of life and love partner selection. This theoretical article uses a potential future scenario as a backdrop for understanding the implications of introducing emotions into robotic machinery. The method implemented in the article is a literature review that is applied to scope theories of love and its different types, then focusing more carefully on evolutionary biological theories of love to explain sexual desire and attraction from the perspective of robots. The article outlines love and its associated theories in reference to love and robotics-Lovotics [ 7 , 8 ]. Love is treated as a complex, multilayered phenomenon that serves differing functions depending on varied circumstances and actors. The theoretical materials included in this article comprise studies and theories that have been undertaken in the relevant fields of love and jealousy (sociological and psychological) research, Lovotics, cognitive-affective approaches to emotions (Appraisal theory), as well as cultural studies citing discursive manifestations of robots in folklore and the public imagination. Overall, this article aims to problematize utopian imagery of docile, obedient, love-filled robots, such as those experienced in products such as Hello Kitty, and bring to light the potential reality of machines that possess their own emotions—emotions that aim in survival of a species, and afford the power of discrimination. 2. Love as a Concept and Its Implications on Robotics The topic and condition of love has perplexed philosophers and scientists alike throughout the history of human-kind [ 9 , 10 ]. While the nature of love is highly debated [ 11 , 12 ], undeniable qualities of love as a construct and concept are that it is complex, dynamic, relatively unpredictable (although much effort has been placed towards understanding universal principles of love and attractiveness, see e.g., [ 13 – 15 ]) and is reliant on a number of factors from the physiological, as well as the intellectual and emotional [ 16 ]. From a love and robotics perspective, scholars in Lovotics [ 8 ] have been examining “love” as a concept through the lens of love-like relationships between humans and robots. Samani and colleagues [ 8 ] analyze love by looking at its historical origins in the teachings of philosophers such as Aristotle. Aristotle had applied the term “philia” to describe mutually beneficial relationships experienced in displays of loyalty expressed by families, friends and communities [ 17 – 19 ]. Moreover, philia is particularly emphasized in cases where beauty and goodness are core qualities of the object of Robotics 2018,7, 44 3 of 20 love (the beloved)-thus, the love attraction, or love state of the beloved is based on merits inherent in their personal characteristics [20]. While philia is a means of describing this form of kinship, warm or wholesome love, ‘eros’ another Greek term, was applied to describing a more passionate, sexual attraction and desire for someone or something [ 21 , 22 ]. Thus, there is a clear multidimensionality to the way in which love may be considered regarding love and robotics: that which is represented in philia that can perhaps be connected to relationships evidenced in popular culture such as films like A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001, directed by Steven Spielberg), Flight of the Navigator (1986, directed by Randal Kleiser), and the Star Wars movies—observing lovotics through philia; and that which is concerned with the more passionate, sexually-oriented perspective-eros. Moreover, it is fascinating to examine the conceptual construct of love through observing dictionary definitions. For instance, Merriam-Webster Dictionary [ 23 ] characterizes love as a strong affection, emerging from kinship and other types of personal connections. Merriam-Webster additionally illustrates love as being characterized by warmth and devotion towards people and phenomena. The eros mode of love is also accounted for in regards to the type of love typified by sexually-driven attraction. In psychology, Robert Sternberg [ 24 – 26 ] has proposed the triangular theory of love. This triangular theory is said to feature three components: passion, intimacy and commitment. Similarly, to the ways in which the Greeks characterized eros [ 22 ], according to Sternberg, passion is the driver for sexual attraction. Intimacy, while existing in close connection with passion, refers to feelings of closeness and connectedness that people experience in relation to one another. Thus, intimacy can be linked to both platonic or friendship types of love, as well as passionate types. Commitment [ 24 , 25 ] on the other hand possesses different types of qualities, both regarding a functional or reproductive mode of love, and in terms of long-term life-related plans in relation to a partner. Moreover, these longitudinal and reproductive qualities of commitment also imply different sub-categories, and complexly, from the perspective of Sternberg, this commitment dimension possesses instances in which love is not at play at all. Thus, commitment types include: non-lover (no passionate nor intimate love); friendship and liking (warmth for one another); infatuated love (passionate arousal, also known as a crush that exists outside of a mutual love relationship); fatuous love (whirlwind romance without intimacy); romantic love (emotional and physical bonding); empty love (commitment lacking passion and intimacy); companionate love (life-long partnerships and marriage); as well as consummate love (all-encompassing love, companionship and long-term intimacy). From the neuroscientific perspective of emotions it is argued that basic emotions emerge out of particular systems or circuits of neural activity. This is a characteristic shared between mammals that directly affects behavior [ 27 – 29 ]. Neuroscientific research has revealed that there are three or more interrelated, discrete emotion-motivation systems that are involved in the functions of reproduction, mating, as well as parenting. These emotion-motivation systems or circuits are: attraction, lust, and attachment [ 30 ]. The attraction system as a whole is by nature experienced through sensations of higher energy levels as well as concentrated attention on a chosen subject (preferred mating partner). Attraction, and the sensations deriving from its activation in humans, is characterized by exhilaration, obsession and intrusive thinking about the preferred mate, passion and craving. Research suggests that these sensations and the states involved are primarily hormonally driven, seen in increased levels of norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) [30–33]. Historically, Sigmund Freud can be viewed as one of the pioneering love theorists, who typified love as a person’s unconscious desire and need to find their “ego ideal” [ 34 ]. That is, Freud argued that people were constantly in search of partners who embodied what they themselves wanted to be. Freud claimed that the inner image would be molded upon people the beholder admires. Moreover, when observing Abraham Maslow’s [ 35 ] hierarchy of needs, it is evidenced that self-actualization (growing towards the attainment of an individual’s highest needs) gives indication towards the prospect of love and the character that love will take on (in reference to the different types of love Robotics 2018,7, 44 4 of 20 listed above). Thus, self-actualization can be viewed as a mobilizer when people are searching for and selecting love partners. Of particular relevance here are the mechanisms and qualities of love and prospective partners that individuals select on the basis of their self-actualization process. Thus, if an individual’s goal in life is to be wealthy and famous, their partner will most likely have qualities that can assist the individual to attain these goals, and will most likely be wealthy and famous themselves. When thinking on the level of physio-psychology or evolutionary psychology [ 36 , 37 ], it may be viewed that partners are selected for the reproductive qualities they represent, and moreover, the prospective offspring that their physical and more or less mental qualities exhibit in relation to being able to provide this offspring. Thus, in terms of love, eros, and the types of love connected with sexual attraction regarding human-robot relationships, attention should be drawn towards physical and non-physical (intellectual, personality and humor) qualities or potential partners. With the prospect of robots possessing emotional capacity, and indeed intelligence, numerous questions would arise in relation to their behavior and sentiments when choosing a love partner. In other words, with the capabilities to actually think and feel, it should be expected that the robots themselves also make selections in terms of love and sexual partners, rendering the power of choice out of the hands of the human parties, and more or less, into the hands of the physical and intellectual superiors—the robots. Therefore, who would a being that exhibits super human characteristics, both physically and intellectually, choose as a life-long and/or sexual partner? And, if in a relationship with a human—what would it take to maintain the interest of the robot? While somewhat criticized, Sternberg’s model, mirroring the neoclassical psyche of cognition, affect, and conation [ 38 ] is ideal for the logic and rationale of this article, particularly from the perspective of analyzing the bases upon which robots select their own love and sexual partners. This is due to the fact that, here it is argued that when considering a form of emotional intelligence in robots, perhaps the most logical approach is that of the cognitive-affective theory of Appraisal [ 39 ]. Appraisal theory draws on evolutionary psychology to explain the function of emotions in survival [ 40 – 42 ]. Appraisal theory applies understandings of cognitive evaluative processes to explain how emotions arise, on what capacity and the distance between the phenomena and situations that are encountered, and the emotional reaction-i.e., whether or not the emotion is felt directly (primal response) or whether or not it occurs as the result of reflective and associative processes (higher order cognition) [ 39 – 41 ]. The main premise of Appraisal theory is that humans are constantly evaluating, or appraising what they encounter according to their core concerns (health, safety and wellbeing) [ 42 ]. These core concerns inevitably relate to the human’s strive for survival, whether through, e.g., concern for personal safety (recognizing an immediate threat which in turn triggers fear for example), or for instance, well-being in terms of evaluating designs and brands through the social dimension and feeling emotions towards products not in terms of what they are, but what they can do for the person who consumes them [ 43 – 46 ]. The field of relationship science focuses mainly on close relationships [ 47 ]. Close relationships are described as the frequent or consistent, powerful yet varied interdependence between (human) beings that continues for a substantial duration of time [47]. When returning to scholarship on love and relationships, Finkel, Simpson and Eastwick [ 48 ] maintain that there are fourteen principles, which have been categorized in relationship science as pertaining to these partnerships. These include: (1) uniqueness—differing combinations of characteristics and elements in every partnership; (2) integration—the merging of cognition, affection, behavior and motivation between two people as their relationship develops towards interdependence; (3) trajectory—longitudinal goals inform the evaluation criteria for relationships, these are constantly updated and applied to evaluate the relationship during regular intervals as the relationship progresses (also linked to the Investment Model, e.g., see [ 49 ]); (4) evaluation—this evaluation occurs via reflection over positive and negative aspects in a couple’s relationship; (5) responsiveness—the receptive nature of individuals to their partners’ desires, needs and actions; (6) resolution—resilience to relationship turbulence; (7) maintenance—persistence in behavior and cognition, either through resilience or Robotics 2018,7, 44 5 of 20 self-deceptive biases; (8) predisposition—attitudes and qualities that a person brings into relationships that may affect the relationship’s wellbeing; (9) instrumentality—the utilitarian view towards a partner for the purposes of allowing the individual to attain their goals, e.g., in terms of reproduction, marriage or financial gain; (10) standards—the criteria and principles one has formed through previous ideals, experience and earlier relationships, that are then applied to the perceptions of the current and future relationships; (11) diagnosticity—opportunities in which people are able to evaluate their partners’ relationship motivations and goals; (12) alternatives—the means by which individuals seek and consider alternative candidates to their current partners; (13) stress—external factors that impose stress can harm a relationship; and (14) culture—relationships are heavily culturally bound, encompassing numerous ideals of both the partners’ qualities as well as the relationship’s. 3. Lust, Passion and Uncontrollable Sexual Attraction Love is one aspect to consider in relation to robots, love partnerships and marriage and romance. Yet, there is also the dimension of sexual relationships between humans and robots, or humans and humans (or otherwise) that connects with Sternberg’s [ 25 ] infatuated love—lust, passion or otherwise, obsessive, uncontrollable sexual attraction. This could be argued to both drive sexual partnerships, as well as threaten them, due to the inability to maintain this type of intensity with one person (being) [ 50 ]. Steven Levine [ 51 ] has written about sexual desire, and has noted that there are five dark paradoxes pertaining to sexual desire, that encompass individuals when they are not with those to whom they are attracted. These five paradoxes are: (1) non-synchronic motivations and drive; (2) the longing for infidelity while behaving according to fidelity; (3) the chances of lust even if it goes against one’s moral basis; (4) sexual interest decreases via familiarity; and (5) sexual expression is enhanced by belittlement. Levine describes both terms ‘lust’ and ‘passion’ as poorly defined, whereby the term passion in its connotation refers to the desire to reorganize one’s life through love, and lust indicates extremely high levels of sexual arousal. Furthermore, Levine illustrates that sexual desire always maintains three elements: (1) mental states of sorrow or joy (personal); (2) mutual affection, disrespect, or disagreement (interpersonal); and (3) duration of relationship plus infidelity (social contexts). Furthermore, the four variables that are claimed to determine as to whether or not humans behave and experience sensations in a sexual way include: health, age, sex and social situation [ 52 ]. Poor mental and/or physical health can drastically either decrease or increase sexual drive. Conditions such as depression for example, can be responsible for its decrease, while mania and sexual compulsivity can be seen to directly increase sexual drive. Sexual drive is shown to decrease with age [ 53 – 55 ], while in terms of biological sex, males are shown to have a higher sex drive from the time of puberty onwards, continuing in intensity and consistency [ 56 ]. The social situation such as marital, family and relationship status additionally affects one’s desire for sex—these social factors could easily be coupled with the physiological (hormonal) factors considering the state of individuals when they are in these social situations [32]. Thus, as seen in these variables and the other components mentioned, lust, passion and sexual attraction are driven by not only hormonal (neural) features and functions, yet also, the emotion-motivation system is coupled with certain behavioral patterns that operate in conjunction with various elements of reproduction and human nurture [ 57 ]. To divide human sexual drive into sex-specific characteristics, it has been noted that male sexual drive is primarily concentrated towards copulation, and is also more constant [ 51 , 56 ], whereas, female is more sporadic yet also intense and comprises a broad range of stimuli to trigger sexual desire. Fisher [ 57 ] additionally notes higher rates of bi-sexuality among women. On the topic of stimuli, researchers [ 58 , 59 ] have also found that males are stimulated to a higher degree by visual pornographic degree, while women are additionally stimulated by linguistic expressions (words, narratives, film themes and images) [58]. These scientific discoveries relating to lust, passion and sexual attraction are quite interesting from the perspective of sex robot design, as perhaps: (a) the desires and stimulatory system of the robot may be programmed based on specific sex/gender characteristics and in doing so, respond in Robotics 2018,7, 44 6 of 20 appropriate ways to the human sex partner; (b) the robots, their physical and expressive features are designed in a way that more readily and appropriately appeal to the sexual desires of people from various genders and sexualities; or (c) self-thinking, maybe self-creating (learning) robots that adapt to, or maybe adopt a gender and sexual role, can be better understood and catered for when they too are selecting their own sexual partners. Either way, the main argument here is that, if and/or when, robots develop or are implanted with some form of emotions and free-will, the nature of lust—strong sexual attraction—needs to be comprehended in terms of its components and functions, and how it would possibly operate within the dynamics of human-robot sexual relationships. While the role of biological sex (or gender) may not play a large part, or maybe any part, from the perspective of the robots themselves, it must be considered that in the case of human romantic love, both men and women experience these states with the same level of intensity [ 32 , 60 , 61 ]. For both men and women, and arguably those who do not identify with any one particular gender, attractive traits in a prospective partner are health, reliability, kindness, warmth, socialness, domesticity, education and family [ 62 ]. Contrary to romantic love, lust or sexual attraction has no guarantee of any longing for the desire of romantic love [ 32 ]. In fact, experiments in which middle aged people of both genders are administered testosterone, sexual desire is increased, coupled with both sexual thoughts and activity, yet romantic passion or relationship attachment does not increase [ 63 , 64 ]. Thus, in actual fact, it seems that love and being “in love” are different to sexual desire, as well as romantic passion. When considering the design of robots and their emotional capacities, tendencies, or even relationship purpose in regards to human-robot relationships, it is vital from this perspective to understand the dynamics between love and attachment, and lust with not so much attachment, yet, quite potentially obsession [65,66]. 4. Loyalty and Faithfulness in Love Relationships When considering human-robot sexual and love relationships, it often times seems that robot faithfulness, devotion and submission would be a given. Yet, if considering the robot partner from the perspective of its potential emotional intelligence and freewill, the chances of a robot remaining faithful and dedicated to any human partner may indeed be slim. From this viewpoint, questions surrounding infidelity versus loyalty are highly important to consider, and even perhaps more so, given the amount of scientific resources and effort devoted to developing artificial emotions [ 1 , 67 ]. To start with, from the point-of-view of the attachment dimension of love relationships, it can be seen that terms such as ‘faithfulness’ and ‘fidelity’ are used to describe strong allegiances with and support for people and phenomena [ 68 ]. Research often poses fidelity and infidelity, or faithfulness and unfaithfulness in opposition to one another [ 69 ]. However, it should be noted that loyalty or commitment within attachment relationships has little correlation with the level of faithfulness experienced or expressed in regards to the relationship [ 16 ]. This means that faithfulness (unfaithfulness) and fidelity (infidelity) are two separate conditions. Infidelity for instance, describes extra marital relationships in cases where otherwise the marriage is characterized as a healthy relationship. Unfaithfulness on the other hand, describes the instances in which partners have lost faith in their relationship. Thus, from the perspective of relationship science [ 70 ], it is possible to engage in sexual activity and romantic ventures outside one’s relationship, while still maintaining faithful to the attachment love union. Delving deeper into the meaning of loyalty, it can be seen that loyalty as a concept refers to a relationship quality that is resistant of external pressure, stress and temptation from forces existing outside the relationship [ 16 , 70 ]. Otherwise known as ‘unconditional love’ [ 71 , 72 ], loyalty is a characteristic in which relationships withstand connection even during periods of disaffection and infidelity. Yet, a pre-condition of loyalty is agency on behalf of the individuals within the partnership. This agency takes shape in the form of maintenance strategies [ 73 ]. Maintenance strategies take on a range of forms from task sharing and positivity to assurances. In accordance with the principles mentioned above [ 48 ], loyalty and/or the level of loyalty (contrary to unconditional), may also be determined by principles: 3—trajectory, or the longitudinal goals of the partners entering the Robotics 2018,7, 44 7 of 20 relationship; 4—evaluation, or the reflection on the positive and negative aspects of the relationship; and 9—instrumentality, or how a partner (potential partner) may be utilized to attain one’s life goals (e.g., reproduction and family ideas, economic and/or social status etc.). This rationale can be coupled with thoughts on how emotions operate from the perspective of Appraisal theory. From this standpoint, love and sexual relationships could be emotionally rationalized as affording an individual the attainment and preservation of primary concerns (surviving and thriving life conditions—primal, social or otherwise) [39]. 5. Jealously, Infidelity and Attraction Infidelity has been studied extensively for decades. It is often examined in terms of male-female relationships in terms of demographic, biological and psychological tendencies. This is furthered by study on its social and physical ramifications [ 73 , 74 ]. There are a few different ways of understanding infidelity [ 70 ]. The various approaches to infidelity include: retrospective and self-reporting techniques—descriptive; applying socio-normative frameworks to analyze self-report data—normative; and reports (verbal or written) on the progress of relationships including feeling intensity increases and fluctuations, drifting out of commitment and ending the relationship—investment-model [ 49 ]; and concentrating on benefit exchange between partners, equity levels and subsequent satisfaction—the evolutionary approach. The evolutionary approach is particularly relevant when considering infidelity in human-robot relationships from the perspective of the Appraisal theory of emotions. Thus, fidelity may be viewed to continue for as long as the relationship partners experience there to be mutual benefit, and in the case of human-human relationships, often times this reduces to the biological needs of sexual reproduction [ 75 ]. Thus, love and/or sexual relationships are considered from a functional point-of-view, in relation to, for example, reproduction. The evolutionary model goes hand-in-hand with psychological theories of attractiveness and beauty [ 36 , 37 ], whereby, partners are chosen and maintained on the basis of particular intellectual and physical qualities, including symmetry, strength, and youth. These qualities not only indicate the health and potential reproductive capacity of the prospective partner, but also the health and reproductive potential of their offspring. A strong unconsciously experienced force in relation to particularly heterosexual conduct is to strive for reproductive success. The likelihood of jealousy can also increase in relationship situations where wither partner may experience the potential of inequalities or unbalanced benefit within the partner, which is subsequently coupled with the evaluation of individuals external to the relationship in terms of their suitability for replacement of the other [ 76 ]. When pregnant for instance, females are biologically linked to a male. For the pregnant female, there is little need to seek an extradyadic (external) partner, if not to gain a superior partner [ 75 ]. Males during pregnancy periods however, are never certain about their paternal status. Therefore, males are more inclined to develop jealous thoughts and tendencies than their female partners. This is not to say however, that pregnant women are entirely comfortable in their partnership situations. Quite the contrary, there is a high probability for women’s anxiety levels to increase during times of pregnancy due to the possibility of abandonment [75]. When considering these characteristics of human-human relationships, it may be forecast that in an era when robots have the capacity to experience emotions, free-thought and conscious intention, human-robot love and sexual partnerships may be challenged in the same way. Moreover, particularly, the absence of the reproductive function may, from the robot’s perspective, severely harms their chances of maintaining the interest of their human partners, and may indeed, also incite the possibility of jealousy on the robot’s part. That is, there could be the possibility that the robot partner feels threatened by potential substitute human partners for their loved one or lover. The jealously may also be experienced from a reverse perspective though in a different manner, whereby intellect and physical features amplifying beauty and health such as symmetry and strength of the robot may be a constant point of comparison for the imperfect human partner. Thus, the human in the relationship may potentially evaluate every robot as a threat to their human-robot relationship. Therefore, the question Robotics 2018,7, 44 8 of 20 to pose in the event of robots possessing emotions and freewill is: will they (humans) be able to compete against robots in the race to gain physical and intellectual affection from a (‘their’) robot [ 74 ]? When considering the role of evolution in development, humans are innately biologically programmed to search for and be attracted to symmetric, strong and healthy mates. From which standpoint also comes the question as to whether or not then, humans themselves will only be attracted to robots. From studies in the field of human computer interaction there have been findings that early adopters of technology have a preference for human-to-computer interaction over human-to-human interaction [ 77 ]. This may be an indication that global levels of reproduction could be severely hindered if humans begin engaging in human-robot relationships more often than human-human relationships. Moreover, from a gender perspective, in robots there is no functional role. The robots, being machines, are only decorated or outfitted to appear and function like either gender, or potentially gendered-sexuality (heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual). In the event of robot-emotions, the gender or lack thereof, would affect the ways in which the robots themselves experience their attraction to and purpose of being with humans. What about the robot’s own sexual desires if there are any without a biological sex, or culturally constructed gender [ 78 ]? Gender itself has been deemed as the most intellectually challenging variable in relation to lust and love [ 51 ]. This intellectual challenge is presented through a combination of physical and psychological factors. Firstly, hormonally from puberty onwards men have a higher sex drive than women. This drive is physical and visual, and is more direct in terms of the desire for concrete sexual satisfaction [ 56 ]. Women on the other hand, are more likely to rely on the psychological dimension of sexuality to entice and sustain sexual engagement and fulfilment. This would be an additional factor to consider in light of robots created for human sex or love partners—which gender, for whom (will they be able to psychologically or physically fully fulfil the human partner?), and on this basis, how will robots be attracted to potential human partners (if at all)? Another aspect to consider is the motivational factors of engaging in and maintaining the love or sexual relationship from the robot’s perspective. Some of this discussion has already been covered above, however from a slightly different angle the question once more must be posed in regards to why a robot would engage in a love or sex partnership with a human being if there is seemingly nothing to gain reproductively or even intellectually. In terms of sexual motivation, a study by Meston and Buss [ 79 ] revealed 237 reasons why humans wanted to engage in sex. From these 237 reasons four categories were derived: physical (pleasure seeking and attraction), goal attainment, insecurity, and emotional. The insecurity category is interesting from the perspective of human beings and their tendency to engage in sex either out of duty or to sustain a partnership and/or social acceptance however, in terms of its relevance for robots it may be questioned. By this, it is meant that, if robots are any way superior physically and mentally to humans, the ‘out of duty’ element of the sexual relationship should be abandoned. On the other hand, a plausible factor behind a robot’s sexual drive may be seen in Meston and Buss’ observation that humans utilize sex as a way to show affection. In this light, maybe robots will want to express to their human partners the way that they feel, particularly if they actually harbor feelings of love and adoration, even in the absence of a biological propensity to engage in sex. In terms of the capacity of robots to experience love and affection, it is worthwhile noting Levy’s [ 80 ] insight towards the words or representation of love, particularly in the sense that there is no biological function for sex between people and robots. In humans, particularly women, there is a strong psychological component behind sexual desire [ 53 , 54 ]. Thus, from the human being’s perspective words, discourse, and even body and facial language may be the key to activating sex drive. 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