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Cuade nos de Ges ión
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Volume 21 / Numbe 2 (2021) • ISSN: 1131-6837 / e-ISSN: 1988-2157
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Disco e ing p ominen hemes o he applica ion o eye acking echnology
in ma ke ing esea ch
Descub iendo emas des acados de la aplicación de la ecnología de eye acking en la in es igación
de ma ke ing
F ancisco Muñoz-Lei a*, Ma ía Eugenia Rod íguez-López
a
, Bá ba a Ga cía-Ma í
b
a Facul y o Educa ion, Economy and Technology o Ceu a. Dp . Ma ke ing and Ma ke Resea ch, Uni e si y o G anada. C/. Co adu a del Valle s.n. CP: 51001 Ceu a,
Spain.-eugenia od iguez@ug .es- h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-7882-5991
b Facul y o Educa ion, Economy and Technology o Ceu a. Uni e si y o G anada. C/ Co adu a del Vall, s/n, 51001, Ceu a, Spain.-ba ba a97@co eo.ug .es-
h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-8480-4086
* Co esponding au ho : Depa men o Ma ke ing and Ma ke Resea ch, Campus Uni e si a io La Ca uja, s/n. Uni e sidad de G anada, Spo and Heal h Uni e si y
Resea ch Ins i u e (iMUDS). C/. Menéndez Pelayo, 32, 18016, G anada, Spain.- anml@ug .es-h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4996-7525
ARTICLE INFO
Recei ed 04 June 2021,
Accep ed 09 Oc obe 2021
A ailable online 10 Feb ua y 2022
DOI: 10.5295/cdg.211516 m
JEL: M31, C00
ABSTRACT
This s udy shows he main esul s o a bibliome ic analysis o academic esea ch ha has applied eye acking
echnology in he ma ke ing discipline, d awing om 923 documen s ex ac ed om he WoS bibliog aphic da a-
base. The aims o he s udy a e o (i) iden i y he s uc u e o he ela ionships be ween pas and cu en esea ch
opics, (ii) p o ide a longi udinal pe spec i e on eye acking as a esea ch ool o academics, co e ing he pe iod
1992-2020, and (iii) iden i y eme ging esea ch ends o he u u e.
Among o he esul s, we ind ha he eye acking me hodology has been applied in ma ke ing esea ch pa icula ly
o e he las decade due o schola ly in e es in s udying he isual a en ion o consume s and use s in beha io al s ud-
ies. Mo e b oadly, o e he las 30 yea s, he e a e i e majo hema ic a eas iden i ied: (a) b and-a en ion-modeling,
(b)eye acking-mo emen s-communica ion, (c) web-online, (d) HCI-gaze-pe cep ion and (e) choice-labeling.
The wo k is he i s o iden i y he s uc u e o he ela ionships be ween pas and cu en esea ch opics, and o
p edic u u e esea ch ends in he ma ke ing schola ship applying eye acking as a esea ch ool. Some limi a-
ions and po en ial u u e esea ch hemes a e discussed a he end o he pape .
Keywo ds: Eye T acking; Ma ke ing; Web o Science; SciMAT; Bibliome ic Map; S a egic Diag am; Thema ic
Ne wo k.
RESUMEN
El p esen e es udio p esen a los p incipales esul ados de un análisis bibliomé ico de la in es igación académica
que ha aplicado la ecnología de seguimien o ocula (eye acking) en la disciplina del ma ke ing, a pa i de 923
documen os ex aídos de la base de da os bibliog á ica WoS. Los obje i os del es udio son (i) iden i ica la es uc-
u a de las elaciones en e los emas de in es igación pasados y ac uales, (ii) p opo ciona una pe spec i a longi-
udinal sob e el eye acking como he amien a de in es igación usada po los académicos, cub iendo el pe íodo
1992-2020, e (iii) iden i ica las endencias de in es igación eme gen es pa a el u u o.
En e o os esul ados, encon amos que la me odología de eye acking se ha aplicado en la in es igación de
ma ke ing especialmen e en la úl ima década debido al in e és po es udia la a ención isual de los consumido es
y usua ios en los es udios de compo amien o. En é minos más gene ales, en los úl imos 30 años se han iden i i-
cado cinco g andes á eas emá icas: (a) modelización-ma ca-a ención, (b) seguimien o ocula -mo imien os-co-
municación, (c) web-online, (d) HCI-mi ada-pe cepción y (e) elección-e ique ado.
El abajo es el p ime o en iden i ica la es uc u a de las elaciones en e los emas de in es igación pasados y ac uales,
y en p edeci las u u as endencias de in es igación en los es udios de ma ke ing que aplican eye acking como he -
amien a de in es igación. Al inal del abajo se discu en algunas limi aciones y posibles emas de in es igación u u a.
Palab as cla e: Eye T acking; Ma ke ing; Web o Science; SciMAT; Mapa Bibliomé ico; Diag ama Es a égico;
Red Temá ica.
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
98 F ancisco Muñoz-Lei a, Ma ía Eugenia Rod íguez-López, Bá ba a Ga cía-Ma í
1. INTRODUCTION
Eye acking is a “ echnique whe eby an indi idual’s eye
mo emen s a e measu ed so ha he esea che knows bo h
whe e a pe son is looking a any gi en ime and he sequence
in which he pe son’s eyes a e shi ing om one loca ion o
ano he ” (Poole and Ball 2006); o example, when na iga ing
on a websi e. The i s eye acking de ice was c ea ed in 1908
by Edmund Huey. This sys em consis ed o a so o con ac
lens wi h an opening ha exposed he subjec ’s i is, ende ing
i possible o ace hei eye mo emen s when eading. In he
1930s, Thomas Buswell de eloped ano he mechanism, a pho-
og aphic de ice ha e lec ed beams o ligh om he co nea
and eco ded he subjec s’ eac ions on a mo ing ilm eco d
(Fli 2016). In 1948, Ha idge and Thompson de eloped he
i s head-moun ed eye acking de ice. Bu i was no un il he
1970s ha he echnology necessa y o moni o ing and using
eye acking da a was de eloped, wi h he ad en o mini-com-
pu e s (Joseph and Mu ugesh 2020). A ha ime, psychologis s
we e conce ned wi h cogni i e issues such as lea ning, memo y,
wo kload, and a en ion.
A e iew o he ex an eye acking ools e eals highly di-
e se examples (e en bionic lenses ha ob ain ex emely accu-
a e da a). In gene al, he mos commonly-used eye acking
me hods end o be special glasses and came as moun ed on
moni o s o lap ops, o head-moun ed de ices (helme s o caps,
o ins ance). A mo e ecen ly-de eloped al e na i e is he i u-
al eali y (VR) eye acke (Clay e al. 2019).
This echnology is de eloped om he “eye-mind” p emise
p oposed by Jus and Ca pen e (1980), and i is used o deep-
en ou unde s anding o indi iduals’ isual pe cep ion (Lai e al.
2013). Thanks o his echnology, di e en ypes o eye mo e-
men s ha e been desc ibed ha a e associa ed wi h in e als o
e ec i e s. ine ec i e ision, wi h esea che s eaching a con-
sensus abou he ela ionship be ween eye mo emen s and a -
en ion.
The eye acking me hodology has been used in academic
esea ch o mo e han six decades and has been applied in an
ex emely di e se ange o scien i ic a eas, om psychological
and medical diagnosis o s udies on he usabili y o in e ac i e
applica ions and ad e ising e ec i eness. Fo example, om a
biological poin o iew, eye acking has se ed o analyze ocu-
la - ollowing esponses and hus explain communica ion beha -
io s in babies (Senju and Cesib a 2008).
Gi en he mul idisciplina y ange o applica ions o eye
acking as a esea ch me hod, coupled wi h he au onomy o
eye acking as a echnological discipline in i s own igh , wi h i s
own alue and ajec o y, i is commonly used in s udies dealing
wi h men al illnesses, o example, which a e published in jou -
nals om a eas such as he echnological sciences (Senju e al.
2009). Simila ly, he e a e s udies ha use eye acking echnol-
ogy o in es iga e aspec s o ma ke ing, o ins ance, o analyze
he e ec o he colo used in websi e design on use us o
sa is ac ion, which pe ains o he a eas o psychology and com-
pu e science (Cy e al. 2010). S udies in ol ing he eye ack-
ing me hodology ha conce n ma ke ing om se e al esea ch
a eas began o be de eloped in he 1990s-a ocus a ibu ed o,
among o he aspec s, he ac ha ad ances in schola ly unde -
s anding o ma ke s and consume beha io a e closely ela ed
o knowledge o consume psychology, o he de elopmen o
echnologies, and o he echnologies ha can be implemen ed
as me hodological esea ch ools.
F om he poin o iew o ma ke ing, he las ew decades
ha e wi nessed se e al hund ed s udies ea u ing eye acking as
a esea ch ool, which p o ide de ini i e indings in he ealm o
comme cial communica ion, such as which elemen s o a p in
ad e isemen gene a e he mos a en ion (Pie e and Wedel
2004) and which posi ions on he shel es o a e ail es ablish-
men op imize consume e alua ion o b ands and a ac g ea -
e a en ion om buye s (Chandon e al. 2009). O he esul s
ha e iden i ied ce ain online use beha io s (Cy e al. 2009).
This weal h o schola ship poin s o he need o o ganize all he
exis ing in o ma ion on eye acking in ma ke ing esea ch, and
bibliome ics is a highly app op ia e echnique o his pu pose
as i uses a a ie y o p ecise quan i a i e measu es on a consis -
en se o bibliog aphic da a.
Howe e , o da e, only wo s udies ha e been iden i ied ha
add ess he s udy o eye acking me hodology om a biblio-
me ic pe spec i e. The i s is an analysis o he e olu ion o
eye acking echnology applied o he ield o ca og aphy and
map- eading (Wang e al. 2016); and he second ocuses on iden-
i ying eme ging issues in VR applica ions, “eye acking” being
among he mos equen ly-used e ms (Zeng e al. 2018).
In ligh o he abo e conside a ions, a bibliome ic s udy is
equi ed ha cap u es he signi ican olume o scien i ic in o -
ma ion gene a ed a ound eye acking in ma ke ing du ing he
las se e al decades, in pu sui o he ollowing objec i es: (1) o
de e mine he scien i ic ou pu dealing wi h eye acking in ma -
ke ing o e he ime ame unde s udy, (2) o iden i y he mos
p oduc i e au ho s and jou nals in he ield, (3) o iden i y he
main hemes associa ed wi h he applica ion o eye acking, and
hei in e ela ionships, and (4) o analyze he e olu ion o he
esea ch opics o e he yea s. Taking his bibliome ic app oach,
i is possible o o ganize exis ing scien i ic in o ma ion, o ecas
u u e esea ch ends, and o e in e es ing ecommenda ions
o po en ial new academic and p o essional s udies based on he
bibliome ic esea ch me hodology.
Agains his backd op, he p esen pape is s uc u ed hus:
ollowing his in oduc ion, Sec ion 2 p o ides a heo e ical e-
iew o eye acking, how i ope a es, and i s unc ionali ies, in-
cluding he applica ion o his echnology in esea ch, in gene al,
and in ma ke ing, in pa icula . This sec ion also iden i ies he
bibliome ic s udies on eye acking ha ha e been conduc ed
o da e. Sec ion 3 p esen s he s ages o he me hodology ol-
lowed in he p esen s udy, de ailing: he bibliog aphic in o ma-
ion-da abase selec ed, he pe iods unde s udy, he e olu ion
o he publica ion o eye acking esea ch, and he bibliome ic
analysis p ocedu e ca ied ou using SciMAT so wa e. Sec ion4
p esen s he esul s o he pe o mance analysis o au ho s and
jou nals and o he co-wo d analysis o he esea ch opics by pe-
iods, p o iding a longi udinal pe spec i e. Sec ion 5se s ou he
main conclusions ha will shed ligh on u u e esea ch ha may
build on he indings o ou bibliome ic analysis. I is expec ed
ha he p esen wo k will se e as a guide o esea che s and ac-
ademics in hei u u e esea ch h ough he use o eye acking
o bibliome ic s udies.
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
Disco e ing p ominen hemes o he applica ion o eye acking echnology in ma ke ing esea ch 99
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. Eye acking echnology p ocedu e
Using eye acking me hodology, esea che s a e able o ad-
d ess ques ions ega ding whe e an indi idual ixes hei gaze
when eading, by acing hei eye mo emen s- o example,
whe he hey isually abso b he en i e line o he ex om s a
o inish, whe e in he ex hey seek ele an in o ma ion, o
whe he hei isual a en ion is a ac ed mo e by g aphics han
images. Such ques ions o m he aison d’ê e o he p ocess o
acking eye mo emen .
The e o e, eye mo emen s comp ise mainly a sequence o
ixa ions and saccades. Fixa ions a e disc e e pe iods o ela i e
immobili y o he eye while isual in o ma ion is ex ac ed- ha
is, hey co espond o momen s o a en ion o he s imulus
(Rayne 1998). Saccades a e apid “jumps” be ween ixa ion
poin s ha enable indi iduals o ix an objec wi h o eal ision;
ision is he e o e e ec i ely supp essed du ing saccades. When
ca e ully obse ing an objec , a pe son pe o ms many ixa ions
(and saccades) o inspec i in de ail and ex ac all he ele an
in o ma ion. This b ain ac i i y, al hough os ensibly e y simple,
is qui e complex, as i in ol es a se ies o physical-chemical p o-
cesses ha equi e he ac i a ion o many a eas o he b ain and
se e al unc ions o be pe o med.
Rega ding he eye acking p ocedu e i sel , his is based on
a p ecise and complex p ocess o synch oniza ion o calib a ion
ha he esea che makes be ween an es ima ion o he indi id-
ual’s gaze posi ion and he de ice i sel and i s so wa e (Hassan
and He e o 2007). The in e p e a ion o he da a eco ded in he
sys em is ca ied ou using da a analy ics so wa e (such as Be-
Gaze, Tobii S udio, Tobbi P oLab, o Ogama) ha p o ides he
esea che wi h g aphs in he o m o hea maps and gaze pa e ns
o so-called scanpa hs, ideos showing he o al o pa ial isual
ajec o y ollowed by he use , and quan i a i e summa y s a is-
ics, as well as he comple e da abase ha can be analyzed in o he
p og ams o p og amming languages (such as R o Ma Lab).
Thus, he g aphical ep esen a ions o esul ing in e p e i e
images —such as he saccadic ou e (scanpa h) o hea maps
(see Figu e1)— ende a be e quali a i e unde s anding o he
isual beha io s ela ing o he a ge s imulus, such as a com-
pu e sc een, a websi e, an image, a ideo, an ad e isemen , an
elec onic documen , a supe ma ke shel , o a billboa d, o in-
s ance (D usch e al. 2014; Gascó 2020).
Figu e 1
An indi idual’s gaze plo (le ) and a hea map ( igh )
Sou ce: D usch e al. (2014).
2.2. The ole o eye acking in ma ke ing esea ch
I was no un il he 1990s ha eye acking began o be employed
as a ool o esea ching consume beha io - hanks, in pa , o he
ad ances made in his and o he echnologies ha made i s s udy
possible (Hassan and He e o 2007). F om 2000 onwa d, he mos
popula s udies we e hose ela ed o HCI, which we e p ima ily
conce ned wi h eco ding gaze di ec ion and gaze pa e ns du ing
web sea ch ( an de Lans e al. 2012). Bu he many possibili ies o -
e ed by his echnology ha e con ibu ed o expanding i s appli-
ca ion ac oss all ou pilla s o s a egic ma ke ing: p oduc , p ice,
place, and p omo ion. Among i s bene i s in he ma ke ing con ex :
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
100 F ancisco Muñoz-Lei a, Ma ía Eugenia Rod íguez-López, Bá ba a Ga cía-Ma í
— A he poin o sale, i helps imp o e he posi ion and p esen-
a ion o he p oduc s on he shel es, inc easing hei isual
p ominence, and i can con ibu e o he s udy o he alloca-
ion o shel space in ela ion o he use o slo ing ees (Mu-
ñoz-Lei a e al. 2021).
— In he s udy o online s o e design (Romano-Be gs om and
Schall 2014) o websi e usabili y (Ma hews e al. 2020), his
echnology iden i ies he a eas o he websi e mos obse ed
by he use s. he “dead zones”. Thus, companies a e able o
design hei websi es, which can de e mine he e ec o he
con en on hei clien s, and hey can iden i y eelings such as
anxie y o us a ion by s udying he beha io and size o he
pupils, he eby imp o ing use pe cei ed alue (ibid.).
— This echnology can suppo ma ke ing e o s by helping o
a ac a ic o websi es o landing pages (O iz 2020).
— I can con ibu e o achie ing s iking packaging design
(Ry ewiki 2019).
— Analysis o ad e ising e ec i eness in o line o online con-
ex s o en makes use o eye acking echnology in ela ion o
a ious de e mining ac o s o e-comme ce ha help inc ease
online sales. These include banne placemen , he loca ion o
in o ma ion, and he use o ce ain colo s on-sc een (He nán-
dez-Méndez and Muñoz-Lei a 2015 [ai line banne s]; Espiga-
es-Ju ado e al. 2020 [ho el websi es]).
— Educa ion has also been linked o he ma ke ing a ea. Fo ex-
ample, Juá ez e al. (2019) disco e an e icien me hod o he
design o educa ional oys ha helps inc ease sales
2.3. An eceden s o esea ch using eye acking
Eye acking as a esea ch ool is mo e accessible han e e
and is g owing in popula i y among esea che s om a whole
hos o disciplines such as (Holmq is e al. 2011): usabili y ana-
lys s, spo s scien is s, cogni i e psychologis s, eading esea ch-
e s, psycholinguis s, neu ophysiologis s, elec ical enginee s, o
name jus a ew, who employ gaze- acking o es ce ain hy-
po heses. O he a eas in e es ed in his echnology include ma -
ke ing, a i icial in elligence sciences, compu e science, biology,
and, mo e ecen ly, business and economics.
Acco ding o a que y p ocessed in he Web o Science (WoS)
da abase based on he wo ds “eye acking”, “eye- acking”, o
“eye acking”, a o al o 19,643academic pape s we e e ie ed
up o and including 2020. Speci ically, schola ly in e es in oc-
ula ixa ion, isual a en ion, a en ion in eading- ela ed asks,
o click beha io on he In e ne , s udied using eye acking
echnology, has wi nessed cons an g ow h and has eached
mul iple esea ch a eas including (see Figu e2): Compu e Sci-
ence (accoun ing o 37.1% o o al a icles in he WoS da abase),
Psychology (34.1%), Beha io al Sciences (32.2%), Enginee ing
(28.9%), Oph halmology (26.2%), Neu osciences/Neu ology
(24.0%), Ins umen s/Ins umen a ion (13.5%), o Communica-
ion (11.2%).
Figu e 2
Ca ego y cloud o manusc ip s ea u ing eye acking as a me hodological ool
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion based on WoS da a.
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
Disco e ing p ominen hemes o he applica ion o eye acking echnology in ma ke ing esea ch 101
The Compu e Science ca ego y accoun s o he la ges
numbe o s udies, which ha e ocused on analyzing eye mo e-
men and web-sea ch e iciency wi h he help o his me hodol-
ogy. Among o he au ho s, Van De Lans e al. (2012) p esen a
model ha may se e o iden i y he pa hs (la en a en ion p o-
cesses) o people sea ching o a ge s in isually-complex con-
ex s, such as he In e ne . Thei model ecognizes he spa ial na-
u e o eye mo emen s and ep esen s wo la en a en ion s a es
—a “localiza ion” s a e and an “iden i ica ion” s a e— be ween
which people may swi ch o e ime (ibid.).
Psychology is he nex -la ges a ea o esea ch ha collec s
a signi ican amoun o da a ela ed o his opic, ollowed by
Beha io al Science (which is s ongly linked o he ma ke ing
discipline), whose heo e ical and p ac ical p inciples ha e a-
di ionally d awn on many concep s om he ield o psychology
(such as social and expe imen al psychology). Also common a e
s udies ha use eye acking o analyze educa ion- and psychia-
y- ela ed hemes, add essing issues such as he isual-sea ch
beha io s o people wi h au ism-spec um diso de (ASD) (Dal-
on e al. 2007). Oph halmology is ano he a ea linked o eye
acking ha is conce ned wi h analyzing in a- e inal mo pho-
logical changes ia clinical ials, o ins ance (Bolz e al. 2010).
2.4. Bibliome ic s udies and hei applica ion o he eye acking
con ex
Bibliome ics uses a wide ange o echniques including au-
ho and documen co-ci a ion analysis, co-wo d analysis, and
ex ual analysis (Glanzel 2015), using mul i a ia e me hods (see
nex subsec ion). In documen co-ci a ion analyses, he seminal
documen s wi h he mos impac in a gi en esea ch ield a e
iden i ied, and he ma ix o co-ci a ion equencies be ween
documen pai s is analyzed (Small 1973). Callon e al. (1995)
iden i ied wo main g oups o bibliome ic measu es, namely
hose pe aining o p oduc i i y and ela edness. P oduc i i y
alues measu e scien i ic ac i i y based on s a is ics and docu-
men cha ac e is ics, such as au ho s, ci a ions, and sou ces, e-
ga dless o whe he o no he e is a ela ionship be ween hem.
In con as , ela edness alues a e cap u ed by bibliome ic
measu es ha do ake in o accoun simila i ies ha may exis
be ween a icles.
The uni s o measu emen gene ally selec ed o such anal-
yses a e jou nal a icles, as he academic communi y acknowl-
edges hese publica ions o be he mos ad anced and up- o-da e
knowledge sou ces. They a e also widely used in li e a u e e-
iews in he ma ke ing (and, mo e gene ally, managemen ) ield
(e.g., Leone e al. 2012). In pa icula , keywo ds a e he e ms ha
cha ac e ize a s udy’s main ideas and indica e he esea ch end
ha he au ho s a e ollowing (Ga ield 1990). Co-occu ence o
“co-wo d analysis” is ela ional (Callon e al. 1995) as i measu es
he join ins ance o keywo ds ex ac ed om each documen ,
om which ma ices o co-occu ences a e cons uc ed and sim-
ila i y measu es calcula ed. Co-wo d analysis is one o he mos
sui able me hods o disco e ing ends and eme ging issues in
a gi en scien i ic ield (see he co-wo d analysis p ocedu e in he
nex sec ion).
Despi e he nume ous unc ionali ies and applica ions o eye
acking in a ious ields o s udy, an ex ensi e e iew o he li e -
a u e disco e ed only h ee bibliome ic s udies linking he opic
unde s udy wi h he use o eye acking. The i s bibliome ic
s udy analyzed eye acking applied o business s udies (Yang
and Wang 2015). These au ho s mapped he in ellec ual s uc-
u e o eye acking esea ch in he business ield, using equen-
cy analysis o examine 28 a icles om he business discipline
ha men ioned eye acking. The a icles we e sou ced om he
Social Sciences Ci a ion Index (SSCI) and Science Ci a ion Index
(SCI), co e ing a 14-yea pe iod. The second wo k was by Wang
e al. (2016), who conduc ed a bibliome ic s udy on he ole o
eye acking in eading/w i ing asks in geo- isualiza ion and
ca og aphy, co e ing he pe iod 1984-2015. Thi d, Zeng e al.
(2018) pe o med a bibliome ic s udy on scien i ic ends in
VR, which includes eye acking as one o he mos widely-used
ools (along wi h VR) in he las 30 yea s (1987-2018).
Gi en his pauci y o bibliome ic s udies in he ield o sci-
en i ic esea ch employing eye acking, we belie e i o be o
in e es o he scien i ic communi y o conduc a speci ic biblio-
me ic s udy on his a ea co e ing he las h ee decades, aking
in o accoun i s ob ious use ulness. Speci ically, he p oposed
esea ch ques ions (RQ) a e:
RQ1: Since when has eye acking been discussed in he ma ke ing
li e a u e?
RQ2: Which miles ones ha e ma ked he mos ele an ime pe-
iods in eye acking?
RQ3: Which a e he mos p oli ic au ho s and jou nals wi h a i-
cles published on he applica ion o eye acking echnology
in ma ke ing esea ch?
RQ4: Wha a e he hemes d i ing he use o eye acking in ma -
ke ing?
RQ5: Wha a e he eme ging hemes ela ed o eye acking ha
will shape u u e ma ke ing esea ch?
3. METHODOLOGY
The ollowing subsec ions de ail he da ase analyzed and i s
dis ibu ion ac oss he di e en pe iods unde analysis. Subse-
quen ly, he co-occu ence o keywo ds is analyzed, wi h special
emphasis on he gene a ion o science maps ha p o ide an un-
de s anding o he esul s ob ained and hei in e p e a ion.
3.1. Da a collec ion
Conduc ing bibliome ic analyses using seconda y in o -
ma ion p o ides a e ospec i e s udy. In pa icula , he WoS
da abase (managed by Cla i a e Analysis) is he la ges sou ce
o in e na ional mul idisciplina y scien i ic ou pu (mo e han
250 disciplines), which o e s be e e ospec i e co e age o he
subjec a ea (Mon e o-Díaz e al. 2018) and is gea ed mo e o-
wa d he English language han o he da abases. Mo eo e , WoS
includes mo e han 10,000 jou nals and comp ises h ee ci a ion
da abases: A s & Humani ies Ci a ion, Social Sciences Ci a ion
Index, and Science Ci a ion Index Expanded. Scopus, launched
by Else ie Science in 2004, is he majo al e na i e o WoS, wi h
33million eco ds (compa ed o mo e han 38 million eco ds
in WoS).
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
102 F ancisco Muñoz-Lei a, Ma ía Eugenia Rod íguez-López, Bá ba a Ga cía-Ma í
Following all hese a o emen ioned au ho s’ ecommen-
da ions, and ha ing ound ha he lis o eco ds p o ided by
Scopus has an a e age numbe o ci a ions pe yea ou o o al
ci a ions (3.57% o o al) lowe han WoS, we op ed o WoS o
ca y ou ou exhaus i e sea ch.1 I has p e iously been used o
many o he s udy con ex s (e.g., Rod íguez-López e al. 2020 [in
he ou ism con ex ]; Muñoz-Lei a e al. 2015 [in eg a ed ma -
ke ing communica ion]; Del Ba io e al. 2020 [compa a i e ad-
e ising]; and Muñoz-Lei a e al. 2012 [ inancial ma ke ing]).
A de ailed li e a u e e iew inds a seminal wo k om he
la e 1970s in he a ea o ma ke ing ha employs eye acking
ools (T eis man and G egg 1979), and a u he wo s udies
om he 1980s (Young 1984; Boga and Tolley 1988). In all
h ee cases, he issue o ad e ising e ec i eness is add essed.
Howe e , since hese ea ly wo ks do no include keywo ds o
abs ac s, hey a e no b ough up in he WoS da abase when
he TS ield ( i le, abs ac , and keywo ds) is used as a c i e ion.
Fu he mo e, he ma ked g ow h pe iod o publica ions on eye
acking ela ed o ma ke ing did no s a un il 2010. I was o
hese easons ha we selec ed 1992 as he s a ing poin o he
p esen bibliome ic s udy, he yea o he i s a icle published
in ma ke ing esea ch.
In e ms o p ocedu e, we downloaded he bibliog aphic e-
co ds om he WoS Co e Collec ion om he i s indexed man-
usc ip un il 2020 o he ollowing que ies: TS= ((“eye ack-
ing’” OR “eye- acking” OR “eye acking”) AND (****)) whe e
he ield TS e e s o a sea ch based on he opic (“ i le” + “key-
wo d”+ “abs ac ”), and **** was eplaced by hese exp essions:
“ma ke ing”, “consume ”, “cus ome ”, “clien ”, “communica ion”,
“ad e ising”, “ad e isemen ”, “banne ”, “p omo ion”, “ e ail”,
“poin o sale”, “comme cial”, “web”, “p oduc ” o “p ice”. To a -
i e a a decision ega ding he selec ion o he keywo ds, a six-
s ong panel o expe s was o med. This comp ised, on he one
hand, h ee expe s in eye acking me hodology and esea ch,
o de e mine he di e en w i en o ms in which he e m can
be p esen ed, and, on he o he , h ee ma ke ing p o esso s, o
de e mine he gene ic e ms o he ou ma ke ing unc ions o
which he main e m was o be ela ed.
The a ionale o using hese pa ial sea ches was o ob ain
an exhaus i e se o a icles wi h a iew o de e mining he con-
cep ual s uc u e and e olu ion o he esea ch ac oss he en i e
ma ke ing ield.
These sea ches yielded a o al o 1,493 a icles (wi hou du-
plica ions) o he pe iod 1992-2020, which we e hen ead.
Those ound o ha e no ela ion o ma ke ing we e disca ded.
This si esul ed in a inal o al o 923 ma ke ing- ela ed a icles
in which he eye acking me hodology was applied, co e ing he
pe iod 1992-2020.
3.2. E olu ion o a icles ex ac ed om WoS and he analysis
pe iods selec ed
Analysis o he numbe o publica ions pe yea shows ha
ma ke ing esea ch using eye acking echnology du ing he
1 The documen s e lec ed in he WoS da abase comp ise jou nal a icles
and book chap e s. Ou s udy he e o e included bo h ypes o documen s, bu
o ease o e e ence we use he e m “a icle” h oughou his pape .
1990s and ea ly 2000s was scan , albei cons an . F om 2010,
howe e , i expe ienced ma ked g ow h. Figu e 3 shows he
numbe o a icles on he opic we iden i ied in WoS o he pe-
iod 1992-2020.
1111212314 4
12 13 11
26 29
36 37
57
80
96
103106
126
170
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1992
1994
1996
1998
1999
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Figu e 3
Volume o “ma ke ing” + “eye acking” a icles pe yea in WoS
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Th oughou his pe iod, some impo an miles ones can be
iden i ied ha ha e con ibu ed o shaping he e olu ion o he
olume o publica ions. Fo example, since 2000, he Swedish
high- ech Tobii Technology, which specializes in eye acking,
has been de eloping new eye acke s ha a e easie o ins all and
use, ea u ing in ui i e so wa e. Bu a majo u ning-poin in
he e olu ion o schola ly esea ch on eye acking came in 2009
when he hi d in e na ional EyeT ackUX con e ence was held
(Comunicae 2009). In his con e ence, he usabili y and bene i s
o eye acking o di e en esea ch opics we e explained, in-
cluding hose ela ed o e-comme ce, ma ke esea ch, and use
beha io (ibid.). Al hough he biennial ETRA (Eye- acking Re-
sea ch & Applica ions) Symposium was c ea ed a he beginning
o his cen u y, i was no un il 2010 ha i acqui ed g ea e in-
e na ional ele ance, b inging oge he compu e scien is s, en-
ginee s, and beha io al scien is s. In addi ion o hese wo majo
e en s, a ious compu e p og ams we e launched, such as OG-
AMA. This is open-sou ce so wa e designed o analyze eye and
mouse mo emen s o eye acking s udies, which enables he
da a collec ed ia sys ems such as Tobii P o, Sma Eye, EyeTech,
Gazepoin , o SMI o be exploi ed.
Ano he miles one ha ma ked a poin o exponen ial g ow h
in publica ions, in 2014, was he launch o Tobii Tech’s i s eye
acking pla o m, which was designed o in eg a e i s unc ion-
ali ies in o de ices such as lap ops and moni o s, al hough hey
we e o iginally ocused on he ideo-game-de elope sec o .
In 2015, some special issues we e published in jou nals such
as Jou nal o Cogni i e Psychology (“De elopmen al eye- ack-
ing esea ch in eading”) and, in 2016, in Compu e Vision and
Image Unde s anding (“Special issue on isual acking”). Since
hen, he e ha e been se e al calls o pape s ocused on his e-
sea ch me hod in a ious disciplines.
An analysis o speci ic pe iods also iden i ied u u e ends
(eme ging/declining hemes) and ela ionships ha migh ha e
seemed insigni ican wi hin he con ex o a b oade gene al
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
Disco e ing p ominen hemes o he applica ion o eye acking echnology in ma ke ing esea ch 103
ime ame as hey may be opics ha we e ex ensi ely s udied
in he pas , bu less so oday-o ice- e sa (Echchakoui and
Ma hieu 2008).
Taking in o conside a ion hese echnological and academic
miles ones, we spli he en i e se o a icles in o h ee pe iods:
(1) 1992-2009, (2) 2010-2014, and (3) 2015-2020. Following
s anda d p ac ice in co-wo d analyses om a longi udinal pe -
spec i e, we made he i s pe iod he longes , o a i e a a su i-
cien numbe o published wo ks; we hen di ided he emaining
ime ame in o wo (app oxima ely) i e-yea pe iods o gi e us
a signi ican olume o a icles and cap u e he majo miles ones
in he de elopmen o he discipline. The i s pe iod con ains 57
a icles, he second pe iod 185, and he hi d pe iod 681.
3.3. The co-wo d analysis p ocedu e
Co-wo d analysis was i s p oposed by Callon e al. (1983).
I conside s wo ds o be agmen s o knowledge (Callon e al.
1991), hence, he equency wi h which hey appea in a ex (o
se ies o ex s) poin s o he ela i e popula i y o opics wi hin
a gi en esea ch ield (Ding e al. 2001). This kind o analysis
has been success ully applied in di e en scien i ic disciplines
(Camb osio e al. 1993; Cobo e al. 2011; Ding e al. 2001; Lee
and Jeong 2008; Viedma del Jesús e al. 2011; Yang e al. 2012).
B oadly, he me hodology we ollowed in ol es he ollowing
s ages:
1. Da a eco e y: di e en bibliog aphic da abases can be used
a his s age o access all he eco ds, such as he WoS. In
ou case, he sample o 923 a icles we ex ac ed ep esen ed
4,673 keywo ds.
2. Da a p ep ocessing: i s o all, inco ec o duplica e e-
co ds a e de ec ed and elimina ed. A de-duplica ing p ocess
(manual, by plu al and by Le ensh ein dis ance equal o 1)
was applied. P io o conduc ing he co-wo d analysis, we
pe o med a homogeniza ion p ocess o me ge plu al and
singula o ms (e.g., “b and”/“b ands”) and con e ac on-
yms in o hei ull o ms o ice- e sa. We also unde ook
a seman ic sea ch o g oup oge he wo ds wi h al e na i e
spellings (while keeping he meanings unchanged). P inci-
pally, his ela ed o wo ds spelled di e en ly in Ame ican s.
B i ish English, such as beha io /beha io , and hose ha can
be w i en hyphena ed o unhyphena ed (e.g., eye- acking/
eye acking). This s age is pa icula ly complex and equi-
es in-dep h knowledge o he phenomenon unde analysis
because he decisions made a his poin will ul ima ely de-
e mine he cohe ence o he esul s. Finally, a o al o 1,434
keywo d g oups we e subjec ed o co-occu ence analysis.
3. Da a ex ac ion: he esea che ocuses on he uni o analy-
sis, which may include he olume o documen s and ci a-
ions, au ho s, and keywo ds, o ins ance.
4. No maliza ion: Bibliome ic indices a e calcula ed, such as
he simila i y measu e (Van Eck and Wal man 2009) and he
equi alence index o Jacca d index (Cobo e al. 2012a).
5. Mapping: he objec i e o science mapping (using s a egic
maps o hema ic ne wo ks, o example) is o in e p e he
scien i ic quali y and p oduc i i y o he iden i ied subjec
a eas (Mo al-Muñoz e al. 2019). These maps can be cons-
uc ed h ough mul idimensional scaling (Whi e and Mc-
Cain 1998), p incipal componen analysis, o clus e analysis
(Bö ne e al. 2003; Kuma e al. 2019 [o e en, such as in he
la e case, an ANOVA]). The esul ing hema ic ne wo ks
a e gi en he name o he mos signi ican keywo d.
6. Analysis/ isual ep esen a ion: he hema ic ne wo k is
analyzed and s a is ical echniques a e applied o show he
deg ees o ela ionship o o e lap be ween he clus e s o
keywo ds. Di e en echniques and speci ic so wa e ha e-
p esen he ull science maps and he esul s o he analyses
(such as clus e ing o pa i ions) a e employed.
7. Longi udinal app oach: Compa isons be ween he di e en
pe iods can p o ide insigh s in o how he p incipal esea ch
ields ha e e ol ed o e he decades.
We pe o med ou co-wo d analysis (s ages 2 o 7) using
SciMAT so wa e (Cobo e al. 2012b; Sci2s 2011). SciMAT is an
open-sou ce (GPL 3) ool designed by he Sci2s esea ch g oup a
he Uni e si y o G anada (Cobo e al. 2012b) and is ideal o con-
duc ing longi udinal esea ch. I is used o he bibliome ic analy-
sis o con en based on science mapping, examining he con en o
publica ions and iden i ying he esea ch opics ha ha e a ac ed
he in e es o he in e na ional academic communi y.
In he module o ca ying ou he science mapping analysis, we
selec ed he ollowing op ions: pe iods, uni o analysis, da a educ-
ion, ne wo k ype, ne wo k educ ion, no maliza ion, clus e ing,
among o he pa ame e s. Table 1 shows he selec ed pa ame e s.
Table 1
Selec ed pa ame e s in SciMAT. Module o manage he knowledge base
Pe iod selec ion 1992-2009 (57 pape s), 2010-2014 (185),
and 2015-2020 (681)
Uni o analysis selec ion Wo ds: Au ho ’s wo ds, Sou ce’s wo ds,
Added wo ds
Da a educ ion Minimum equency o pe iods: 2, 4, and
7, espec i ely
Kind o ne wo k Co-occu ence
Ne wo k educ ion Minimum alue: 4
No maliza ion measu e Equi alence index
Clus e ing algo i hm Single cen e s algo i hm. Maximum
ne wo k size: 9. Minimum ne wo k size: 2
Documen mappe Co e mappe
Quali y measu es Sum ci a ions, a e age ci a ions, and
h-index
Longi udinal analysis E olu ion map: Jacca d’s index
O e lapping map: Inclusion index
3.4. The science maps ex ac ed
Co-wo d analysis enables hema ic a eas o hemes o be aced
g aphically using s a egic diag ams. In he s a egic diag am,
hese hema ic a eas a e ep esen ed acco ding o he measu es o
cen ali y and densi y, which posi ion hem in a wo-dimensional
space di ided in o ou quad an s (see Figu e4).
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
104 F ancisco Muñoz-Lei a, Ma ía Eugenia Rod íguez-López, Bá ba a Ga cía-Ma í
THEME A
THEME B
III
III IV
THEME C
THEME E
THEME D
Figu e 4
The quad an s o a s a egic diag am
Sou ce: Callon e al. (1991) and Cobo e al. (2011).
Cen ali y is he deg ee o which he di e en hemes —key-
wo d clus e s— a e ela ed o each o he , while densi y shows he
ex en o which he hemes a e well de eloped (Mon e o-Díaz
e al. 2018). Acco ding o Cobo e al. (2011), he uppe - igh -hand
quad an (I) con ains hose hemes ha a e impo an o he con-
s uc ion o he scien i ic ield, which a e known as “mo o hemes”.
The hemes posi ioned in he uppe -le -hand quad an (II) a e
well de eloped in e nally, hese being specialis —bu e y pe iph-
e al o isola ed— subjec s. In he lowe -le -hand quad an (III),
we ind unde de eloped subjec s- ha is, subjec s ha a e ei he
eme ging o declining. Finally, he lowe - igh -hand quad an (IV)
con ains opics ha , while signi ican o he scien i ic ield, a e no
well de eloped. They a e basic, ans e sal, and gene ic subjec s.
Meanwhile, he hema ic ne wo k analyzes he in e ela ionships
be ween he hema ic a eas e lec ed in he s a egic diag am.
Figu e 5
Example o a hema ic ne wo k, based on keywo d (KW) epe i ion
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
These g aphs p o ide he oppo uni y o ack he e olu ion
o a scien i ic ield, classi y ela ed opics, and unde s and how
his change o e ol e hema ically ela i e o he p ima y ield.
Taking his longi udinal app oach, we we e able o quan i y and
isually p esen he hema ic e olu ion o scien i ic li e a u e ha
applies eye acking, o enable o he esea che s o unde s and
he cu en s a e-o - he-a in his a ea and o p edic whe e u-
u e esea ch could lead. Ou analysis also e eals he hema ic
ne wo ks, which a e labeled acco ding o he mos signi ican
keywo d ( ha is, he mos cen al keywo d in he clus e ).
4. RESULTS
4.1. Analysis o au ho s and sou ces
A pe o mance es iden i ies he op en au ho s (conc e ely,
nine) who ha e published he g ea es numbe o a icles, wi h
Gas ón A es being in i s place (see Table1). This au ho pub-
lished 18 a icles in he ime ame unde analysis, wi h mo e
han 300 ci a ions in o al and almos 18 ci a ions pe a icle
(17.67). His mos -ci ed s udy deals wi h he in luence o gen-
de and age on ood pu chases (A es 2007). Gi en ha ci a ion
a es a e a ec ed by he age o he a icle in ques ion, o add ess
his e ec we calcula ed he a e age ci a ion a es pe yea - ha
is, he o e all numbe o ci a ions di ided by he numbe o age
o he a icles, measu ed as a e age yea s since he a icles we e
published (Yan and Ding 2010; Kuma and Polonsky 2017). This
app oach has been applied in p e ious ma ke ing- ela ed ci a-
ion analyses (e.g., Kuma and Polonsky 2017). G. A es eaches
65.16ci a ions pe yea (C/Y).
Table 2
The op-10 mos p oduc i e au ho s wi h he g ea es numbe
o a icles and ci a ions
Au ho No. o
a icles
No. o
ci a ions
A e age no. o
ci a ions pe a icle
Ci a ions
pe yea
A es, Gas on 18 318 17.67 65.16
Wedel, Michel 18 1388 77.11 118.63
Pie e s, Rik 16 1541 96.31 116.48
Behe, B idge K. 14 99 7.07 21.02
Khacha yan, Hayk 10 50 5.00 14.29
An únez, Lucía 9 208 23.11 35.31
Giménez, Ana 9 281 31.22 41.46
Ha pe , Simon 8 54 6.75 9.81
O e b ing, Tobias 8 55 6.88 15.17
Shams, Poja 7 20 2.85 2.44
The nex -mos p oduc i e au ho s a e Michel Wedel (18;
77.11 a e age ci a ions; and 118.63 C/Y) and Rik Pie e s (16;
96.34; 116.48). These wo au ho s, along wi h Ral an de Lans,
deal wi h he applica ion o eye acking in psychology in he
book chap e en i led “Eye acking me hodology o esea ch
in consume psychology” (Pie e s e al. 2019), which e lec s he
in e es in eye mo emen o analyzing he minds o indi iduals
in hei ole as consume s. Pie e s e al. (1999) modeled he pa -
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
Disco e ing p ominen hemes o he applica ion o eye acking echnology in ma ke ing esea ch 105
e n o isual a en ion o epea ed p in ad e ising, and Pie e s
and Wa lop (1999) ocused on a en ion du ing b and selec ion,
conside ing he impac o ime p essu e and ask mo i a ion.
In ano he s udy by Wedel, his ime as co-au ho (Wang e al.
2018), i was ound ha consume s’ isual p ocessing o he p od-
uc b and on a websi e is signi ican ly de e mined by hei acial ex-
p essions and hei ype o gaze. These au ho s demons a ed hei
heo y by compa ing Chinese and Ame ican socie y, using he eye
acking me hodology o hei expe imen . Ye ano he s udy by
Wedel, published in 2020 and co-au ho ed wi h Pie e s, examined
he dis ance be ween he subjec ’s head and he s imulus, combined
wi h eye mo emen s du ing consume s’ exposu e o ad e ising, ia
wo eye acking s udies. The au ho s ound ha hese sub le back-
and- o h head mo emen s du ing ad exposu e (nodding in ag ee-
men , o ins ance) we e linked o consume s’ p ocessing goals and
a e p edic o s o subsequen b and memo y, independen o eye
mo emen s. In lowe posi ions in e ms o p oduc i i y, we ind B.
K. Behe (wi h 14a icles), H. Khacha yan(10), L. An únez(9), A.
Giménez(9), S. Ha pe (8), T. O e b ing(8) and P. Shams(7).
The in o ma ion sou ces wi h he la ges numbe o a icles
published on ma ke ing and eye acking a e p esen ed in Table2.
We can obse e ha , cu iously, he leading sou ce o scien i ic a -
icles on his opic is he jou nal Food Quali y and P e e ence (wi h
26 a icles), ollowed by Jou nal o Business Resea ch(26), F on-
ie s in Psychology(23), Compu e s in Human Beha io (22), Ap-
pe i e(13), In e na ional Jou nal o Human-Compu e S udies(12),
Sus ainabili y(12), Beha io & In o ma ion Technology(11), Jou -
nal o Eye Mo emen Resea ch(10), and PLOS ONE(10).
Table 3
The op-10 jou nals wi h he g ea es numbe o a icles e e ing
o eye acking (wi h 10 a icles o mo e)
Sou ce No. o
a icles
% o a icles/
o al able
% o a icles/
o al da abase
Food Quali y and P e e ence 26 9.74% 2.82%
Jou nal o Business Resea ch 26 9.74% 2.82%
F on ie s in Psychology 23 8.61% 2.49%
Compu e s in Human Beha io 22 8.24% 2.38%
Appe i e 13 4.87% 1.41%
In e na ional Jou nal o
Human-Compu e S udies 12 4.49% 1.30%
Sus ainabili y 12 4.49% 1.30%
Beha iou & In o ma ion
Technology 11 4.12% 1.19%
Jou nal o Eye Mo emen
Resea ch 10 3.75% 1.08%
PLOS ONE 10 3.75% 1.08%
To al n.º o a icles in able 267 100.00% 30.26%
To al n.º o sou ces in he
da abase 486 — —
Lowe down he lis o sou ces, we ind jou nals ha a e
mo e di ec ly linked o he ma ke ing discipline, such as Jou nal
o Ad e ising Resea ch (9 a icles), Jou nal o Ma ke ing Resea ch
(9), Jou nal o Re ailing and Consume Se ices (9), and In e na-
ional Jou nal o Ad e ising (8).
4.2. Co-wo d analysis
Fi s pe iod (1992-2009)
In he i s pe iod, he e a e eigh main hemes (o de ed om
highes o lowes cen ali y): eye mo emen s, b and, eye acking,
a en ion, pe suasion, human-compu e in e ace, web, and hinking
(see Figu e6). The mo o hemes o he uppe igh -hand quad-
an (I) —eye mo emen , a en ion, and b and— p esen a s ong
deg ee o in e ac ion wi h o he hemes (cen ali y) and signi i-
can in e nal de elopmen (densi y). The op wo hemes exceed a
housand ci a ions (1,116 and 1,576, espec i ely), despi e ha ing
gene a ed only a modes numbe o a icles (see Table3). This sug-
ges s an in e es in hese opics in he subsequen pe iods.
Eye mo emen is he subjec wi h he g ea es cen ali y and
densi y, and he one ha is mos closely ela ed o o he issues
such as “in o ma ion”, judging by i s co esponding hema ic
ne wo k. The p e alence o in e es in eye mo emen shows i o
be a opic o s udy in i s own igh , only subsequen ly becoming
a p elude o eye acking echnology (i also indica es a ce ain
ela ionship wi h he keywo d “ acking echnique”).
The b and mo o heme is ahead o he o he hemes in his
pe iod in e ms o he o al numbe o ci a ions (see Table3), and
i is s udied om he pe spec i e o he isual impac o a b and
p omo ion ha appea s in di e en ad e isemen s. The b and
and eye-mo emen esea ch opics bo h achie e he highes im-
pac index (h index = 13).
A en ion is also an impo an heme o he cons uc ion o
he scien i ic ield, albei ou pu is s ill scan in his pe iod (jus
eigh a icles). This heme was add essed oge he wi h concep s
such as “ubiqui ous compu ing”, aking a “con ex ualiza ion”
app oach o a en ion, wi h he in en ion o imp o ing “pe cep-
ion” using “Bayesian” analysis echniques.
Figu e 6
S a egic diag am o he i s pe iod (1992-2009): Sum o ci a ions
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion om SciMAT.
Managemen Le e s / Cuade nos de Ges ión 22/1 (2022) 97-113
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