Ci a ion: B acho-Amado , C.M.;
G ane o-Gallegos, A.;
Baena-Ex eme a, A.; López-Ga cía,
G.D. The E ec o he Mo i a ional
Clima e on Sa is ac ion wi h Physical
Educa ion in Seconda y School
Educa ion: Media ion o Teache
S a egies in Main aining Discipline.
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/bs13020178
Academic Edi o : Sco D. Lane
Recei ed: 5 Janua y 2023
Re ised: 23 Janua y 2023
Accep ed: 14 Feb ua y 2023
Published: 15 Feb ua y 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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4.0/).
beha io al
sciences
A icle
The E ec o he Mo i a ional Clima e on Sa is ac ion wi h
Physical Educa ion in Seconda y School Educa ion: Media ion
o Teache S a egies in Main aining Discipline
Cla a Ma ina B acho-Amado 1, An onio G ane o-Gallegos 1,2,* , An onio Baena-Ex eme a 3
and Ginés Da id López-Ga cía1
1Depa men o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Alme ia, 04120 Alme ia, Spain
2Heal h Resea ch Cen e, Uni e si y o Alme ia, 04120 Alme ia, Spain
3Depa men o Musical, Plas ic and Co po al Exp ession, Facul y o Educa ion Sciences, Uni e si y o
G anada, 18071 G anada, Spain
*Co espondence: ag ane [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
The objec i e o his s udy was o analyze he media ing ole o s a egies o main ain
class oom discipline be ween he mo i a ional clima e gene a ed by he eache and he s uden s’
sa is ac ion wi h physical educa ion classes. The esea ch design was obse a ional, desc ip i e,
c oss-sec ional, and non- andomized. In o al, 2147 seconda y school physical educa ion s uden s
pa icipa ed (M
age
= 15.05; SD = 1.45) (male = 1050; emale = 1097). A s uc u al equa ion model
was calcula ed wi h la en a iables con olled by he eache ’s sex and ime o se ice and using
he scales o he mo i a ional clima e, he eache ’s s a egies o main aining class oom discipline,
and he s uden s’ sa is ac ion wi h physical educa ion classes. The esul s om he model highligh
he impo ance o in insic s a egies in main aining discipline; hese ac as a media o be ween he
mo i a ional clima e owa ds lea ning and he s uden s’ sa is ac ion wi h physical educa ion classes.
In addi ion, he indings e eal he in luence o a pe o mance-o ien ed clima e in p edic ing bo edom
in a class when he eache shows an indi e ence owa ds main aining discipline.
Keywo ds: discipline; mo i a ional clima es; physical educa ion; sa is ac ion
1. In oduc ion
Du ing adolescence, dis up i e beha io s in he class oom pose a se ious p oblem
o he eaching/lea ning p ocess [
1
] and can ha e an impac on sa is ac ion wi h school
i sel , wi h he nega i e impac on s uden s ha his en ails a he academic, social, and
emo ional le els [
2
,
3
]. In he ield o physical educa ion (PE), s udies ying o unde s and
he mechanisms associa ed wi h dis up i e beha io s wi hin he class oom ha e been
conduc ed, e.g., [
2
]. Speci ically, he use o disciplina y beha io s by he eache has been
linked o a dec ease in dis up i e beha io s in PE classes [
4
]. Fo his eason, discipline has
been conside ed one o he mos impo an and di icul educa ional aspec s o manage in
subjec s such as PE [
4
]. The eache plays an impo an ole in managing discipline in he
class oom [
5
]; hence, co ec discipline managemen in he class oom supposes posi i e
a i udes, as well as g ea e enjoymen , sa is ac ion and lea ning o PE [6,7].
The sa is ac ion o s uden s wi h he PE class oom can be impo an o c ea ing
in e es in p ac icing spo s, which is essen ial o s uden s o acqui e physical exe cise
habi s [
6
]. In ac , i is hough ha pe cei ed sa is ac ion wi h PE classes migh , o a
g ea e ex en , be in luenced by he ole ha he eache plays wi hin he class oom. Some
s udies [
8
,
9
] show ha he eache ’s ole can be seen as one o he easons o gene a ing
discipline in he PE class oom; so much so ha some au ho s highligh he mo i a ional
clima e gene a ed by he eache in he class oom as being esponsible o he s uden s’
success ul o ailing beha io s [
10
]. P e ious su eys [
8
,
11
] ha e demons a ed he need
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/bs13020178 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/beha sci
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 2 o 13
o in es iga e in mo e de ail he ole played by he eache in sus aining discipline and
in luencing he social en i onmen in he class oom. Howe e , o da e, we a e unawa e o
any esea ch ha has examined he e ec s o he PE- eache -gene a ed social clima e in he
class oom on subjec sa is ac ion. The e o e, i seems impo an o analyze he po en ial
media ing ole ha migh be played by s a egies o main ain discipline in class when i
comes o inducing s uden sa is ac ion o bo edom, aking in o accoun he pe cep ion o a
ce ain class oom clima e.
1.1. Lea ning and Pe o mance O ien a ions in PE Lessons
Achie emen goal heo y (AGT) [
12
] is one o he heo ies ha can p o ide answe s
ega ding he lea ning o ien a ions p esen in he PE class oom. Acco ding o AGT, he
indi idual is pe cei ed as an o ganism di ec ed by a ional objec i es ha lead o a goal, and
by demons a ing compe ence and abili y in achie emen con ex s. In his case, a pe son’s
achie emen goals cons i u e he main mechanism o judging compe ency and de e mining
hei pe cep ion o achie ing success. In PE, he pe cep ion o success o ailu e depends on
ecognizing he pe o mance objec i e, mainly by dis inguishing wo mo i a ional clima es:
he ask-o ien ed clima e (TC) and he ego-o ien ed clima e (EC) [
13
,
14
]. TC e e s o ha
cen e ed on ask- ocused coope a ion be ween lea ne s, occu ing when he si ua ional
cha ac e is ics o he eache o classma es a e mind ul o suppo ing e o , and success
is ocused on bo h he lea ning p ocess and he in ape sonal c i e ia ela ed o e o
and pe sonal imp o emen . In con as , EC is de ined by mas e y o he ask a any cos ,
whe e success is based on no ma i e and in e pe sonal c i e ia, wi h a puni i e esponse
o e o s and i al y among s uden s [
12
]. S uden s who pe cei e a TC in PE as an end in
i sel p e e challenging asks. They end o ha e un in class, be mo e sa is ied wi h he
subjec [
15
] and pe cei e in insic easons o main aining discipline [
16
]. Con e sely, an
EC will c ea e an en i onmen in which he s uden s y o gain social app o al wi hin he
class g oup [
17
]. As a esul , he s uden s will be less sa is ied wi h he subjec and pe cei e
in ojec ed o indi e en easons o main aining discipline [
16
]. In his sense, we conside
he possible ole o he mo i a ional class oom clima e as a p oximal ac o in he s a egies
o PE eache s o main ain class discipline [18,19].
1.2. S a egies o Main ain Discipline
S a egies o main aining class oom discipline ha e been pa o he pedagogical ap-
p oaches o PE lessons [
20
,
21
]. Acco ding o he ou comes o he cogni i e e alua ion heo y
(CET), s a egies o main aining discipline can be loca ed on a sel -de e mina ion con in-
uum, which includes he ollowing easons [
22
,
23
]: (i) in insic easons, which p oduce
pleasu e, sa is ac ion o exci emen while he pe son pe o ms an ac i i y; (ii) in ojec ed
easons, de e mined by in e nal p essu es aimed a a oiding nega i e assessmen , guil
o shame; (iii) he eache ’s indi e ence owa ds main aining discipline and owa ds he
p e ailing easons o he s uden s eeling a lack o con ol. In his ega d, au ho s Papaioan-
nou [
23
] and Gu ié ez and López [
24
] examined he ela ionship be ween he pe cei ed
mo i a ional clima e and he pe cei ed s a egies by eache s o main aining discipline,
a guing ha a TC was posi i ely ela ed o pe cei ed eaching s a egies ha p omo e
he mos sel -de e mined easons (i.e., in insic easons) o discipline. In con as , EC
mobilizes s a egies ha p omo e in ojec ed easons, as well as pe cep ions o indi e ence
owa ds main aining discipline. Likewise, Gu ié ez and López [
24
] s a ed ha he easons
o being disciplined in he class oom can a y om in insic easons o an indi e ence
owa ds main aining discipline. S uden s who pe cei e mo e sel -de e mined easons om
he eache will ha e g ea e sa is ac ion wi h PE classes, while s uden s who pe cei e less
sel -de e mined easons will become bo ed in PE classes.
1.3. Sa is ac ion wi h Physical Educa ion
Cu en scien i ic e idence emphasizes he impo ance o ensu ing s uden s eel sa -
is ied wi h PE classes [
6
,
21
,
25
]. S uden s’ sa is ac ion wi h classes can in luence hei
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 3 o 13
s ess [
26
], social ela ionships [
27
], and academic pe o mance [
28
,
29
]. Con e sely, dissa -
is ac ion has been associa ed wi h nega i e beha io s such as anxie y [
30
], dep ession [
31
],
and e en d opou beha io s [
32
]. Despi e i s impo ance, we ha e ailed o ind any s udies
analyzing he p edic i e e ec s o mo i a ional clima es (i.e., EC and TC) on sa is ac ion
wi h PE ha also conside he possible ole o he pe cep ion o he discipline s a egies
used by he eache in he class oom.
1.4. The P esen S udy
Based on all o he abo e, he objec i e o his s udy was o analyze he media ing ole
o s a egies o main ain class oom discipline be ween he mo i a ional clima e gene a ed
by he eache and he s uden s’ sa is ac ion wi h PE classes. The ollowing hypo heses
we e es ablished: Fi s , TC is posi i ely ela ed wi h sa is ac ion and nega i ely ela ed
wi h bo edom wi h PE classes (H1); second, ha EC is posi i ely ela ed wi h bo edom
and nega i ely ela ed wi h sa is ac ion wi h PE classes (H2); hi d, he in insic easons o
main aining discipline ac as a posi i e media o be ween TC and s uden s’ sa is ac ion
wi h PE classes (H3); ou h, ha indi e ence and in ojec ed easons o main aining
discipline ac as a nega i e media o be ween TC and sa is ac ion wi h PE classes (H4);
i h, ha indi e ence and in ojec ed easons o main aining discipline ac as a posi i e
media o be ween EC and bo edom wi h PE classes (H5); six h, ha he in insic easons
o main aining discipline ac as a nega i e media o be ween EC and sa is ac ion wi h PE
classes (H6) (Figu e 1).
Beha . Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 14
1.3. Sa is ac ion wi h Physical Educa ion
Cu en scien i ic e idence emphasizes he impo ance o ensu ing s uden s eel sa -
is ied wi h PE classes [6,21,25]. S uden s’ sa is ac ion wi h classes can in luence hei s ess
[26], social ela ionships [27], and academic pe o mance [28,29]. Con e sely, dissa is ac-
ion has been associa ed wi h nega i e beha io s such as anxie y [30], dep ession [31], and
e en d opou beha io s [32]. Despi e i s impo ance, we ha e ailed o ind any s udies
analyzing he p edic i e e ec s o mo i a ional clima es (i.e., EC and TC) on sa is ac ion
wi h PE ha also conside he possible ole o he pe cep ion o he discipline s a egies
used by he eache in he class oom.
1.4. The P esen S udy
Based on all o he abo e, he objec i e o his s udy was o analyze he media ing
ole o s a egies o main ain class oom discipline be ween he mo i a ional clima e gen-
e a ed by he eache and he s uden s’ sa is ac ion wi h PE classes. The ollowing hypo h-
eses we e es ablished: Fi s , TC is posi i ely ela ed wi h sa is ac ion and nega i ely e-
la ed wi h bo edom wi h PE classes (H1); second, ha EC is posi i ely ela ed wi h bo e-
dom and nega i ely ela ed wi h sa is ac ion wi h PE classes (H2); hi d, he in insic ea-
sons o main aining discipline ac as a posi i e media o be ween TC and s uden s’ sa -
is ac ion wi h PE classes (H3); ou h, ha indi e ence and in ojec ed easons o main-
aining discipline ac as a nega i e media o be ween TC and sa is ac ion wi h PE classes
(H4); i h, ha indi e ence and in ojec ed easons o main aining discipline ac as a
posi i e media o be ween EC and bo edom wi h PE classes (H5); six h, ha he in insic
easons o main aining discipline ac as a nega i e media o be ween EC and sa is ac ion
wi h PE classes (H6) (Figu e 1).
Figu e 1. Hypo he ical model wi h he expec ed ela ionships. R. = easons; M.D. = main ain disci-
pline; PE = physical educa ion.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Design and Pa icipan s
The esea ch design was obse a ional, desc ip i e, c oss-sec ional and non- andom-
ized. An a p io i analysis o he s a is ical powe o he adequa e sample size o mee ing
he s udy’s objec i e was ca ied ou using he F ee S a is ics Calcula o .4.0 [33]. I was
es ima ed ha a minimum o 2083 pa icipan s we e needed o he 2 = 0.128 e ec sizes
(ES) wi h a s a is ical powe o 0.99 and a signi icance le el o α = 0.05 in a s uc u al
Figu e 1.
Hypo he ical model wi h he expec ed ela ionships. R. = easons; M.D. = main ain
discipline; PE = physical educa ion.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Design and Pa icipan s
The esea ch design was obse a ional, desc ip i e, c oss-sec ional and non- andomized.
An a p io i analysis o he s a is ical powe o he adequa e sample size o mee ing he
s udy’s objec i e was ca ied ou using he F ee S a is ics Calcula o .4.0 [
33
]. I was
es ima ed ha a minimum o 2083 pa icipan s we e needed o he
2
= 0.128 e ec sizes
(ES) wi h a s a is ical powe o 0.99 and a signi icance le el o
α
= 0.05 in a s uc u al
equa ion model wi h se en la en a iables and 59 obse able a iables. The ollowing
inclusion c i e ia we e es ablished o pa icipa e in his s udy: (i) o be a s uden o he
second, hi d, o ou h g ade o compulso y seconda y educa ion (CSE), o i s yea o
high school (baccalau ea e) o a public seconda y school om he au onomous egion o
Andalusia; (ii) o p o ide in o med consen o pa icipa ion; (iii) egula a endance a
classes; and (i ) ill ou he ques ionnai e comple ely. A o al o 2147 seconda y school
s uden s (male = 1050; emale = 1097) om 18 public seconda y schools loca ed in u ban
and u al con ex s om he au onomous egion o Andalusia, in he p o inces o Alme ía
(17.6%), Có doba (15.7%), G anada (15.9%), Jaén (11.4%), and Se illa (39.4%) pa icipa ed in
he s udy. Dis ibu ion by cou se was as ollows: 35.1% s udied second g ade o CSE; 16.8%,
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 4 o 13
in hi d g ade o CSE; 23.7%, we e ou h g ade s o CSE; and 24.4%, we e in hei i s
yea o high school (baccalau ea e). Thei ages anged be ween 12 and 19 yea s
(M= 15.05;
SD = 1.45). These s uden s had a medium socio-economic le el, wi h a 3% d opou a e
wi h 7% o eign pupils in he class oom. The classes we e mixed (boys and gi ls), and i
was compulso y o all pupils o ake he subjec o PE. The dis ibu ion acco ding o he
eache ’s gende was: 82.2% o s uden s had a male eache and 17.8% had a emale eache .
The wo k expe ience in yea s o he eache s was: M= 15.29 yea s; SD = 10.08. Finally,
s uden s missing da a in any o he se en s udied a iables we e excluded.
2.2. Ins umen s
The Spanish e sion [
13
] o he Lea ning- and Pe o mance-O ien ed Physical Educa-
ion Classes Ques ionnai e (LAPOPECQ) by Papaioannou [
34
] was used. The ins umen
e alua es he pe cep ion o he mo i a ional clima e gene a ed by he eache in he PE
sessions h ough 27 i ems g ouped in o wo ac o s: ask-o ien ed clima e (13 i ems; e.g.,
“The PE eache looks comple ely sa is ied when he s uden s imp o e a e ying ha d”)
and ego-o ien ed clima e (14 i ems; e.g., “S uden s eel e y bad when hey make mis akes
while p ac icing skills o playing games”). The esponses we e collec ed on a Like - ype
scale anging om 0 ( o ally disag ee) o 100 ( o ally ag ee) (in e al: 0, 10, 20, 30,
. . .
100).
The Spanish e sion [
35
] o Papaioannou’s S a egies o Sus ain Discipline Scale
(SSDS) [
23
] was used. The ins umen consis s o 27 i ems ha measu e he s uden s’
pe cep ion o he s a egies used by he eache s o main ain discipline in PE classes. In his
s udy, 24 i ems g ouped in o h ee ac o s we e used: he eache ’s emphasis on in insic
easons o main ain discipline (16 i ems; e.g., “They a ac ou a en ion because hey
make us belie e i is impo an o do well in physical educa ion lessons”); he eache ’s
emphasis on in ojec ed easons o main ain discipline (5 i ems; e.g., “They make us eel
uncom o able when we a e no disciplined”); and he eache ’s indi e ence o main aining
discipline (3 i ems; e.g., “They eally do no hing o main ain discipline”), wi h h ee i ems
being emo ed om he o iginal scale [
35
]. The esponses we e collec ed on a Like - ype
scale anging om 0 ( o ally disag ee) o 100 ( o ally ag ee) (in e al: 0, 10, 20, 30,
. . .
100).
The Spanish e sion [6] o he Spo Sa is ac ion Ins umen wi h Physical Educa ion
(SSI-PE) [
36
,
37
] was used. The ins umen consis s o eigh i ems g ouped in o wo di-
mensions ha measu e he sa is ac ion/enjoymen wi h PE classes (e.g., “I usually enjoy
lea ning in physical educa ion lessons”) and bo edom wi h PE classes (3 i ems; e.g., when
doing spo , I am usually bo ed”). The esponses we e collec ed on a i e-poin Like - ype
scale anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5 (s ongly ag ee).
2.3. P ocedu e
A e ob aining au ho iza ion o ca y ou he s udy om he managemen o he
educa ional cen e s, he s uden s we e in o med o he pu pose and impo ance o he
esea ch and hei igh s as pa icipan s in i , he way o comple e each scale, he anonymi y
o he answe s, ha hese would no a ec any quali ica ion in any way, and ha hey
could cease o pa icipa e in he s udy a any ime. Da a collec ion was pe o med by a
esea che du ing he PE lesson. All included pa icipan s ga e hei in o med consen
p io o pa icipa ing. The s udy was ca ied ou ollowing he Decla a ion o Helsinki and
he p o ocol was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee (Re : 19002018).
2.4. Da a Analysis
As a p elimina y s ep, he desc ip i e s a is ics, and co ela ions be ween a iables,
as well as he McDonald’s omega coe icien o each ac o , we e calcula ed wi h SPSS
.28, aking alues >0.70 o indica e good eliabili y [
38
]. In he main analyses, a wo-
s ep s uc u al equa ion model (SEM) was calcula ed wi h AMOS .26 [
39
] o e alua e
he p edic i e ela ionships be ween he mo i a ional clima e pe cei ed in PE class and
he sa is ac ion/enjoymen o bo edom wi h his subjec , analyzing he media ing ole o
he di e en s a egies used by he eache o main ain class oom discipline. In he i s
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 5 o 13
s ep ( he measu emen model), he obus ness o he bidi ec ional ela ionships be ween
he model dimensions was e alua ed. In he second s ep, he p edic ion e ec s be ween
he a iables we e analyzed, con olling o he e ec s o he eache ’s sex and ime o
se ice. In his ega d, i should be no ed ha in he e en o a iola ion o he mul i a ia e
no mali y assump ion (Ma dia’s coe icien = 67.32; p< 0.001), he analysis was pe o med
wi h he maximum likelihood me hod and he 5000-i e a ion boo s apping p ocedu e [
39
].
The model’s goodness o i was e alua ed conside ing he ollowing goodness-o - i
indices: chi-squa ed a io alues and deg ees o eedom (
χ2
/d ), CFI (compa a i e i
index), TLI (Tucke –Lewis index), RMSEA ( oo -mean-squa e e o o app oxima ion) wi h
i s 90% (CI) con idence in e al, and SRMR (s anda dized oo -mean-squa e esidual).
Acco ding o au ho s such as Hu and Ben le [
40
] o Ma sh e al. [
41
], o he
χ2
/d a io,
alues < 5.0 a e conside ed accep able, as a e CFI and TLI alues > 0.90, and RMSEA and
SRMR alues < 0.08. The di ec and indi ec e ec s we e analyzed aking in o accoun he
p oposal o Sh ou and Bolge [
42
]: he indi ec e ec s (i.e., media ed) and hei 95% CI
we e es ima ed wi h he boo s apping echnique and he signi ican indi ec e ec (p< 0.05)
was conside ed i hei 95% CI did no include he ze o alue. Al hough AMOS p o ides
his in o ma ion a e he analyses ha e been pe o med, o acili a e in e p e a ion o
he eade we include an explana ion o how he o al e ec s we e calcula ed. The o al
e ec be ween wo a iables (A and C) wi h media ing ole o o he a iables (e.g., B) is
calcula ed: he sum o indi ec e ec s + di ec e ec . Finally, in o de o p o ide be e
in e p e a ion o he esul s, he o al explained a iance (R
2
) was conside ed as a measu e
o he e ec size (ES) [
43
]. In acco dance wi h Cohen [
44
], he ollowing ES alues we e
conside ed: small (<0.02), medium (close o 0.13), and la ge (>0.26). The CIs (95%) we e
also calcula ed o con i m ha no R
2
alue was <0.02, as his is he minimum alue equi ed
o he in e p e a ion.
3. Resul s
3.1. P elimina y Resul s
Table 1de ails he desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ions be ween he a iables ( u he ,
a able wi h he desc ip i e s a is ics o each i em can be ound in Appendix A). Wi h
ega d o he pe cep ion o a mo i a ional clima e, i should be no ed ha he a e age
alues o he mas e y clima e a e highe han hose o he pe o mance clima e. Rega ding
s a egies o main ain discipline, he highes a e age sco e co esponds o in insic easons,
ollowed by in ojec ed easons and indi e ence. Finally, sa is ac ion wi h PE has an
a e age alue double ha o he a e age achie ed o bo edom. Rega ding he co ela ions,
he mas e y clima e p esen s he highes posi i e co ela ions wi h he pe o mance clima e,
wi h in insic easons and wi h he sa is ac ion wi h PE, while he co ela ions wi h he
in ojec ed easons, indi e ence and bo edom a e nega i e. Likewise, he pe o mance
clima e posi i ely co ela es wi h he h ee discipline a iables and sa is ac ion wi h PE.
In insic easons ha e he highes posi i e ela ionship wi h TC and wi h sa is ac ion as
well as he mos no able nega i e ela ionship wi h bo edom. Finally, i should be no ed
ha he highes co ela ion o he in ojec ed easons is wi h indi e ence o main ain
discipline, while he co ela ion be ween sa is ac ion and bo edom is nega i e. Rega ding
eliabili y, all dimensions achie e alues >0.70.
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ion be ween he a iables.
Va iable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Task-O ien ed Clima e 0.45 ** 0.49 ** −0.07 * −0.17 ** 0.42 ** −0.26 **
2.Ego-O ien ed Clima e 0.28 ** 0.23 ** 0.21 ** 0.23 ** 0.02
3. In insic Reasons o
Main ain Discipline
−0.06 * −0.12 ** 0.40 ** −0.19 **
4. In ojec ed Reasons o
Main ain Discipline 0.50 ** 0.00 0.19 **

Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 6 o 13
Table 1. Con .
Va iable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. Indi e ence o Main ain Discipline −0.03 0.40 **
6. Sa is ac ion wi h PE −0.55 **
7. Bo edom wi h PE
Range 0–100 0–100 0–100 0–100 0–100 1–5 1–5
Omega 0.81 0.80 0.87 0.82 0.71 0.92 0.84
Mean 68.23 54.45 73.12 51.67 44.75 4.14 2.22
S anda d De ia ion 17.34 16.65 19.43 21.77 18.66 0.94 0.98
Skewness −0.21 −0.01 −0.67 0.28 0.67 −1.10 0.94
Ku osis −0.55 −0.06 0.05 −0.72 −0.07 1.11 0.18
No e. ** The co ela ion is signi ican a he 0.01 le el; * he co ela ion is signi ican a he 0.05 le el.
3.2. Main Resul s
In s ep 1, he model p esen ed accep able goodness-o - i indices:
χ2
/d = 2.624,
p< 0.001;
CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.035 (90% CI = 0.031; 0.039), SRMR = 0.035. In
s ep 2 he p edic i e SEM model also showed an accep able i :
χ2
/d = 3.523, p< 0.001;
CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.045 (90% CI = 0.041; 0.048), SRMR = 0.048. The SEM
achie ed an explained a iance o 32% o indi e ence o main ain discipline, 28% o
he emphasis on in insic easons o main ain discipline, 24% o in ojec ed easons, 21%
o sa is ac ion/enjoymen wi h PE, and 17% o bo edom wi h PE. A e con olling o
he eache ’s sex and se ice ime, in he SEM (Figu e 2) one can obse e ha he TC has
a di ec posi i e p edic i e e ec on sa is ac ion wi h PE, as well as on in insic easons
o main ain discipline, whe eas he p edic i e ela ionship is nega i e wi h in ojec ed
easons and indi e ence o main ain discipline. I should also be no ed ha he in insic
easons a iable ac s as a media o be ween TC and sa is ac ion wi h PE, inc easing he
o al posi i e e ec be ween he wo a iables (0.36). On he o he hand, he EC has no
signi ican di ec ela ionship wi h he consequence a iables (i.e., sa is ac ion/enjoymen
wi h PE o bo edom wi h PE), bu i should be no ed ha he eache ’s indi e ence o
main aining class oom discipline ac s as a media ing a iable be ween he pe cep ion o
EC and bo edom. Tha is, when he clima e pe cei ed by s uden s is owa ds pe o mance
and he eache is indi e en o main aining discipline, he p obabili y o bo edom wi h he
PE class oom inc eases (0.13) (see Table 2).
Beha . Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 14
Figu e 2. P edic i e ela ionships o he pe cei ed class oom mo i a ional clima e on sa is ac-
ion/enjoymen and bo edom in physical educa ion classes h ough he media ion o eache s a e-
gies o main ain discipline. No e: ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05; PE = physical educa ion; in insic R. o M.D.
= in insic easons o main ain discipline; in ojec ed R. o M.D. = in ojec ed easons o main ain
discipline; indi e ence o M.D. = indi e ence o main ain discipline; R2 = explained a iance; CI =
con idence in e al. Dashed lines ep esen non-signi ican ela ionships.
Table 2. Es ima ion o he signi ican s anda dized pa ame e s and s a is ics o he media ion
model.
Independen Va iable
Dependen
Va iable
Media o
β
SE
95% CI
In
Sup
Di ec e ec s
Task-O ien ed Clima e
Sa is ac ion wi h PE
0.20 **
0.04
0.15
0.26
Task-O ien ed Clima e
In insic Reasons o Main ain
Discipline
0.49 **
0.05
0.38
0.55
Task-O ien ed Clima e
In ojec ed Reasons o Main ain
Discipline
−0.37 **
0.07
0.32
0.44
Task-O ien ed Clima e
Indi e ence o Main ain Disci-
pline
−0.56 *
0.06
0.48
0.65
Ego-O ien ed Clima e
In ojec ed Reasons o Main ain
Discipline
0.45 *
0.03
0.41
0.54
Ego-O ien ed Clima e
Indi e ence o Main ain Disci-
pline
0.46 *
0.05
0.42
0.55
In insic Reasons o Main-
ain Discipline
Sa is ac ion wi h PE
0.32 **
0.05
0.26
0.35
In insic Reasons o Main-
ain Discipline
Bo edom wi h PE
−0.11 *
0.03
0.04
0.16
Indi e ence o Main ain
Discipline
Bo edom wi h PE
0.28 **
0.04
0.25
0.36
Indi ec E ec s
Task-O ien ed Clima e
Sa is ac ion wi h PE
In insic Reasons o
Main ain Discipline
0.16 *
0.06
0.07
0.22
Task-O ien ed Clima e
Bo edom wi h PE
Indi e ence o Main ain
Discipline
−0.16 *
0.05
0.09
0.26
Figu e 2.
P edic i e ela ionships o he pe cei ed class oom mo i a ional clima e on sa is ac-
ion/enjoymen and bo edom in physical educa ion classes h ough he media ion o eache s a e-
gies o main ain discipline. No e: ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05; PE = physical educa ion; in insic R. o
M.D. = in insic
easons o main ain discipline; in ojec ed R. o M.D. = in ojec ed easons o main-
ain discipline; indi e ence o M.D. = indi e ence o main ain discipline; R
2
= explained a iance;
CI = con idence in e al. Dashed lines ep esen non-signi ican ela ionships.
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 7 o 13
Table 2.
Es ima ion o he signi ican s anda dized pa ame e s and s a is ics o he media ion model.
Independen Va iable Dependen
Va iable Media o βSE 95% CI
In Sup
Di ec e ec s
Task-O ien ed Clima e Sa is ac ion wi h PE 0.20 ** 0.04 0.15 0.26
Task-O ien ed Clima e In insic Reasons o
Main ain Discipline 0.49 ** 0.05 0.38 0.55
Task-O ien ed Clima e In ojec ed Reasons o
Main ain Discipline
−0.37 ** 0.07 0.32 0.44
Task-O ien ed Clima e Indi e ence o Main ain
Discipline
−0.56 * 0.06 0.48 0.65
Ego-O ien ed Clima e In ojec ed Reasons o
Main ain Discipline 0.45 * 0.03 0.41 0.54
Ego-O ien ed Clima e Indi e ence o Main ain
Discipline 0.46 * 0.05 0.42 0.55
In insic Reasons o
Main ain Discipline Sa is ac ion wi h PE 0.32 ** 0.05 0.26 0.35
In insic Reasons o
Main ain Discipline Bo edom wi h PE −0.11 * 0.03 0.04 0.16
Indi e ence o Main ain
Discipline Bo edom wi h PE 0.28 ** 0.04 0.25 0.36
Indi ec E ec s
Task-O ien ed Clima e Sa is ac ion wi h PE In insic Reasons o
Main ain Discipline 0.16 * 0.06 0.07 0.22
Task-O ien ed Clima e Bo edom wi h PE Indi e ence o Main ain
Discipline
−0.16 * 0.05 0.09 0.26
Ego-O ien ed Clima e Bo edom wi h PE Indi e ence o Main ain
Discipline 0.13 0.04 0.07 0.24
To al E ec s
Task-O ien ed Clima e Sa is ac ion wi h PE In insic Reasons o
Main ain Discipline 0.36 * 0.05 0.28 0.45
No e.
β
= es ima ion o s anda dized pa ame e s; SE = s anda d e o ; 95% CI = 95% con idence in e al;
In = 95% CI lowe limi ; Sup = 95% CI uppe limi ; PE = physical educa ion; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05.
4. Discussion
The objec i e o his esea ch was o analyze he media ing ole o he eache ’s
s a egies o main ain discipline be ween he pe cei ed class oom mo i a ional clima e and
sa is ac ion wi h PE classes. The main esul s show ha TC has an indi ec and posi i e
e ec on sa is ac ion wi h PE media ed by in insic easons o main ain discipline. In
addi ion, a di ec and posi i e e ec was ound be ween EC and bo edom wi h PE classes
media ed by an indi e ence o main aining discipline.
In ela ion o he hypo hesized model, he esul s e eal ha TC has a di ec posi i e
e ec on sa is ac ion wi h PE (H1), as well as a di ec posi i e e ec media ed by in insic
easons (H4) and a di ec nega i e e ec media ed by he indi e ence o main aining disci-
pline (H5). Al hough hese ela ionships a e s a is ically signi ican , i should be no ed ha
he p edic i e ela ionship is highe in he ela ionship be ween TC and sa is ac ion wi h
PE media ed by in insic easons o main ain discipline (H4). These esul s co obo a e
p e ious s udies ha show he in luence o TC on mo e sel -de e mined s a egies owa ds
discipline [
23
,
45
]. Acco dingly, eache s who o ien hei me hodological s a egies owa ds
he p ocess will gene a e a pe cep ion o using in insic easons o main ain discipline, hus
leading o g ea e sa is ac ion wi h PE. This could be because TC is a posi i e p edic o o
sel -de e mined beha io s, capable o egula ing beha io s [
46
] di ec ed owa ds in ol e-
men in PE classes [
47
]. In ac , a mas e y-o ien ed class oom clima e can mobilize he
s uden ’s in e nal esou ces, hus de eloping he sel - ealiza ion o hei objec i es and a
g ea e sa is ac ion and in e es in lea ning [
13
,
48
]. Speci ically, TC in luences he in insic
easons o main ain discipline in he class oom, showing i sel o be a p edic o o sa is-
ac o y consequences owa ds PE. The e o e, es ablishing mo i a ional clima es o ien ed
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 8 o 13
owa ds mas e y leads o a sel - egula ed app oach ega ding easons o main aining
discipline and ha ing enjoyable expe iences in PE.
Con inuing wi h he hypo hesized model, he esul s e eal ha EC has an indi ec
posi i e e ec on bo edom wi h PE classes, media ed by an indi e ence o main aining
discipline (H5). Likewise, he p esen s udy indica es he absence o a di ec ela ionship
be ween EC and bo edom, as well as a nega i e media ion by he in insic easons o
main ain discipline, hus ejec ing H2 and H6. The pe cep ion o an EC gene a es a posi i e
p edic i e ela ionship o an indi e ence o main ain discipline, omen ing bo edom wi h
PE classes (H5). These s a egies can lead o s uden s pe cei ing he eache as being
unconce ned wi h con ol and discipline in he class oom, and o hem no unde s anding
why hey should beha e p ope ly, no in e nalizing hese easons o be disciplined. Ou
esul s suppo o he esul s ound in p e ious esea ch, such as hose o G ane o-Gallegos
e al. [
15
] and Papaioannou [
23
], by e idencing an indi ec posi i e ela ionship be ween
EC and bo edom wi h PE classes. This esul could be due o he ac ha an indi e ence o
main aining discipline in he class oom has an in luence on subsequen beha io s [
35
,
49
].
Speci ically, indi e ence is ela ed o he lowes le el o oli ion and ep esen s he o al
absence o in en ion wi h espec o he p eceding beha io [
50
]. The e o e, i is impo an o
a oid pe o mance-o ien ed class oom mo i a ional clima es so as no o de elop bo edom
in PE classes.
4.1. Limi a ions and Fu u e P ospec s
In line wi h he abo e esul s, he SEM helps o unde s and how cha ac e is ic elemen s
o he easons o applying discipline h ough a gi en mo i a ional clima e migh in luence
sa is ac ion o bo edom wi h PE. Ano he s eng h o his s udy is he la ge sample size
used. Despi e he abo e indings, he p esen esea ch also has ce ain limi a ions. Fi s ,
he con enience and non- andomized sampling me hod used makes i di icul o in e p e
he esul s o o ex apola e hem o he whole educa ional communi y. Secondly, he
in o ma ion ega ding he clima es was collec ed ia ques ionnai es ha we e sel - epo ed
by he s uden s, which can a ec he subjec i e esponses abou he clima es gene a ed in
he PE class oom. Fu u e lines o esea ch should s udy pe cei ed clima es using di e en
ins umen s and conside he pe cep ion o he eache s in o de o iangula e he da a.
Thi d, ac o s such as didac ic knowledge, eache ’s cu iculum o eache ’s age may a ec
he eaching app oach in he class oom. In his espec , u u e esea ch should examine he
in luence o hese ac o s on s uden s’ pe cep ions o discipline. Fou h, he age ange o
he s uden s was be ween 12 and 19 yea s. Du ing his age ange, he e a e di e ences in
men al s eng h and in elligence among he s uden s [
51
], which may a ec he answe s
o he ques ionnai es. Finally, au ho s such as Wa bu on [
52
] ha e a gued ha s uden s’
pe cep ions o lea ning- and pe o mance-o ien ed clima es a y o e ime, making i
di icul o gene alize he esul s. Fu u e esea ch should es ablish longi udinal designs
ha measu e he in luence o clima es on sa is ac ion wi h he subjec o e an en i e school
yea , conside ing he ole o he di e en easons o main aining discipline.
4.2. P ac ical Implica ions
The esul s o his esea ch highligh he p ac ical impo ance [
53
] o c ea ing mo i a-
ional clima es owa ds lea ning [
54
] ha in luence sa is ac ion wi h PE [
55
]. In his ega d,
i is necessa y o he eache o es ablish s a egies aimed a gene a ing o ien a ions ocused
on e o , lea ning, and pe sonal imp o emen [
56
]; o example, using o ma i e assess-
men s (i.e., including posi i e commen a ies h ough eedback on s uden p og ess) [
57
],
gi ing au ho i y o s uden s (i.e., le ing hem pa icipa e in he ins uc ional p ocess),
encou aging ecogni ion (i.e., publicly acknowledging e o ), p omo ing g oupings (i.e.,
c ea ing he e ogeneous and coope a i e g oups in which s uden s collabo a e wi h o he s
o imp o e hei skills) [58], p o iding empo al lexibili y (i.e., in he deli e y o lea ning
asks and ac i i ies), and es ablishing choices in lea ning asks and con en (i.e., he le el o
di icul y) [
59
,
60
]. Likewise, hese indings p opose he use o in insic easons o main ain
Beha . Sci. 2023,13, 178 9 o 13
discipline h ough s a egies such as explaining o s uden s he ules o which hey mus
ake esponsibili y, p o iding au onomy in p ac ice and showing conce n ega ding he
accep ance o esponsibili y. Simila ly, hese esul s sugges ha he eache should a oid
gene a ing pe o mance-o ien ed clima es by minimizing he use o coe ci e language,
educing s a egies based on ego in ol emen and educing compa a i e c i e ia ha en-
cou age punishmen when doing some hing w ong and ewa ds when doing some hing
igh .
5. Conclusions
The indings o he p esen s udy show ha he in insic easons o main ain discipline
p o ided by a TC p omo e sa is ac ion wi h PE. On he o he hand, hey also show he
posi i e in luence o an EC on bo edom wi h PE, as measu ed by indi e ence owa ds
main aining discipline. Acco dingly, mo e s a egies o ien ed owa ds lea ning and mas e y
should be applied o encou age sa is ac ion wi h he subjec and p omo e and main ain he
quali y o lea ning in PE classes while a oiding ego- o pe o mance-o ien ed clima es.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, C.M.B.-A. and A.G.-G.; me hodology, A.G.-G. and A.B.-E.;
o mal analysis, A.G.-G. and A.B.-E.; in es iga ion, C.M.B.-A., A.G.-G., A.B.-E. and G.D.L.-G.; da a
cu a ion, C.M.B.-A.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, C.M.B.-A., and G.D.L.-G.; w i ing— e iew
and edi ing, A.G.-G. and A.B.-E. This a icle is associa ed o he Doc o al Thesis by C.M.B.-A. All
au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion
o Helsinki and app o ed by he Uni e si y E hics Commi ee (p o ocol code Re : 19002018).
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he
s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho . The da a a e no publicly a ailable due o p i acy.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
Table A1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o each i em (all used scales).
I ems Mean S anda d
De ia ion
Scale: The Lea ning- and Pe o mance-O ien ed Physical Educa ion Classes Ques ionnai e
1 El/a p o eso /a de EF es ámás sa is echo cuando odos los alumnos/as ap enden algo nue o 71.06 27.35
2 Du an e la clase, los/as alumnos/as in en an sob esali unos sob e los o os 62.35 25.67
3 Los/as alumnos/as se mues an p eocupados po hace mal las a eas que se les p opone,
debido a que es o pod ía p o oca la desap obación de los/as compañe os/as 52.86 27.06
4 Es muy impo an e gana sin es o za se 39.60 30.17
5 La mejo o ma de enseña es que me ayuden a ap ende el eje cicio po mímismo 63.08 25.32
6 El/la p o eso /a de EF se mues a comple amen e sa is echo/a cuando los/as es udian es
mejo an después de abaja du o 68.96 25.19
7 Los/as alumnos/as in en a consegui ecompensan sob esaliendo sob e los/as o os/as
compañe os/as 55.94 26.52
8 Los/as alumnos/as se mues an p eocupados po hace mal las a eas que se les p opone
po que pod ían queda mal a los ojos del/la p o eso /a de EF 53.43 27.03
9 El/a p o eso /a de EF se mues a comple amen e sa is echo con aquellos alumnos/as que se las
a eglan pa a gana con poco es ue zo 49.47 29.63
10 La mejo o ma de enseña es que me ayuden a ap ende cómo usa la EF pa a mejo a mi
salud 65.03 25.20