The Agony o Spanish
Libe alism
F om Re olu ion o Dic a o ship 1913–23
F ancisco J. Rome o Sal adó
and Angel Smi h
Edi ed by
The Agony o Spanish Libe alism
9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd i9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd i 3/8/2010 11:56:14 AM3/8/2010 11:56:14 AM
Also by F ancisco J. Rome o Sal adó:
TWENTIETH CENTURY SPAIN: Poli ics and Socie y, 1898–1998
SPAIN 1914–1918: Be ween Wa and Re olu ion
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR: O igins, Cou se and Ou comes
THE FOUNDATIONS OF CIVIL WAR: Re olu ion, Social Con lic and Reac ion
in Libe al Spain, 1916–1923
Books by Angel Smi h:
ANARCHISM, REVOLUTION AND REACTION: Ca alan Labou and he C isis
o he Spanish S a e, 1898–1923
HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF SPAIN
(ed. wi h Cla e Ma -Moline o), NATIONALISM AND THE NATION IN THE
IBERIAN PENINSULA: Compe ing and Con lic ing Iden i ies
(ed. wi h Emma Dá ila-Cox), THE CRISIS OF 1898: Colonial
Redis ibu ion and Na ionalis Mobilisa ion
(ed. wi h S e an Be ge ), NATIONALISM, LABOUR AND ETHNICITY,
1870–1939
(ed.), RED BARCELONA. SOCIAL PROTEST AND LABOUR MOBILIZATION IN
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd ii9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd ii 3/8/2010 11:56:14 AM3/8/2010 11:56:14 AM
The Agony o Spanish
Libe alism
F om Re olu ion o Dic a o ship 1913–23
Edi ed by
F ancisco J. Rome o Sal adó
Senio Lec u e , Depa men o Hispanic,
Po uguese and La in Ame ican S udies,
Uni e si y o B is ol, UK
and
Angel Smi h
Reade in Mode n Spanish His o y,
Depa men o Spanish, Po uguese and
La in Ame ican S udies
Uni e si y o Leeds, UK
9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd iii9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd iii 3/8/2010 11:56:14 AM3/8/2010 11:56:14 AM
Edi o ial ma e , selec ion and chap e 1 © F ancisco J. Rome o Sal adó and
Angel Smi h 2010
All emaining chap e s © hei espec i e au ho s 2010
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Fi s published 2010 by
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The agony o Spanish libe alism : om e olu ion o dic a o ship
1913–23 / edi ed by F ancisco Jos Rome o Sal ado, Angel Smi h.
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Spanish socie y be ween 1914–1923, and he poli ical pola isa ion and social
iolence ha culmina ed in he Spanish Ci il Wa . Essays analyse he c isis
and e en ual down all o Spain’s eli is libe al o de and i s eplacemen by
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1. Spain – Poli ics and go e nmen – 1886–1931. 2. Libe alism – Spain –
His o y – 20 h cen u y. I. Rome o Sal adó, F ancisco J., 1960– II. Smi h,
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9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd i 9780230_554245_01_p e iii.indd i 3/8/2010 11:56:15 AM3/8/2010 11:56:15 AM

Con en s
Lis o Figu es and Tables i
No es on Con ibu o s ii
1 The Agony o Spanish Libe alism and he O igins o
Dic a o ship: A Eu opean F amewo k 1
F ancisco J. Rome o Sal adó and Angel Smi h
2 The Go e nmen , Pa ies and he King, 1913–23 32
Ja ie Mo eno Luzón
3 Spain’s Re olu iona y C isis o 1917: A Reckless Gamble 62
F ancisco J. Rome o Sal adó
4 An Impossible Uni y: Re olu ion, Re o m and
Coun e -Re olu ion and he Spanish Le , 1917–23 92
Ch is Ealham
5 ‘The Red Dawn’ o he Andalusian Coun yside: Peasan
P o es du ing he ‘Bolshe ik T iennium’, 1918–20 121
F ancisco Cobo Rome o
6 The Lliga Regionalis a, he Ca alan Righ and he
Making o he P imo de Ri e a Dic a o ship, 1916–23 145
Angel Smi h
7 ‘Si Vis Pacem Pa a Bellum’: The Ca alan Employe s’
Di y Wa , 1919–23 175
F ancisco J. Rome o Sal adó
8 Na ion and Reac ion: Spanish Conse a i e
Na ionalism and he Res o a ion C isis 202
Alejand o Qui oga
9 The Mo occan Quagmi e and he C isis o Spain’s
Libe al Sys em, 1917–23 230
Pablo La Po e
10 The Making o an In e en ionis A my, 1898–1923 255
Sebas ian Bal ou
Index 275
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i
Figu es and Tables
Figu es
2.1 Pe cen age o sea s in he Lowe House o Pa liamen
which we e Dis i os P opios, 1876–1923 48
2.2 Go e nmen c ises, 1912–23 53
Tables
2.1 Elec ions and make-up o he Cong eso De Los Dipu ados
(1914–23) 42
5.1 Ag a ian sala ies in Spain, 1910–26 125
5.2 S ikes egis e ed in ou Andalusian p o inces, 1917–22 131
5.3 Membe s o he Socialis and Ana chis unions in
Andalusia, 1918–22 136
5.4 Socialis councillo s elec ed in he eigh Andalusian
p o inces, 1905–20 137
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5
‘The Red Dawn’ o he Andalusian
Coun yside: Peasan P o es du ing
he ‘Bolshe ik T iennium’, 1918–20
F ancisco Cobo Rome o
121
Wha was he Andalusian ‘T ienio Bolche ique’?
The yea s 1918–20 we e undamen al in he mode n his o y o he
Andalusian peasan mo emen . The pos -wa economic disloca ion and
he ocke ing p ices o basic commodi ies b ough abou by Spain’s neu-
ali y du ing he Fi s Wo ld Wa esul ed in a d ama ic de e io a ion in
he li ing condi ions o a as legion o landless peasan s (jo nale os o
b ace os)1 om he sou h o he Ibe ian peninsula. In Andalusia, ag a ian
capi alism made gian s ides wi h he g adual inco po a ion o small
and medium-sized holdings in o a ma ke economy sus ained by a la ge
and impo e ished labou o ce.2 This made possible he apid ex ension
in con ac ual ela ionships be ween jo nale os and small landowne s
and sha ec oppe s esul ing in highe numbe s o dispu es be ween
hese g oups due o he pos -wa in la iona y cycle. Fu he mo e, in a
s ill poo ly mechanized ag icul u al sec o , he p o i s o he big land-
owne s depended on he main enance o ex emely low sala ies. Be e
pay demands om jo nale os, p og essi ely mo e o ganized in ade
unions, we e he e o e sys ema ically e used.
G owing labou ensions, well illus a ed by he explosion o s ike
ac i i y du ing he yea s 1918–20, len c edence o he belie in he col-
lapse o he ‘old bou geois wo ld’, uelled by he Bolshe ik Re olu ion
and he sudden de ea o he Cen al Powe s. Amids a highly cha ged
a mosphe e in used wi h poli ical p oclama ions announcing he
‘de ini i e demise’ o he ‘libe al capi alis o de ’, he Andalusian jo -
nale os’ Socialis and Ana chis ade unions ini ia ed a as campaign
o social agi a ion3 ha was o play a signi ican ole in unde mining
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122 F ancisco Cobo Rome o
he ounda ions o he Res o a ion egime. The echoes o he Bolshe ik
Re olu ion o 1917 and he deep emo ional impac p oduced by he
exp op ia ion o he land o he nobili y and i s subsequen hando e
o he Russian peasan y, awakened in ense hopes and expec a ions
amongs he b ace os. Juan Díaz del Mo al, a leading ag a is a4 and a
di ec wi ness o his pe iod o labou mobiliza ion dubbed i ‘el ienio
bolche ique’ (‘ he Bolshe ik T iennium’).5
The ag a ian bou geoisie and he u al oliga chy eac ed wi h panic
o he ou b eak o he e ol and launched a i ulen p opaganda cam-
paign in which he s ike ac i i y and he jo nale os’ demands we e
equa ed wi h he symp oms o he ea ed social e olu ion.6 F om 1918
a powe ul wa e o social mobiliza ion and popula p o es engul ed
p ac ically all o Spain’s sou he n p o inces, hi ing Jaén, Málaga and
Se illa wi h pa icula in ensi y. Al hough he agi a ion mainly sough
o imp o e sala ies and exis ing ag a ian condi ions, some jo nale os’
ade union leade s, bo h Ana chis s and Socialis s, we e ca ied away
by he ‘collec i e eupho ia’ and p oclaimed he s a o a genuine ‘ e o-
lu iona y ed dawn’.7 They belie ed ha hey we e wi nessing an ‘awak-
ening’ ha would no only end he hegemony o he ha ed landowne s
bu would also es ablish a new mo al, poli ical and social o de .8 This
‘new e a’ would lead o land edis ibu ion, he o mal ecogni ion o he
jo nale os’ unions’ collec i e ba gaining igh s and he es ablishmen o
labou con ac s highly a ou able o he in e es s o he peasan y.
P ologue: Ag a ian mode niza ion and
peasan mobiliza ion
The Andalusian peasan y unde wen signi ican ans o ma ions du -
ing he las yea s o he 19 h cen u y and he i s o he 20 h cen-
u y. The de ac o p i a iza ion o impo an ac s o land, hi he o
o common use, p e en ed he u al popula ion om ob aining hose
s aple p oduc s ha had p e iously been eely a ailable o hem.9 This
led o a g ea e dependence o small landowne s and sha ec oppe s on
he comme cial powe o he ma ke , while condemning he jo nale os
o su i e only on he wages o e ed by hei ag a ian employe s.10 A
he same ime, he expansion in some labou -in ensi e c ops, inc eas-
ingly o ien a ed owa ds ma ke demand, allowed small landowne s o
inc ease hei u no e .11
Hence, like many o he egions o Sou he n and Wes e n Eu ope,
be ween he 1870s and 1930s Andalusian ag icul u e expe ienced a
powe ul eo ien a ion owa ds he needs o he in e na ional ma ke s.
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‘The Red Dawn’ o he Andalusian Coun yside 129
Ag icul o es de España (Spanish Fede a ion o Landwo ke s – FNOA).
The FNOA, in which he Andalusian Ana chis s ook he lead, emb aced
e olu iona y syndicalis ideals and coun ed amongs i s ul ima e
objec i es he es ablishmen o an ana chis socie y, o be achie ed by a
‘ e olu iona y gene al s ike’. The collec i e owne ship o he land and
he supp ession o p i a e p ope y became basic enan s om he ou -
se . ‘The land o hose who wo k i ’ was he maxim pa excellence o
u al Ana chis ade unionism. This inal aspi a ion wen hand in hand
wi h he ask o educa ing he peasan y. Fu he mo e, he s uggle o
small e o ms was seen as a wo hwhile p ac ice ha would s eng hen
he peasan y in i s e hical and o ganiza ional p epa a ion o he inal
clash agains he bou geoisie and ag a ian capi alism.38
A e he cong ess in Vilano a i la Gel ú (Ba celona) in 1916, he
FNOA ag eed ha i should ‘channel he p opaganda campaign owa ds
he achie emen o wage ises and a educ ion in he wo king day’. E en
hough he p incipal demand con inued o be he hando e o land o
he peasan s, hey also pu sued se e al addi ional goals: he illegaliza-
ion o he labou o women and child en below 14 yea s o age in he
coun yside, he lowe ing o he p ice o s aple p oduc s, he es ablish-
men o a minimum wage ( ha , om 1918, was o be ixed by each
wo ke s’ socie y acco ding o he na u e o he ag a ian asks in a gi en
a ea), he ex ension o he Wo kplace Acciden s Law om indus y o
he peasan y, he aboli ion o piecewo k and, inally, a educ ion in
he wo king day.39 Emb acing a p og amme o immedia e e o ms o
ag a ian wo ke s, combined wi h hei long- e m objec i es, p o ed o
be a success ul o mula.
b) The Socialis s’ discou se on he ‘ag a ian ques ion’
A he same ime, he Socialis s became leading p o agonis s in he
poli ical and union mobiliza ion o he Andalusian jo nale os. F om he
ea ly 20 h cen u y, he Spanish Socialis s exp essed a g owing in e -
es in ec ui ing ac i is s amongs he peasan y. Ne e heless, hei
g ow h lagged behind he jo nale os’ own spon aneous mobiliza ion.40
Le -wing pa ies and unions, and pa icula ly he PSOE and he UGT,
ook ad an age o he jo nale os’ endency o join ade unions o os e
he poli ical awa eness o he ag a ian wo ke s. This acili a ed hei
s a egy o ans o ming he capi alis and libe al s a e h ough he
democ a iza ion o own halls, local councils and e en he na ional
pa liamen .41
The Spanish Socialis s adop ed he analysis o he ag a ian ques-
ion dominan wi hin Wes e n Eu opean social democ acy since he
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130 F ancisco Cobo Rome o
end o he 19 h cen u y.42 Like hei Eu opean coun e pa s,43 hey
explained he de elopmen and ans o ma ion o he ag a ian sec o
om an e olu iona y pe spec i e. They belie ed ha he ise o ma ke
capi alism in he coun yside would e eal he supe io e iciency and
compe i i eness o la ge mechanized es a es. They he e o e de ended
he economic supe io i y o la ge ag a ian en e p ises and we e con-
inced ha he expansion o ag a ian capi alism would con ibu e o
he concen a ion o land.44 La ge p ope ies we e conside ed bene icial
since once socialism had seized powe he la ge landed es a es would
be exp op ia ed and subsequen ly handed o e o poo peasan s and
jo nale os, who we e he main a ge o he Socialis s’ message ega ding
he s uc u al ans o ma ion o capi alis ag icul u e. They explained
he backwa dness o Spain’s ag icul u e by e e ing o he dualism o
la i undio–mini undio,45 and blamed he big landed es a es, which had
been s eng hened by he land disen ailmen o he 19 h cen u y, o
he poo e u ns o he p ima y sec o , s essing he absen eeism o
he ag a ian bou geoisie, and he big landowne s’ lack o in e es in
he mode niza ion o hei p ope ies. In sum, he la i undismo o he
sou he n ag a ian egions was seen as he ul ima e cause o he back-
wa dness o Spain’s ag icul u e.46
Well-known ag a is as commi ed o inno a i e p ojec s o ag a ian
e o m, such as Pascual Ca ión,47 o Socialis leade s such as Fe nando
de los Ríos48 o An oni Fab a i Ribas,49 o ally endo sed his in e p e a-
i e pa adigm. They all singled ou he un ai land dis ibu ion, he
labou -in ensi e na u e o he big landed es a es and he alleged apa-
hy shown by he specula i e bou geoisie wi h ega d o he adop ion
o mode nizing echniques. Hence he Spanish Socialis s aimed a he
mobiliza ion o he jo nale os o achie e he elimina ion o ag a ian
capi alism and i s wo s ea u es: la i undismo and bou geois absen ee-
ism. In he mean ime, hey would pu sue a numbe o demands ha
would imp o e he li ing condi ions o he ag a ian wo ke s, such as
he eigh -hou wo king day, he minimum wage, he aboli ion o piece-
wo k and he enjoymen by ag a ian wo ke s o insu ance bene i s in
case o unemploymen o acciden s and also o old age. Ne e heless,
gi en he pe sis ence o amily-owned a ms, he UGT-PSOE also p o-
posed, as laid ou in i s ag a ian p og amme o 1918, a la ge numbe
o measu es in o de o appeal o ha cons i uency.50 Du ing he ea ly
20 h cen u y, u al Socialis s (pa icula ly in Andalusia) he e o e pu -
sued a e o mis s a egy ha ul ima ely was expec ed o lead o he
socializa ion o he land and he means o p oduc ion (wi h he excep-
ion o small landowne s), and he end o he capi alis landowning
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‘The Red Dawn’ o he Andalusian Coun yside 131
egime.51 The Socialis s hus p omo ed a ype o s a e-con olled ag a -
ian e o mism, combined wi h he o mula ion o new demands, s ikes
and he poli ical mobiliza ion o he jo nale os, o b ing democ acy o
local poli ics.52
The ac ual de elopmen o e en s
Du ing he iennium o 1918–20 labou con lic s a ained an unp e-
ceden ed le el o co-o dina ion and in ensi y in nea ly all o Andalusia
(see Table 5.2) bu his was pa icula ly so in he p o inces o Có doba,
Jaén and Málaga. The sho - e m cause o his new ‘cycle o p o es ’
was he impac o he in la ion p o oked by he Fi s Wo ld Wa ( is-
ing p ices o basic commodi ies, s agna ion o sala ies, he widening
gap be ween wages and cos o li ing, e c.).53 O he social, cul u al
and poli ical ac o s, howe e , need o be added. Ana chis s, Socialis s,
Republicans and Regionalis s we e p o agonis s o in ense p opaganda
campaigns in u al Andalusia om 1902–3. These campaigns gained
momen um i s du ing 1916–18 and hen in 1919–20.54 They sp ead
a mode nizing discou se, denouncing he ag a ian oliga chy and i s
unchanged caciquis a p ac ices. They also pain ed an image o a sel ish
bou geoisie, whose monopoly o weal h and powe esul ed in he mis-
e y and dep i a ion o he wo king popula ion.
Despi e he wo ke s’ demands being couched in e o mis e ms du -
ing he ‘Bolshe ik T iennium’, he u al employe s in a iably esponded
wi h ex eme ha shness. The con lic s ook place immedia ely be o e he
s a o he wo c ucial ha es s: ce eals and he collec ion o oli es.55
The jo nale os’ unions demanded wage ises, he egula ion o b eaks
in he wo king day, he aboli ion o piecewo k, he educ ion in he
Table 5.2 S ikes egis e ed in ou Andalusian p o inces, 1917–22
P o inces 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922
Có doba – 117 141 64 – –
G anada 5 33 46 28 7 9
Jaén 9 37 69 73 8 5
Málaga 7 23 81 51 6 11
To al 21 210 337 216 21 25
Sou ce: Ángeles González, ‘La cons ucción de un mi o. El ienio bolche ique en
Andalucía’, in Manuel González de Molina and Diego Ca o Cancela (eds), La u opía acional.
Es udios sob e el mo imien o ob e o andaluz (G anada: Edi o ial Uni e sidad de G anada,
2001), pp. 175–219. My elabo a ion.
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132 F ancisco Cobo Rome o
use o ag icul u al machine y and he es ic ion o he employmen o
‘ o eigne s’ (wo ke s coming om ou side he locali y o he employing
landed es a e). The employe s eac ed wi h he b u al pe secu ion o he
wo ke s, he closing o hei cen es, he banning o demons a ions
and he imp isonmen o hei leade s and p opagandis s.56
Có doba and Jaén we e especially impo an because o he in ensi y,
symbolic cha ac e and numbe o con lic s. In he p o ince o Có doba,
om June 1918, he employe s’ esis ance o demands o imp o ed
labou con ac s du ing he ha es igge ed nume ous s ikes in he
own o Cas o del Río. These con lic s hen sp ead o he o he main
owns o he p o ince, wo sening in July. Social uphea al inc eased
wi h he cons an demand o wage inc eases, employe s’ ul ilmen o
hei adi ional du y o eeding and lodging labou e s, and ising pe i-
ions o measu es o sol e he issue o unemploymen a e he ha -
es . The e we e soon ou b eaks o u al iolence such as he bu ning
o c ops, pillaging and he o ce eals and li es ock. F om la e Oc obe ,
a new cycle o peasan con lic sp ead ac oss he p o ince o Có doba,
ma ked pa icula ly by he co-o dina ion o wo ke s’ demands, bo h
among he di e en unions (Ana chis s, Socialis s o Republicans) and
also be ween di e en egions.
Rising s ike ac i i y coincided wi h he o ganiza ion o a cong ess
in Cas o del Río (Có doba) be ween 25 and 27 Oc obe 1918. I was
domina ed by Ana cho-Syndicalis s delega es, al hough he e we e also
Republican ep esen a i es om 30 illages. Nea ly all he delega es
came om Có doba, wi h a ew om Se illa and Jaén. Du ing his c u-
cial e en ag eemen was eached on some gene al demands: be e
pay o ha es ing he oli es (wages o 5 pese as), a educ ion in he
wo king day, longe b eaks and he end o piecewo k.57 Following hese
esolu ions, new s oppages ook place in la ge a eas o he p o ince o
Có doba, wi h 43 illages on s ike in No embe and 17 dispu es in
Decembe .58
The in ensi ica ion and sp ead o he labou con lic om he au umn
o 1918 p o oked, as a he u n o he cen u y, an in ense deba e in
he egional and Mad id p ess on he inc easingly g a e ‘Andalusian
u al social p oblem’. As well as some leading poli icians, dis inguished
membe s o he in ellec ual wo ld such as José O ega y Gasse , Pascual
Ca ión, Fabián Vidal, Julio Ál a ez del Vayo and Blas In an e in e ened.
Meanwhile, he Conse a i e p ess was ed no ime in c ea ing a s a e
o panic, s i ed up by cons an e e ences o he Bolshe ik Re olu ion.
In ea ly Feb ua y 1919, he Ins i u o de Re o mas Sociales59 sen a com-
mission o Có doba o ob ain i s -hand epo s on he a i udes o bo h
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‘The Red Dawn’ o he Andalusian Coun yside 133
sides.60 This commission ga he ed many wi ness s a emen s om wo k-
e s’ as well as employe s’ associa ions. I s conclusion – ha a bi a ion
should be used o pending con lic s – was eached jus when he i s
s ike wa e had al eady le i s deepes imp in .
Spu ed by he employe s’ in ansigence owa ds he jo nale os’
demands, a gene al s ike was decla ed du ing he second hal o May
1919, jus be o e ha yea ’s ha es . This ime he s oppage sp ead
h oughou he Guadalqui i alley, hi ing he p o inces o Có doba,
Jaén and Se illa. In he p o ince o Có doba alone, o e 30 owns
esponded o he s ike call. The g a i y o he si ua ion p o oked he
decla a ion, on 29 May, o ma ial law in he p o ince. The in e io
minis e sen 20,000 oops headed by he gene al o he Ci il Gua d,
Manuel de la Ba e a. The a my occupied he illages, closed he wo k-
e s’ cen es and depo ed la ge numbe s o leading mili an s.61 The mili-
a y’s se e e ep ession esul ed in a agic ally o many wo ke s’ leade s
imp isoned, o he s bea en and some s ike s killed.62
Despi e he powe ul go e nmen al esponse, he employe s’ e usal
o ul il he ag eemen s p e iously eached p o oked he esump ion o
s ike ac ion h oughou he summe in se e al p o inces, pa icula ly
in Có doba, whe e he s oppage again acqui ed a iolen dimension. A
s ike sho dead he mayo o Mo iles. Almos simul aneously, ac s o
sabo age we e commi ed e e ywhe e, including c op bu ning in places
such as Espiel (whe e he es a e ‘El Pla a’ was des oyed), Villa anca
(whe e he a mhouse ‘La Posadilla’ was w ecked), Almodó a , Cab a,
Posadas, Bujalance, Cas o del Río and many mo e.63 Demands om
u al employe s o decisi e measu es we e heeded: implacable mili a y
in e en ion on behal o landowne s, a es s and depo a ion o wo k-
e s’ leade s, immedia e closu e o mee ing places, censo ship o hei
newspape s and oops used o help wi h he ha es ing.
E en s in Jaén, one o he p o inces mos deeply shaken by he
s ike wa e o his pe iod, a e equally e ealing. The e was a signi i-
can inc ease in poli ical and social con lic h oughou 1918. The yea
began wi h a wo ke s’ ga he ing in he own o Lina es which concluded
wi h he demand o cheape s aple p oduc s and he summoning o a
demons a ion ha was a ended by 3,000 people.64 Ru al s ikes ook
place in, amongs o he owns, Villampo do and Mancha Real. The e
we e demons a ions agains caciques’ and employe s’ abuses o powe
in Cambil, and simila e en s occu ed in Jaén and Lina es in July and
Augus .
E en s in 1919 we e e en mo e p oli ic in e ms o social con lic .
The e we e equen mee ings be ween wo ke s and employe s o discuss
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134 F ancisco Cobo Rome o
labou con ac s. They es ablished he peasan s’ igh o collec i e ba -
gaining and he p ocedu es by which employe s could hi e manpowe .
These esul s, which we e only ob ained wi h h ea s o s ike ac ion,
caused ea amongs Jaén’s landowning class. Thus he b u al ep ession
agains he mos ac i e mili an s ha ensued in 1919–20 was ma ked
by all ypes o coe ci e p ac ices and he cons an use o he police.
Ala ming messages om he landowne s o he ci il go e no e ealed
hei deeply ing ained ea a he sp ead and adicaliza ion o he social
con lic . The Bolshe ik Re olu ion and he immense impac o he e -
olu iona y changes aking place in he Russian coun yside spa ked a
mood o eupho ia and exal a ion among he jo nale os ha colou ed he
ense ela ions be ween hem and employe s du ing he yea s 1919 and
1920. The employe s’ eac ion was no long in coming and disp opo -
iona e. F om he sp ing o 1919, he ci il go e no dec eed a numbe
o ha sh measu es. Wo ke s’ cen es we e closed, he Socialis p ess was
banned, wo ke s’ mee ing places we e unde cons an su eillance, and
he Ci il Gua d was used o sea ch o weapons. The ep ession se ed
o exace ba e exis ing ensions. A new wa e o s ikes and dis u bances
began in May in Higue a de A jona and soon sp ead o he owns o
A jona, Baeza, Lope a and Po cuna. In he la e wo owns, nume -
ous g oups o jo nale os – 2,000 in Lope a – demanded pay inc eases
and be e labou con ac s. The app oaching summe ce eal ha es
inc eased he in ensi y o he con lic . The e we e s ikes and labou
dis u bances in Lope a, Escañuela, A jona and Mancha Real. In he la -
e wo owns he employe s esponded by closing he wo ke s’ cen-
es. Fu he clashes led o he bu ning o co n ields in A jona, Lope a,
Andúja , Las Casillas de Ma os and Jabalquin o. A ha es ing machine
was delibe a ely w ecked in Higue a de Cala a a.65 The s a o he
quie season (a e he summe ) o ag icul u e p o oked an inc ease in
unemploymen bu did no hing o ease he employe s’ ea s. A gene al
s ike ook place in Oc obe in he p o incial capi al o Jaén.
In No embe , he Wo ke s’ P o incial Fede a ion o Jaén (a ilia ed o
he UGT) exp essed i s solida i y wi h he g owing discom o el by
wo ke s in ha p o ince and p o es ed on behal o i s nea ly 20,000
membe s agains he ou ages commi ed agains he wo ke s’ cen es
o Baeza, Po cuna and Mancha Real, as well as agains he a es s and
depo a ions o labou leade s. I was, howe e , he onse o he oli e
ha es when u al dis u bances eached hei heigh . The ising li ing
cos s and he employe s’ esol e o keep wages low p o oked a p oli -
e a ion o social un es o e nea ly all he p o ince. The e we e inci-
den s and s ikes in Lope a, A jona, A jonilla, Alcaude e, Mancha Real,
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‘The Red Dawn’ o he Andalusian Coun yside 135
Jaén, Ma os, Baeza, To edelcampo and To edonjimeno. Amids his
uphea al, he Wo ke s’ P o incial Fede a ion backed a campaign o he
suspension o piecewo k, he paymen o a minimum wage o 5 pese as
o men and 2.50 o women and child en.
Violen clashes be ween s ike s and he Ci il Gua d soon ook place.
The ising ension p o oked an en aged esponse om employe s. In
some cases, he ep ession was b u al. Wo ke s we e bea en in Cambil,
Villaca illo and Villanue a del A zobispo; he e we e also bea ings and
a es s in Baeza and A jona. In he middle o a gene al s ike, he e we e
iolen clashes be ween he s iking jo nale os and he Ci il Gua d, wi h
18 wo ke s inju ed and a li le gi l killed in a shoo ing. The Ci il Gua d
also used i epowe in Po cuna whe e o e 100 s ike s we e a es ed. In
To edonjimeno, women pa icipa ed in picke s agains piecewo k. The
Ci il Gua d s o med he wo ke s’ cen e in Baeza c ea ing ha oc, while
in A cona an i a e c owd se upon a couple o Ci il Gua ds leading o a
shoo -ou .66
The wa e o s ikes began o decline in 1920. This yea was also ma ked
by a d ama ic inc ease in he numbe o Socialis s elec ed o Andalusian
own halls – a o al o 204 we e e u ned in he municipal elec ions
held in Feb ua y o ha yea . They ob ained 28 pe cen o he o es in
Jaén, gaining 68 councillo s, and e en managed o ge he ypog aphe
José Mo ales Robles elec ed as mayo o he p o incial capi al.
De elopmen s: The e osion o Caciquismo and he ag a ian
employe s’ co po a e and au ho i a ian emp a ion
The mos ob ious consequence o he wa e o s ikes ha ook place du -
ing he yea s 1918–20 was p obably he apid ise in he numbe o jo nal-
e os joining ag a ian Socialis o Ana chis ade unions. Wi h ega d o
he Ana chis ade unions, ollowing an in ense p opaganda campaign
in u al a eas, he numbe o wo ke s a ilia ed o CNT unions ose om
3,623 in Sep embe 1918 o he amazing igu e o 113,214 in Decembe
1919.67 A he same ime, wo ke s’ and peasan s’ p o incial ede a ions
a ilia ed o he UGT we e o med in all he Andalusian p o inces excep
o Huel a and Cádiz.68 By he end o 1919, he e we e 68,596 jo nale os
and peasan s in Socialis o ganiza ions (a igu e which ell o some 30,617
in 1920).69 PSOE membe ship also unde wen a signi ican inc ease, om
2,689 in 1917 o a o al o 25,577 in 1919 (see Table 5.3).70
The g ow h in Socialis membe ship culmina ed wi h he holding o
he Peasan Cong ess o Andalusia and Ex emadu a in Oc obe 1920
in he capi al o Jaén. S eps we e hen aken – al hough ul ima ely
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136 F ancisco Cobo Rome o
us a ed – o se up a Socialis jo nale os’ na ional ag a ian ede a ion.71
The e was eupho ia amongs he Socialis ank and ile, especially since
he e had been a spec acula g ow h in he UGT’s ag a ian p o in-
cial ede a ions in 1919 and 1920, mos ly based in eas e n Andalusia.
E en hough he c ea ion o a na ional ag a ian ede a ion had o be
pos poned un il 1930, due, amongs o he easons, o he plumme ing
membe ship su e ed by he peasan mo emen om 1922, he Peasan
Cong ess o Oc obe 1920 ma ked a wa e shed in he his o y o u al
Socialis ade unionism.
Six y delega es, ep esen ing 150 ag a ian wo ke s’ socie ies and 67,000
membe s (25,000 o hem om he wo p o inces om Ex emadu a)
ga he ed in Jaén.72 The e a e no eliable igu es o he numbe o mili-
an s om each o he p o inces ep esen ed a he cong ess: Có doba,
G anada, Jaén, Málaga, Cáce es and Badajoz. Howe e , he high num-
be o membe s in a endance shows he s eng h o he u al Socialis
unions a ha ime.
The g owing unioniza ion o jo nale os and poo peasan s in much o
Andalusia wen hand in hand wi h he g owing poli iciza ion o he u al
Table 5.3 Membe s o he Socialis and Ana chis unions in Andalusia,
1918–22
P o ince
UGT CNT
1918119202192221918119191
Alme ía 162 1,619 99 – 192
Cádiz 527 – 600 410 24,597
Có doba 6,357 13,934 3,932 857 17,551
G anada 70 1,532 1,738 – 922
Huel a 30 – – 340 3,093
Jaén 998 5,308 894 136 1,081
Málaga 413 6,910 3,689 640 24,597
Se illa 105 1,314 693 1,240 36,154
To al 8,572 30,617 11,645 3,623 113,214
No es: 1 Membe s belonging o all ypes o ades and b anches o p oduc ion. 2 Membe s
belonging o he ag a ian sec o (jo nale os and poo peasan s).
Sou ces: An onio Ba , La CNT en los años ojos. Del sindicalismo e oluciona io al
ana cosindicalismo, 1910–1926 (Mad id: Akal, 1981); Paloma Biglino, El socialismo español
y la cues ión ag a ia, 1890–1936 (Mad id: Minis e io de T abajo, 1986); An onio Ma ía
Cale o, ‘Mo imien o ob e o y sindicalismo’, in An onio Miguel Be nal (ed.), His o ia
de Andalucía, 8 (Ba celona: Plane a, 1983); and Ángeles González, ‘La cons ucción
de un mi o. El ienio bolche ique en Andalucía’, in Manuel González de Molina and
Diego Ca o Cancela (eds), La u opía acional. Es udios sob e el mo imien o ob e o andaluz
(G anada: Edi o ial Uni e sidad de G anada, 2001). My elabo a ion.
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‘The Red Dawn’ o he Andalusian Coun yside 137
popula ion. Ana chis s, e o mis Socialis s and Republicans enjoyed,
du ing his ho pe iod o social con lic (1918–20), a a e oppo uni y
o sp ead hei poli ical p inciples. By linking he Res o a ion poli ical
o de wi h he employe s and he ag a ian bou geoisie, hey could o e
a bi e ly nega i e iew o he uling egime. In sum, employe s and
igh -wing dynas ic poli icians we e blamed o sus aining he caciq-
uis a ne wo k ha co up ed public municipal li e and o hei sel -
ish backing o a c ooked, undemoc a ic and unpopula poli ical sys em
de ised p ecisely o de end he p i ileges o a mino i y o oliga chs and
ycoons. The symbolic con as be ween he wo king class and he cul-
u e o he employe s amongs he sou he n jo nale os accompanied he
in ense u al con lic . In his way, he u al wo ke s’ g owing in e es
in local poli ics and he s uggle agains ‘ he ha ed ag a ian employe s’
was con enien ly channelled owa ds poli ical mobiliza ion. The he o-
ic used by he PSOE and he UGT was o ien a ed owa ds he de ence o
speci ic poli ical p inciples ha demanded he cleansing o municipal
li e and he des uc ion o caciquis a p ac ices.
The suppo o he Socialis o ganiza ions o he s ike wa e in he
Andalusian coun yside du ing he so-called ‘Bolshe ik T iennium’ no
only helped hem o ec ui amongs he jo nale os bu also o channel
he ide o sympa hy owa ds poli ical goals. Indeed, i allowed hem o
inc ease hei poli ical ep esen a ion in own halls and con inue hei
commi men o up oo caciquis a p ac ices in local a ai s.73 The spec-
acula ise in elec o al suppo o Socialis candida es in as a eas o
Andalusia is indica ed in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Socialis councillo s elec ed in he eigh Andalusian p o inces,
1905–20
P o ince 1905 1909 1911 1915 1916 1917 1918 1920
Alme ía – – 1 – – – – 6
Cádiz – 2 – 2 – – – 14
Có doba – 1 2 5 3 5 3 37
G anada – – 5 – – 1 1 25
Huel a – – – 25 1 5 1 17
Jaén 1 2 4 10 9 12 6 68
Málaga – 1 5 9 2 2 – 24
Se illa – – – – – 1 – 13
Andalusia 1 6 17 51 15 26 11 204
Spain 49 – – 176 62 136 82 946
Sou ce: Cale o, ‘Mo imien o ob e o y sindicalismo’, p. 136.
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138 F ancisco Cobo Rome o
Pa allel o he dis us and ancou el by many jo nale os and poo
peasan s owa ds he employe s – and hei adi ional igh -wing
dynas ic ep esen a i es –, he u al bou geoisie and he big land-
owne s we e de e mined o hold back he ising poli ical powe being
acqui ed by he an i-dynas ic poli ical o ces (Socialis s, Republicans,
Regionalis s, e c.). Be ween 1918 and 1923 he old oliga chies and
hei poli ical ep esen a i es inc easingly eso ed o all kinds o
pseudo-legal chicane y and me hods o coe cion agains hei elec -
o al i als.74
Du ing hese yea s, p ac ically all he Andalusian p o inces expe i-
enced a li any o audulen and coe ci e ac ions ca ied ou by he
Mona chis o ces. The gene al elec ions o 1919, o ins ance, saw mas-
si e i egula i ies. Also in his yea he Socialis s’ o e g ew a a o mid-
able a e, esul ing in he e u n o hei i s e e Andalusian depu y,
Fe nando de los Ríos, o G anada. Ne e heless, audulen p ac ices
occu ed nea ly e e ywhe e, o example, om sun ise on elec ion day
he own o Lina es in Jaén was occupied by he police, in imida ion
was i e and he pu chase o o es ook place. Se e al Socialis delega es
we e imp isoned and in Espeluy he elec o al e u ns we e iled be o e
he o es had been cas . Simila iolen ac i i ies o p e en elec o al
suppo o Socialis o Republican candida es we e equen in many
a eas o he p o ince o Se illa. Leading Socialis s we e a es ed and
held incommunicado on he e e o he o e in Puebla de Cazalla; he
Ci il Gua d cha ged a le is ga he ing in Cazalla de la Sie a; he wo k-
e s’ cen es we e closed in Écija and Cañada del Rosal; ballo boxes we e
smashed by gangs a med wi h clubs in Guadalcanal; and Republican
sympa hize s we e sea ched and insul ed a he doo o an elec o al col-
lege in Fuen es de Andalusia.75
The use o a icle 29 o he elec o al law also became mo e equen
in he u bulen elec ions o 1919–23,76 emphasizing he de e mina ion
o he ‘old caciquis a ne wo ks’ o deny he an i-dynas ic candida es
hei law ul access o poli ical ep esen a ion. As an example, a icle 29
was applied in all he cons i uencies o Alme ía and Có doba in 1923.
As a esul , in hese elec ions – whe e a emp s o p e en he people’s
elec o al pa icipa ion we e a hei mos bla an – 45.8 pe cen o he
Andalusian elec o a e e ec i ely los hei igh o o e.77
Fu he mo e, he mobiliza ion o he jo nale os and he g owing
elec o al suppo acqui ed by he Socialis s and Republicans caused
u moil and scep icism amongs employe s and he u al bou geoisie,
wi h a la ge numbe o hei leade s becoming inc easingly de ached
om hei adi ional loyal y owa ds he no mal channels o poli ical
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