Ci a ion: Muñoz-Gómez, C.;
Rod igo-Comino, J. Designing a
Mul i empo al Analysis o Land Use
Changes and Vege a ion Indices o
Assess he Impac s o Se e e Fo es
Fi es Be o e Applying Con ol
Measu es. Fo es s 2024,15, 2036.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ 15112036
Academic Edi o s: Aqil Ta iq and
Na Zhao
Recei ed: 22 Sep embe 2024
Re ised: 12 No embe 2024
Accep ed: 13 No embe 2024
Published: 18 No embe 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
A icle
Designing a Mul i empo al Analysis o Land Use Changes
and Vege a ion Indices o Assess he Impac s o Se e e Fo es
Fi es Be o e Applying Con ol Measu es
Casand a Muñoz-Gómez 1and Jesús Rod igo-Comino 2,*
1Escuela Nacional de Ciencias de la Tie a, Uni e sidad Nacional Au ónoma de México, A . An onio Del ín
Mad igal 300, C.U., Coyoacán, México Ci y 04510, Mexico; [email p o ec ed]
2Depa amen o de Análisis Geog á ico Regional y Geog a ía Física, Facul ad de Filoso ía y Le as,
Campus Uni e si a io de Ca uja, Uni e sidad de G anada, 18071 G anada, Spain
*Co espondence: jesus c@ug .es
Abs ac : Fo es i es ep esen a signi ican in e sec ion be ween na u e and socie y, o en leading
o he loss o na u al esou ces, soil nu ien s, and economic oppo uni ies, as well as causing
dese i ica ion and he displacemen o communi ies. The e o e, he objec i e o his wo k is o analyze
he mul i empo al condi ions o a six h-gene a ion o es i e h ough he use and implemen a ion
o ools such as emo e sensing, pho oin e p e a ion wi h geog aphic in o ma ion sys ems (GISs),
hema ic in o ma ion on land use, and he use o spa ial indices such as he No malized Di e ence
Vege a ion Index (NDVI), he No malized Bu ned Ra io (NBR), and i s di e ence (dNBR) wi h
sa elli e images om Sen inel-2. To imp o e ou unde s anding o he dynamics and changes ha
occu ed due o he de as a ing o es i e in Los Guája es, G anada, Spain, in Sep embe 2022, which
a ec ed 5194 hec a es and had a pe ime e o 150 km, we ound ha he main land use in he s udy
a ea was o es , ollowed by ag icul u al a eas which dec eased om 1956 o 2003. We also obse ed
he se e i y o bu ning, shown wi h he dNBR, e lec ing mode a e–low and mode a e–high le els o
se e i y. Heal h and pa o he pos - i e eco e y p ocess, as indica ed by he NDVI, we e also obse ed.
This s udy p o ides aluable in o ma ion on he spa ial and empo al dimensions o o es i es, which
will a o in o med decision making and he de elopmen o e ec i e p e en ion s a egies.
Keywo ds: o es i e; emo e sensing; spa io empo al indica o s; egional issues; land use changes
1. In oduc ion
Clima e change is a c ucial ac o o conside in he occu ence o la ge-scale i es. In Spain,
in o ma ion abou i h- and six h-gene a ion o es i es, o “mega i es”, is ela i ely ecen ,
due o hei inc eased equency in ecen yea s. A ecen li e a u e e iew con i med he
ambiguous na u e o hese e ms, wi h size h esholds anging om >100 o 100,000 hec a es,
wi h a e ages o >10,000 hec a es being he mos common [1].
Acco ding o he guideline “P e en ion o La ge Wild i es using Fi e Types Concep ”
by Cos a e al. [
2
], i e gene a ions a e de ined by scena ios wi h ac o s limi ing i e igh ing
capaci y. They iden i y i e gene a ions o i es, wi h he six h gene a ion encompassing
hose ha ha e eme ged in ecen yea s. These i es a e cha ac e ized by hei immense
size, high in ensi y, and apid sp ead, making hei beha io di icul o p edic . As
Inazio Ma ínez de A ano, Di ec o o he Regional O ice o he Medi e anean o he
Eu opean Fo es Ins i u e (EFI), explained o he Science Media Cen e Spain (SMC) [
3
],
“six h-gene a ion” i es gene a e in ense hea ha dis up s he dynamics o he uppe
a mosphe ic laye s, c ea ing winds which de y accu a e modeling. This makes o ecas ing
hei beha io e en mo e challenging. A p ime example o such a i e is highligh ed in he
P elimina y Repo by he Jun a de Andalucía o he Fi e in Los Guája es, which occu ed
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ 15112036 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ o es s
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 2 o 16
in Sep embe 2022 in he u al egion o Los Guája es, G anada, Spain, whe e 5194 hec a es
we e a ec ed wi hin a 150 km pe ime e [4].
An inc ease in i e in ensi y o e ime, pa icula ly in six h-gene a ion i es wi h
py ocon ec ion ac i i y, poses a majo h ea o li e and p ope y due o hese i es’ in ensi y
and e a ic beha io [
5
]. This end is exace ba ed by ising empe a u es, which can lead
o d ough condi ions, especially when combined wi h shi s in p ecipi a ion pa e ns ha
become mo e in ense bu less equen . Addi ionally, inc eased uel lammabili y esul ing
om wa me and d ie condi ions is a di ec esponse o i e o clima e change [6].
This combina ion o ac o s inc eases he isk o o es i es, signi ican ly impac ing
land deg ada ion neu ali y. Al Sayah’s s udy [
7
] highligh s he impo ance o a land use
plan based on land deg ada ion neu ali y (LDN) as a ool o mi iga e haza ds such as i es.
Thei esea ch emphasizes his poin using wild i e and landslide po en iali y maps. In his
con ex , land use changes can be linked o mul iple ac o s, including indus ial g ow h,
mig a ion, inadequa e managemen p ac ices, and he e ec s o inc easingly in ense and
equen me eo ological e en s d i en by clima e change.
To be e unde s and he con ex o o es i es, i is essen ial o conside e i o ial
managemen , and he policies implemen ed ac oss di e en coun ies. These ac o s e lec
how human in e ac ions wi h he en i onmen lead o a ious implica ions. Fo ins ance,
exposu e o i e- ela ed ai pollu ion can signi ican ly impac public heal h, a ec ing la ge
popula ions [
8
]. Addi ionally, an h opogenic ac i i ies, such as de o es a ion, can deg ade
mul iple ecosys em se ices, including soil o ma ion, ood p oduc ion, e osion con ol,
and he i age alues, i no adequa ely egula ed and moni o ed. Cla ke e al. [
9
] demon-
s a ed ha i e ac i i y has exceeded a mosphe ic wa e demand h esholds, measu ed
by he maximum daily apo p essu e de ici . The e o e, a p e en i e app oach o i e
managemen , implemen ed h ough e ec i e policies, can signi ican ly educe impac s on
bo h he popula ion and he en i onmen . Gi en he e ol ing na u e o i e isks, e i o ial
managemen mus be egula ly upda ed o add ess cu en needs and con ex s.
I is also impo an o conside his o ical, poli ical, and economic ac o s, as well as
he de elopmen o communi ies hemsel es, as hey play a key ole in shaping spa ial
pa e ns and changes. Le Houé ou (1993) and S ijke (2005), ci ed in Skulska e al. [
10
],
highligh some his o ical aspec s, explaining ha he ise o indus y and he decline in
ag icul u e and li es ock ac i i ies, leading o u al depopula ion, ha e con ibu ed o o es
expansion in hese a eas. The issue o land abandonmen becomes pa icula ly c i ical
when coupled wi h clima ic ac o s, economic ac i i ies, and social o na u al phenomena,
pa icula ly in he absence o comp ehensi e o es managemen s a egies o p e en ion
o mi iga ion. Ano he example, i is he s udy published by Economou e al. [
11
], who
conduc ed mul i empo al econome ic analyses o e a decade ollowing a 2007 i e in he
Peloponnese, G eece, o iden i y and unde s and he economic impac s o he e en on he
local popula ion.
Clima e change impac s e e yone on Ea h, and humans a e pa icula ly ulne able o
i s indi ec consequences, such as economic damage, ag icul u al land loss, and ood and
wa e insecu i y. These s esso s can coalesce in o sys em-wide ailu es [
12
]. The speci ic
e ec s and changes ha mani es depend on he unique cha ac e is ics o each egion and
i s cu en land managemen and use p ac ices. This is why s udies on global change along
wi h he ela ionship be ween human ac i i ies, soil, and land use ha e become p io i ies
o go e nmen s, in e na ional ins i u ions, s akeholde s, and communi ies. S udying la ge
o es i es is also essen ial o de eloping ools o analysis, planning, assessmen , and
moni o ing. Fo example, A ango e al. [
13
] highligh he undamen al ole o i e p e en-
ion policies, emphasizing he impo ance o exis ing oad ne wo ks, hei main enance,
and hei ole in suppo ing socie al needs, including eme gency se ices. These ools
enable us o analyze changes in ege a ion and land use esul ing om i es, leading o
mo e e ec i e ac ions and in as uc u e planning. P es emon e al. [
14
] use s a is ics o
examine he economic e ec s and bene i s o Wild i e P e en ion Educa ion (WPE) based
on a p e en i e cul u e. Such educa ion can help sp ead knowledge and p e en u u e
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 3 o 16
i es. Hesseln [
15
] emphasizes he impo ance o social sciences in unde s anding human
beha io , communica ion, and pa icipa ion in wild i e p e en ion.
Among he widely used ools o s udying big i es, sa elli e image-based indices, such
as he No malized Di e ence Vege a ion Index (NDVI), a e pa icula ly impo an . Time
se ies da a and ca og aphic esea ch using hese indices a e aluable ools o isualizing
and compa ing he spa ial impac s o i es on ege a ion [
16
,
17
]. Fo e alua ing wild i e
po en ial, egional clima e models (RCMs) a e a new echnique ha can es ima e i e
po en ial o e la ge a eas by simula ing and p ojec ing p ecipi a ion, ai empe a u e,
humidi y, and wind pa e ns, which a e used o calcula e i e indices [
18
]. Addi ionally,
se e i y indices such as he Fi e Se e i y Index (FSI) and he No malized Bu n Ra io (NBR)
a e equen ly applied. Ga cía-Llamas e al. [
19
] highligh ed he impo ance o using spa ial
indices like he NDVI wi h Landsa 7 ETM images o suppo be e decision making
in i e p e en ion. O he examples in ol e machine lea ning (ML), as demons a ed by
Jain e al. [
20
], who showed how his app oach can be applied o wild i e esponse by
p ocessing la ge amoun s o physical da a. These ools a e well-sui ed o i e de ec ion.
Al e na i ely, Hong e al. [
21
] conduc ed a da a mining analysis o handle la ge amoun s
o da a and iden i y pa e ns ha acili a e he mapping and s udy o o es i es, as
exempli ied by a case s udy in Dayu, China. Ano he app oach, explo ed by Tu co e al. [
22
],
in ol es in es iga ing he in luence o an h opogenic clima e change and na u al clima e
a iabili y on bu ned a eas in Cali o nia, Uni ed S a es, using mul i empo al simula ion
models. Long- e m s udies a e c ucial o unde s anding he e olu ion o condi ions
and changes in a s udy a ea, pa icula ly in he con ex o o es i es. Fo example,
Rod igo-Comino e al. [
23
] highligh he impo ance o Ci cula ion Wea he Types (CWTs)
in co ela ing and quan i ying soil e osion e en s wi h su ace p essu e da a a di e en
a mosphe ic heigh s. These s udies a e essen ial o illumina ing he dynamics o land
managemen , shaped by bo h human ac i i ies and i e.
The e o e, conduc ing and p omo ing esea ch ha acks changes o e se e al decades
is i al. This app oach enables imp o ed u u e land planning and managemen ac ions
in a ec ed a eas. De ailed mon hly analyses o e en s be o e and a e a i e can comple-
men hese long- e m s udies, p o iding a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o he i e’s
magni ude, p og ession, and impac . This, in u n, suppo s in o med decision-making,
e i o ial planning, and esou ce managemen . Howe e , ga he ing la ge olumes o
da a o e ex ended pe iods and ac oss b oad a eas h ough in si u measu emen s o ex-
pe imen s can be challenging. This pape aims o analyze he mul i empo al condi ions
o a six h-gene a ion i e using pho oin e p e a ion and he es ima ion o spa ial indices
such as NDVI, NBR, and dNBR. We hypo hesize ha his analysis will help imp o e ou
unde s anding o he changes, impo ance, ela ionships, and impac o spa ial dynamics
be o e and a e a la ge i e, such as he Guája es i e in 2022.
The es o he pape is o ganized as ollows. In Sec ion 2, we desc ibe he s udy
a ea, he da a used, he mul i empo al analysis o land use changes, and he sa elli e
images (spa ial indices and na u al colo o RGB images). In Sec ion 3, he esul s o ou
s udy indica e he changes in land use om 1956 o 2003, showcased alongside he esul s
ob ained o he NDVI, NBR, and dNBR spa ial indices. Sec ion 4p esen s he discussion
o ou esul s, and, inally, Sec ion 5p esen s he conclusions we ha e eached a e a
mul i empo al analysis wi h he abo emen ioned ools.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy A ea
The u al egion o Los Guája es, loca ed in he Sou he n G anada P o ince wi hin he
Au onomous Communi y o Andalucía, is bound by he ollowing coo dina es: (
−
3.65 W,
36.84 N), (
−
3.50 W, 36.84 N), (
−
3.50 W, 36.91 N), and (
−
3.65 W, 36.91 N) in EPSG:32630 and
Da um WGS84 (Figu e 1). I encompasses ou municipali ies: Albuñuelas (36.928 N,
−
3.632 W),
El Valle (36.929 N,
−
3.583 W), El Pina (36.913 N,
−
3.554 W), and Vélez de Benaudalla
(36.832 N,
−
3.516 W). The o es i e a ec ed 5194 hec a es, wi h a pe ime e o 150 km. The
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 4 o 16
highes ele a ion wi hin he a ec ed a ea eached 1420 m, while he lowes was 360 m, wi h
slopes exceeding 60% inclina ion (Figu e 2). The main land uses included na u al a eas and
ag icul u al ac i i ies in ol ing he baceous and woody c ops, bo h i iga ed and ain ed.
Oli e g o es and sub opical ees we e also p esen . Pinus halepensis o es s in e mixed
wi h dense sh ubs, sca e ed g asslands, ocky ou c ops, and Lep osols. Acco ding o he
S a e Me eo ological Agency [
24
], he a ea has a Medi e anean clima e (Csa), cha ac e ized
by empe a e condi ions wi h d y, ho summe s, as classi ied by Köppen and Geige (1936).
On 8 Sep embe 2022, a de as a ing o es i e impac ed i e municipali ies: Los Guája es
(2255.92 ha), El Valle (582.03 ha), Albuñuelas (777.29 ha), El Pina (1336.47 ha), and Vélez de
Benaudalla (243.30 ha), as de ailed in he P elimina y Repo o he Fi e in Los Guája es (G anada).
Figu e 1. Localiza ion o he s udy a ea and pho og aphs du ing he ieldwo k campaign.
Figu e 2. Maps o ele a ion and inclina ion o he s udy a ea.
2.2. Da ase and Sou ces
Vec o and as e iles, along wi h hei associa ed me ada a, we e ob ained om he
Na ional Geog aphic In o ma ion’s Download Cen e [
25
]. O hopho os om he Na ional
Ae ial O hopho o Plan (PNOA) we e downloaded, which had unde gone a p ojec ion co ec-
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 5 o 16
ion p ocess. The selec ed images co espond o he AMS (B) 1956–1957, In e minis e ial 1977,
Na ional 1984, Olis a 1999, and PNOA Annual 2004. Addi ionally, land use da a we e acqui ed
om he En i onmen al In o ma ion Ne wo k o Andalucia [
26
]. This da ase co esponds o
he Maps o Land Uses and Vege a ion Co e o Andalucia (MUCVA) a a 1:25,000 scale o he
yea s 1956, 1977, 1984, 1999, and 2003. Fu he de ails can be ound in Table 1[27–30].
Table 1. Da a sou ces and o ma s used o his s udy case.
Da a Sou ce Type
Andalucia Ins i u e o S a is ics and Ca og aphy (IECA) Shape ile and ex
Na ional Geog aphic In o ma ion’s Download Cen e Shape ile, as e , and ex
En i onmen al In o ma ion Ne wo k o Andalucia (REDIAM) Shape ile, as e , and ex
Land Use In o ma ion Sys em o Andalucia (SIOSE) Tex
Spanish Ins i u e o S a is ics (INE) Tex
Na ional O hopho o Plan (PNOA) Ras e
Na u al He i age In o ma ion Sys em o Andalucia (SIPNA) Tex
Sen inel 2. Cope nicus B owse Ras e
To es ima e he a ious ege a ion and o es i e impac indices o he bu ned a ea,
emo e sensing da a om Sen inel 2 we e downloaded [
31
]. Sen inel 2 was chosen o
i s ex ensi e geog aphic co e age, mul iple esolu ion op ions (10, 20, o 60 m spa ial
esolu ion), a ailabili y o pla o ms, and collabo a i e websi es like he Cope nicus Eme -
gency Managemen Se ice. The equency o image uploads o he Cope nicus Da a Space
Ecosys em, wi h each sa elli e cap u ing da a e e y 10 days, p o ided a empo al esolu ion
o 5 days when combined. This selec ion was made o enable a mul i empo al analysis
o mon hly sa elli e images o e a yea , co e ing he six mon hs be o e and a e he i e
(Ma ch 2022 o Ma ch 2023), as well as a p e- and pos - i e yea compa ison o he mon hs
o Augus o Oc obe . The selec ed sa elli e images we e om he S2B and S2A missions,
conside ing hei mul ispec al ope a ional ins umen s and a Le el-2A p ocessing le el.
In addi ion o ae ial and sa elli e images, hema ic geog aphic in o ma ion, such as
da a om he Spanish Land Use In o ma ion Sys em (SIOSE) and he CORINE Land Co e
(CLC) p ojec , plays a c ucial ole in s udying and moni o ing i es. These da a, pa
o he Na ional Te i o y Obse a ion Plan (PNOT), we e supe ised and co ec ed o
p ope isualiza ion in he QGIS so wa e, complemen ing he in o ma ion om MUCVA.
Thema ic in o ma ion has been a ailable since 1990, gene a ed in al e na e yea s o he
analyzed i e in Guája es. This allows o g ea e mul i empo al analysis by p o iding a
b oade da ase o compa ison and e e ence. A no ewo hy example o he impo ance o
mul i empo al analysis is he moni o ing o he i e in Wakeliangzi, Muli, China, in 2020,
by Li e al. [
32
], whe e hey applied NDVI and NBR indices be o e and a e he i e, using
a ious sa elli es such as GF-4, Sen inel-2, and Landsa -8.
The p elimina y epo by he Minis y o Sus ainabili y, En i onmen , and Blue
Economy does no conside isola ed o una ec ed a eas wi hin he i e pe ime e . To c ea e
a mo e comp ehensi e con as be ween una ec ed and i e-a ec ed a eas, we chose o
include hese a eas in ou analysis. To achie e his, we u ilized da a om he “Maps o
Vege al Uses and Land Co e o Andalucia” (MUCVA) a a 1:25,000 scale, co e ing he
yea s 1956, 1977, 1984, 1999, and 2003. These da a we e analyzed using he QGIS so wa e
e sion 3.32.2. The “co ec geome ies” ool in QGIS was used o align edges o e ices
o he MUCVA polygons, ensu ing a p ope analysis. We hen used he i e pe ime e
laye o clip he MUCVA da a, c ea ing a subse ep esen ing only he a ea a ec ed by he
i e. The a ibu e ables o he esul ing polygons we e e iewed. These ables con ain
a ious a ibu es like soil ype codes, land use desc ip ions, pe ime e , and a ea o each
polygon. A legend wi h maximum disagg ega ion o each yea was c ea ed based on he
Da a Model ile downloaded om he REDIAM websi e [
33
]. This legend allows o he
in e p e a ion o up o 112 land co e classes wi hin he MUCVA da a.
Howe e , his numbe can a y om yea o yea . When he land use and ege a ion
co e laye is clipped o he i e-a ec ed a ea, he numbe o classes is signi ican ly educed.
To simpli y he analysis, wo new columns we e manually added o he a ibu e able o

Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 6 o 16
each map. These columns we e c ea ed by selec ing he land use and ege a ion co e
code column (displayed as h ee digi s) and using exp ession selec ion o g oup he codes
in o ou majo ca ego ies based on he Me hodology o he P epa a ion o 1:25,000 Scale
Vege a ion and Land Use Ca og aphy o Andalucia documen . These ou majo g oups
co espond o Le el 1 (Table 2) and a e as ollows: (i) ag icul u al a eas; (ii) o es and
na u al a eas; (iii) buil su aces and in as uc u es; and (i ) we zones and wa e su aces.
Table 2. Majo g oups o ganized conside ing he di e en sou ces o laye s.
Code Le el 1 Desc ip ion Le el 1
1 Buil su aces and in as uc u es
2 We zones and wa e su aces
3 Ag icul u al a eas
4 Fo es and na u al a eas
2.3. Mul i empo al Analysis o Land Use Changes
Once hese ou g oups we e c ea ed in wo new columns, he polygons we e con e ed
om mul ipa o single-pa . This in ol ed c ea ing ou new columns and calcula ing he
a ea in hec a es and he pe ime e using he ield calcula o . This s ep acili a ed he subsequen
s a is ical analysis. To isualize only he land uses wi hin he ou majo g oups, a dissol e
ope a ion was pe o med based on he column con aining he manually g ouped Le el 1
codes o di e en yea s. This ope a ion me ged polygons wi h he same code, esul ing in
a inal laye wi h mul ipa polygons ep esen ing only ou land use classes. To speci ically
iden i y a eas which unde wen changes be ween one yea and ano he , a union o bo h
yea s o in e es was c ea ed be o e he dissolu ion s ep. Subsequen ly, a new ec o laye
was gene a ed, conside ing only hose polygons ha exhibi ed a di e ence be ween he wo
yea s. A new column was added o he a ibu e able o es ablish a condi ional s a emen :
“I (‘U_LEVEL1’ is no ‘U_LEVEL1_2’, ‘Yes’, ‘No’)”. A compa ison was made be ween he
columns con aining land use codes o he pe iods be o e and a e he da e o he o es
i e. I he alues in hese columns di e ed, indica ing a change be ween he wo yea s, he
new column would display ‘Yes’. Con e sely, i he alues we e he same, i would display
‘No’, indica ing no change in land use be ween he wo selec ed yea s. Wi h bo h laye s, one
con aining only land uses and he o he con aining polygons which had changes be ween he
wo da es, he analysis could p oceed.
2.4. Mul i empo al Analysis Using Sa elli e Images
Fo he mul i empo al analysis o sa elli e images, Py hon p og amming in Google Colab
was u ilized, le e aging he Google Ea h Engine (GEE) Applica ion P og amming In e ace
(API). The ‘S2_SR_Ha monized’ collec ion was selec ed, which con ains mul ispec al Sen inel-
2 images p ocessed o empo al consis ency and a mosphe ic co ec ion. To minimize cloud
co e , images we e il e ed om he collec ion, selec ing he leas cloudy image o each mon h
o analysis. The s udy a ea was delinea ed using a .kml ile o he o es i e pe ime e . In
Google Colab, ue colo maps (RGB) and No malized Di e ence Vege a ion Index (NDVI)
maps we e gene a ed o assess ege a ion dynamics and heal h. Acco ding o Ve din e al. [
34
],
NDVI alues ange om
−
1 o +1, wi h posi i e alues indica ing ege a ion. Fo he Guája es
s udy, posi i e NDVI alues ep esen ac i e ege a ion. A cu o poin be ween 0.28 and 0.32
was applied o di e en mon hs, esul ing in wo colo s o laye s: g ay o inac i e ege a ion
and g een o ac i e ege a ion. The NDVI was calcula ed as ollows (Equa ion (1)):
NDVI = (Band 8 −Band 4)/(Band 8 + Band 4) (1)
No malized Bu n Di e ence (dNBR) maps we e also gene a ed by sub ac ing he p e-
i e NBR om he pos - i e NBR. As explained by he UN-SPIDER Knowledge Po al [
35
],
he NBR index, calcula ed using NIR and SWIR bands, highligh s bu ned a eas due o hei
lowe wa e e en ion capaci y and educed e lec ance. The NBR was calcula ed as ollows
(Equa ion (2)):
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 7 o 16
NBR = (Band 8 −Band 12)/(Band 8 + Band 12) (2)
Sub ac ing he p e- i e NBR om he pos - i e NBR, as desc ibed by Key and Ben-
son [
36
], allows o he es ima ion o i e se e i y. The dNBR was calcula ed as ollows
(Equa ion (3)):
dNBR = NBRp e −NBRpos (3)
A e calcula ing he indices and de ining isualiza ion pa ame e s, he images we e
downloaded in . i o ma . Finally, he layou and design o each index we e c ea ed in QGIS.
2.5. RGB Images Be o e and A e he Fo es Fi e
To analyze he empo al changes in ege a ion, sa elli e images om Sen inel 2 we e
o ganized and displayed mon hly o he six mon hs be o e and a e he i e. Na u al colo
images we e used o acili a e he isual obse a ion o changes in ege a ion colo due o
clima ic condi ions and eco e y p ocesses.
3. Resul s
3.1. Land Use Changes in Long-Te m Pe iods (1956–2003)
F om 1956 o 2003, he s udy a ea was p edominan ly composed o o es s and na u al
landscapes, ollowed by ag icul u al lands, wi h minimal po ions occupied by buil -up
a eas, in as uc u e, we lands, and wa e su aces. No ably, o es ed a eas expe ienced
hei mos signi ican pe cen age inc ease om 1956 o 1977, ollowed by a smalle , s eady
inc ease h ough o 2003. In con as , ag icul u al lands declined du ing he same pe iod.
In 1956, o es and na u al a eas made up 81.9% o he o al a ea, while ag icul u al
lands accoun ed o 17.8%. By 2003, hese p opo ions shi ed o 84.3% o o es and
na u al a eas and 15.4% o ag icul u al lands. Fo es ed a eas consis en ly co e ed o e
4500 hec a es s a ing om 1956, while ag icul u al lands emained below 1000 hec a es.
This a ea e lec s he en i e y o land impac ed by he o es i e (Figu es 3and 4).
Figu e 3. Land use maps showing he changes among selec ed da es.
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 8 o 16
Figu e 4. Maps conside ing land use changes be ween speci ic in e als o yea s.
3.2. Analysis o Sa elli e Images Be o e and A e he Fo es Fi e
A e cap u ing na u al colo images o e he cou se o a ull yea , he impac o
wea he condi ions on ege a ion be ween Ma ch and Augus 2022 became e iden . Du ing
his pe iod, a educ ion in he in ensi y o g een ones was no iceable in bo h o es ed and
ag icul u al a eas, likely due o seasonal c op changes and lowe mois u e le els, as Augus
and Sep embe ypically expe ience highe empe a u es (Figu e 5). Following he i e, om
Oc obe 2022 o Ma ch 2023, sub le shi s owa d b own ones could be obse ed, likely
esul ing om e osion p ocesses and he ini ial s ages o ege a ion eco e y (Figu e 6).
Figu e 5. Sa elli e images wi h na u al colo om Ma ch 2022 o Sep embe 2022.
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 9 o 16
Figu e 6. Sa elli e images wi h na u al colo om Oc obe 2022 o Ma ch 2023.
As shown in Figu e 7, in 2021, he ege a ion and ag icul u al a eas o he s udy si e
could be dis inguishable by sub le colo a ia ions ha e lec ed di e en land uses. How-
e e , in 2023, when compa ing he same mon hs (Augus o Oc obe ) a e he o es i e,
he i e’s impac on he soil became e iden . Di e ences in one on a ious slopes highligh
he e ec s, wi h some a eas appea ing da ke han o he s due o slope cha ac e is ics and
possible e osion p ocesses.
Figu e 7. Sa elli e images wi h na u al colo om Augus o Oc obe in 2021 and 2023.
Fo es s 2024,15, 2036 16 o 16
22.
Tu co, M.; Aba zoglou, J.; He e a, S.; Zhuang, Y.; Je ez, S.; Lucas, D.; AghaKouchak, A.; C ijano i´c, I. An h opogenic clima e
change impac s exace ba e summe o es i es in Cali o nia. P oc. Na l. Acad. Sci. USA 2023,120, 1–9. [C ossRe ]
23.
Rod igo-Comino, J.; Senciales-González, J.M.; Pé ez Alba acín, A.; Bandala, E.R.; Esc i áSaneugenio, F.; Keess a, S.D.; Ce dà,
A. Ci cula ion wea he ypes as a key ac o on uno ini ia ion and sedimen de achmen in Medi e anean sh ublands. Cuad.
In es . Geog . 2023,49, 29–49. [C ossRe ]
24.
Me eo ological Space Agency. Clima e Maps o Spain (1981–2010) y E o (1996–2016). Minis y o he Ecological T ansi ion. A ail-
able online: h ps://www.aeme .es/documen os/es/conoce mas/ ecu sos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_es udios/publicaciones/
Mapasclima icosdeEspana19812010/Mapasclima icosdeEspana19812010.pd (accessed on 10 No embe 2023).
25.
Download Cen e o CNIG (IGN). Download Cen e . A ailable online: h ps://cen odedesca gas.cnig.es/Cen oDesca gas/index.jsp#
(accessed on 1 June 2023).
26.
Andalucian En i onmen al Po al. En i onmen al In o ma ion. Rediam. A ailable online: h ps://po al ediam.cica.es/desca gas
(accessed on 1 June 2023).
27.
Andalucia Ins i u e o S a is ics and Ca og aphy (IECA). Line@, Spa ial In o ma ion Loca o o Andalucia. A ailable online:
h ps://www.jun adeandalucia.es/ins i u odees adis icayca og a ia/linea 2/web/ (accessed on 18 June 2023).
28.
Land Use In o ma ion Sys em o Andalucia (SIOSE). A ailable online: h ps://www.siose.es/p esen acion (accessed on 18 June 2023).
29. Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics (INE). A ailable online: h ps://www.ine.es/en/ (accessed on 11 July 2023).
30.
Na u al He i age In o ma ion Sys em o Andalucia (SIPNA). A ailable online: h ps://www.jun adeandalucia.es/
medioambien e/po al/landing-page-%C3%ADndice/-/asse _publishe /zX2ouZa4 1R /con en /sis ema-de-in o maci-
c3-b3n-sob e-el-pa imonio-na u al-de-andaluc-c3-ada-sipna-/20151 (accessed on 14 July 2023).
31.
Cope nicus. Cope nicus Da a Space Ecosys em. Eu ope’s eyes on Ea h. A ailable online: h ps://da aspace.cope nicus.eu/
(accessed on 1 Ma ch 2023).
32.
Li, Q.; Cui, J.; Jiang, W.; Jiao, Q.; Gong, L.; Zhang, J.; Shen, X. Moni o ing o he i e in Muli Coun y on Ma ch 28, 2020, based on
high empo al-spa ial esolu ion emo e sensing echniques. Na . Haza ds Res. 2021,1, 20–31. [C ossRe ]
33.
Andalucian En i onmen al Po al. En i onmen al In o ma ion. Rediam Downloads MUCVA. A ailable online: h ps://po al ediam.
cica.es/desca gas?pa h=/01_CARACTERIZACION_TERRITORIO/06_USOS_COBERTURAS/02_MUCVA_25000 (accessed on 24
Ap il 2023).
34.
Ve din, J.; Ped e os, D.; Eile s, G. No malized Di e en ial Vege a ion Index (NDVI). Wayback Machine. A ailable online: h ps://
web.a chi e.o g/web/20060924035407/h ps://ea lywa ning.usgs.go /cen alame ica/ eadme/FEWSNET-NDVI.doc (accessed on
5 No embe 2023).
35.
UN-SPIDER Knowledge Po al. No malized Bu n Ra io (NBR). A ailable online: h ps://un-spide .o g/es/node/10959 (accessed
on 23 May 2023).
36.
Key, C.; Benson, N. Landscape Assessmen : G ound Measu e o Se e i y, he Composi e Bu n Index; and Remo e Sensing o Se e i y, he
No malized Bu n Ra io; Repo No. RMRS-GTR-164-CD: LA 1-51; USDA Fo es Se ice, Rocky Moun ain Resea ch S a ion: Ogden,
UT, USA, 2006; A ailable online: h ps://www. esea chga e.ne /publica ion/241687027_Landscape_Assessmen _G ound_
measu e_o _se e i y_ he_Composi e_Bu n_Index_and_Remo e_sensing_o _se e i y_ he_No malized_Bu n_Ra io (accessed on
23 May 2023).
37. Zagalikis, G. Remo e Sensing and GIS Applica ions in Wild i es. In echOpen 2023, 1–21. [C ossRe ]
38.
Pue a-Piñe o, C.; Espel a, J.M.; Sánchez-Humanes, B.; Rod igo, A.; Coll, L.; B o ons, L. His o y ma e s: P e ious land use changes
de e mine pos - i e ege a ion eco e y in o es ed Medi e anean landscapes. Fo . Ecol. Manag. 2012,279, 121–127. [C ossRe ]
39.
Les a i, F.; Kim, K.; Adiwibowo, A.; Oc a iani, D.F.; Fishe , M.; Yamashi a, E. Imp o ing Se ice Co e age and Response Times
o Th ee-Wheeled Mobile Fi e Uni s on Pa i Island, Indonesia. T ansp. Res. Rec. 2023,2677, 682–693. [C ossRe ]
40.
Wang, H.; Finney, M.A.; Song, Z.; Wang, Z.; Li, X. Ecological Techniques o wild i e mi iga ion: Two dis inc uelb eak app oaches
and hei usion. Fo . Ecol. Manag. 2021,495, 119376. [C ossRe ]
41.
Ascoli, D.; Mo is, J.V.; Ma che i, M.; Sallus io, L. Land use change owa ds o es s and wooded land co ela es wi h la ge and
equen wild i es in I aly. Ann. Sil ic. Res. 2021,46, 177–188. [C ossRe ]
42.
Pé ez-Cabello, F.; Mon o io, R.; Al es, D.B. Remo e sensing echniques o assess pos - i e ege a ion eco e y. Cu . Opin. En i on.
Sci. Heal h 2021,21, 100251. [C ossRe ]
43.
Cansle , C.A.; Kane, V.R.; Hessbu g, P.F.; Kane, J.T.; Je onimo, S.M.; Lu z, J.A.; Po ak, N.A.; Chu chill, D.J.; La son, A.J. P e ious
wild i es and managemen ea men s Mode a e subsequen i e se e i y. Fo . Ecol. Manag. 2022,504, 119764. [C ossRe ]
44.
Ke e, S. Local communi y pa icipa ion and olun ee ism in wild i e a ea managemen : A sys ema ic e iew. Tu k. J. Fo . 2023,24,
251–261. [C ossRe ]
45.
To, P.L.; Ebo eime, E.; Agyapong, V.I.O. The Impac o wild i es on Men al Heal h: A scoping e iew. Beha . Sci. 2021,11, 126. [C ossRe ]
46.
Mo eno, M.T.G.; González, J.M.S. Analyzing he Dynamics o Fo es Fi es in Málaga P o ince: Assessing he In e play o Vege a ion
and Human In luence on Regional Haza d T ends o e Th ee Decades. Eu o-Medi e . J. En i on. In eg . 2021, 1–21. [C ossRe ]
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .