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Ugandan women’s app oaches o doing business
and becoming en ep eneu s
Soledad Viei ez-Ce deño, Rose Manzane a-Ruiz & Olga Ma g e M. M.
Namasembe
To ci e his a icle: Soledad Viei ez-Ce deño, Rose Manzane a-Ruiz & Olga Ma g e M.
M. Namasembe (2023): Ugandan women’s app oaches o doing business and becoming
en ep eneu s, Thi d Wo ld Qua e ly, DOI: 10.1080/01436597.2023.2189580
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01436597.2023.2189580
© 2023 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
Published online: 30 Ma 2023.
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Thi d Wo ld Qua Te ly
Ugandan women’s app oaches o doing business and
becoming en ep eneu s
Soledad Viei ez-Ce deñoa , Rose Manzane a-Ruizb and Olga Ma g e M.
M. Namasembec
adepa men o Social an h opology, uni e si y o G anada, G anada, Spain; bdepa men o Sociology,
uni e si y o G anada, G anada, Spain; cins i u e o Gende , and Women’s S udies, uni e si y o G anada,
G anada, Spain
ABSTRACT
Uganda anks i s in emale en ep eneu ship in A ica, and Kampala
is one o he coun y’s mos impo an u ban/comme cial hubs. The
ma ke s o Kale we, Mulagoo-Nsooba, Nakase o, N inda and Seguku
cons i u e he esea ch se ing. Impo an ading cen es, hese ma -
ke s a e also ele an social spaces o locals o in e ac wi h each o he .
This esea ch add esses Ugandan women’s app oaches o doing busi-
ness and being en ep eneu s, o e ing a ypology: business owne ,
su i al en ep eneu , oppo uni y en ep eneu and ansi ional en e-
p eneu . Based on a quali a i e me hodology, 16 emale en ep eneu s
we e in e iewed du ing ieldwo k (2019–2021). Da a we e collec ed
h ough open-ended in e iews, and a hema ic analysis ollowed. By
add essing emale businesses om a pos colonial A ican pe spec i e,
he connec ions be ween cul u e and en ep eneu ship a e made
explici in unde s anding women’s en ep eneu ship, hus illing a gap
in he exis ing li e a u e which has mos ly ocussed on he in o mal/
popula economies (as sa e ha en o ic ims o neolibe alism) o he
A ican economic c ea i i y (as panacea o de elopmen ). Whe he
d i en by necessi y o oppo uni y, he esul s show ha Ugandan
women’s en ep eneu ial ini ia i es a e g ounded in cul u al and social
alues ha o e come he s uc u al cons ain s hey ace.
In oduc ion
Uganda anks i s in emale en ep eneu ship in A ica, ollowed by Ghana, Bo swana, Malawi
and Angola (MCIWE 2019). Howe e , he e is a sho age o esea ch on A ican emale en e-
p eneu s excep o a ew ela i ely ecen s udies (Anyansi-A chibong 2021; Mo eno-Ga a a
and Jiménez-Za co 2019; Boa eng 2018). In his pape we analyse Ugandan women’s en e-
p eneu ship by using a quali a i e app oach, and ‘in e oga ing en ep eneu ship om he
unique pe spec i e o women’s li ed expe iences’ (Boa eng 2018, 26). Based on a selec ion
o 16 women, in e iewed du ing ieldwo k (2019–2021), we show a ypology o emale
en ep eneu s ope a ing in he ma ke s o Kampala.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 21 June 2021
Accep ed 7 Ma ch 2023
KEYWORDS
Women
gende
en ep eneu ship
in o mali y
c ea i i y
Uganda
© 2023 The au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
CONTACT ose Manzane a- uiz ose @ug .es
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01436597.2023.2189580
This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion-NonComme cial-Node i a i es license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way. The e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
2S. VIEITEZ-CERDEÑO ETAL.
In sub-Saha an A ica, up o 42% o he non-ag icul u al labou o ce is es ima ed o be
sel -employed; his is he highes a e in he wo ld, and women a e mo e likely o become
en ep eneu s han men. App oxima ely 52% o wo king Ugandans a e sel -employed
acco ding o one sou ce (Copley, Gokalp, and Ki kwood 2021), al hough o he sou ces poin
o 76% o wo king na ionals (UNHCR 2021). E en hough he a e o emale sel -employed
is 82.3% (WB 2019), no much esea ch has been done o cha ac e ise women’s en ep e-
neu ship, and his s udies con ibu es o illing ha gap. Female en ep eneu ship con ib-
u es eno mously o socioeconomic de elopmen in A ica, bu measu es designed o
p omo e women en ep eneu s ha e been widely c i icised, and he esea ch con inues o
be limi ed (Anyansi-A chibong 2021; Mo eno-Ga a a and Jiménez-Za co; Boa eng 2018;
B ush and Coope 2012). The main c i icism ocusses on s uc u al condi ions ha hinde
en ep eneu ial sus ainabili y, as well as on con adic o y si ua ions ha a ise when he same
models and ins i u ions a e used in di e en con ex s (McQuaid, Vande beck, and Mbabazi
2020; Iwu and E im 2019).
The ma ke s o Kampala: Kale we, Mulagoo-Nsooba, Nakase o, N inda
and Seguku
This esea ch was conduc ed in he cen al Ugandan ci y o Kampala, a business capi al wi h
a p ojec ed popula ion o o e 1.6 million (UBOS 2021). Due o he subs an ial numbe o
mig an s om o he coun ies, he e is a signi ican in lux o people and goods o Kampala,
he la ges ci y o he coun y. Du ing he las wo decades, al hough s ill classi ied as a
low-income coun y (Anyansi-A chibong 2021), Uganda has been apidly g owing (3%) (WB
2019), al hough his has no ansla ed di ec ly in o a be e s anda d o li ing o many
Ugandans (Nyombi 2016). Businesses a e booming in Kampala, pa icula ly in ma ke places,
along oadsides and in neighbou hoods. Howe e , mos en e p ises a e in o mal, and mos
o he u ban popula ion li e in low-income o poo se lemen s wi h minimal in as uc u e
and se ices (Anyansi-A chibong 2021).
Public ma ke s in Kampala a e impo an o he li elihood o small local e ail businesses.
Fo cen u ies local public ma ke s ha e played a signi ican ole in communi ies in A ica.
These ma ke s a e impo an ading cen es whe e people can ea n a li ing, bu hey also
c ea e social spaces in neighbou hoods o locals o mee and in e ac wi h each o he , as
well as linking u al and u ban communi ies (APS 2020). The in e iewees ope a e in he
ma ke s o Kale we, Mulagoo-Nsooba, Nakase o, N inda and Seguku. These ma ke s do no
ha e nea by bus s ops, meaning ha cus ome s mus walk long dis ances. Kale we ma ke ,
like o he s in he a ea, has undesigna ed bus s ops 5–10 minu es apa (APS 2020). Kale we
is a highly popula ed, low-income neighbou hood, no h o Kampala’s cen al business dis-
ic , wi h a busy oadside ma ke place. Mulago-Nsooba e e s o an a ea loca ed on wo hills
in he cen al dis ic o Kampala, also a low-income a ea whe e he inc ease o comme cial
p ope y and indus ial expansion on ma shland has g ea ly disad an aged he poo because
o pe sis ing looding. Nakase o is in cen al Kampala, and go e nmen o ices, including
he Pa liamen o Uganda, as well as he mos luxu ious ho els and es au an s, and banking
ins i u ions, a e loca ed on op o he Nakase o hill. Comme cial ac i i y is booming in he
egions wes and sou h o Nakase o. N inda, in no h-eas e n Kampala, is ano he high-in-
come a ea, a new u ban ma ke place, e y busy and li ely. N inda s a ed as a small ading
THIRD WORLD QUARTERLy 3
cen e in he 1960s, wi h a a me s’ ma ke and a ew shops; by he mid-1980s, N inda had
become a endy neighbou hood o upscale esiden s. Finally, Seguku is loca ed in
sou h-wes e n Kampala, a 15-minu e d i e om he ci y cen e, and is a high-income neigh-
bou hood, ull o ho els o ou is s.
Female en ep eneu ship in pos colonial A ican pe spec i e: popula
economies and c ea i i y
The embedding o economic ac i i y in socie y/cul u e allows he join analysis o economic
and socio-cul u al aspec s o explain economic beha iou (Alenda-Demou iez 2022; Anyansi-
A chibong 2021). The A ican p inciple o ecip oci y as linked o en ep eneu ship shows
in ea u es such as buye –selle in e ac ion, collabo a i e pa ne ships and he os e ing o
long- e m ela ionships (Da ley, Lue hge, and Blankson 2013). Undoub edly, he connec ions
be ween cul u e and en ep eneu ship a e e ealing o unde s anding emale en ep e-
neu ship in Uganda. S udies ha e poin ed o women’s easons o s a ing a business as
necessa y o main ain hemsel es and hei child en, mee ing he mos immedia e amily
needs (Anyansi-A chibong 2021; Boa eng 2018). The in e connec ion be ween social and
amilial ela ionships o women en ep eneu s is c ucial (Mon ei h and Cam ield 2019), wi h
colla e al social ela ionships, whe e g oup, ex ended amily and/o lineage goals and
well-being p e ail (Mupedziswa, Rankopo, and Lengwe-Ka embula 2019); as well as espec
o elde s and a sense o communi y (Da ley and Blankson 2008). Thus, he mos p e alen
easons o emale en ep eneu ship include he ollowing: social and kinship ies; g oup,
ex ended amily and/o lineage wel a e; espec o elde s (gene a ion); and sense o com-
muni y (Mon ei h and Cam ield 2019; Mupedziswa, Rankopo, and Lengwe-Ka embula 2019).
We app oach pos colonialism he e no as a single heo y, bu as a p oblema isa ion o
emale en ep eneu ship in con empo a y de elopmen heo y o pa icula ele ance o
A ica (Moo e 2020), because i pu s in o alue women’s economic signi icance and achie e-
men s (Hi sch and Lopes 2020). A pos colonial lens is ele an , since Eu ocen ic miscon-
cep ions esul ing om colonial and de elopmen his o y ha e p io i ised ma e ial weal h
and indi idualism in esea ch on A ican en ep eneu ship (Allen and Amadi 2022; Nkomo
2011). Resea ch on he cha ac e isa ion o women en ep eneu s in A ica has been limi ed
(Boa eng 2018; Bullini O landi 2017; Tshabalala and Ezeuduji 2016; Lange ang, Nama o u,
and Dawa 2012). When looking a cul u al ea u es, s udies ei he show cul u e as an obs a-
cle o de elopmen (Kansheba 2020) o closely sc u inise socialisa ion and cul u al alues
o en ep eneu s as jux aposed (Mamadou 2020). In bo h ins ances he local knowledge
and expe iences o A ican women en ep eneu s a e no conside ed in he analysis, no is
he e any ca ego isa ion o he di e en ways o doing business and being an en ep eneu
in Uganda (Anyansi-A chibong 2021). Thus, a speci ic ocus on women’s knowledge, expe-
iences o pe cep ions is equi ed o hen explain hei business p ac ices induc i ely in
con ex , e en i hey emain ma ginalised in he so-called in o mal o popula sec o s o
he economy. Cla i ying he links be ween cul u e and en ep eneu ship is impo an o
unde s anding Ugandan women’s economic ac i i ies, usually classi ied ei he as popula /
in o mal economies o , mo e ecen ly, c ea i e economies, bo h linked o inc easing neo-
libe alism in A ica.
4S. VIEITEZ-CERDEÑO ETAL.
Ma kedly emale A ican popula economies: sel -employmen and business
owne ship
Many o he emale en ep eneu ial ac i i ies a e amed in he in o mal economy (Chen and
Ca e 2020), a sec o ha has been much con es ed since Ha (1973) s udied he case o
he F a as mig an s in Acc a (Ghana). A he ime, he au ho s essed he impo ance o his
sec o as an indigenous en e p ise (Ha 1973, 89). In ac , his ype o en e p ise is in o mal
in e ms o p oduc ion and employmen , no only o he Ugandan na ional economy, bu
o he global economy (Amo ah 2021; Chen and Ca e 2020).
O e all, pe spec i es on in o mali y ha e been conside ed linked o po e y and ma gin-
alisa ion in u ban spaces (Danquah, Scho e, and Sen 2021). The issue o he legali y o
en e p ises is e y complex in A ica and has been connec ed o colonisa ion and mode ni-
sa ion in e ms o he con ol o A ican labou (Anyansi-A chibong 2021; Kinyanjui 2014).
These popula economies end o be depic ed as a ‘ e uge o sa e ha en o he ic ims o
neolibe alism’ (Kinyanjui 2014, 12). Howe e , in o mal economies p eceded he aus e i y
measu es imposed by s uc u al adjus men p og ammes in he mid/la e 1980s (Fo s e e al.
2019). A ican popula economies a e ma kedly emale, pa icula ly in he ood and he
clo hing ma ke s. In o mali y as linked o he economy has been de ined in mul iple ways
o e ime, bu we a e pa icula ly in e es ed in popula economies. Popula and solida i y
economies also ocus on sa ings schemes such as chilemba, ki emba, upa o o kwega a
(Uganda) – ha is, o a ing sa ings and c edi associa ions ( oscas), such as xi ique
(Mozambique), a non-ma ke economic ool wi h socioeconomic objec i es ha ea i ms
pe sonal o communi y iden i ies and ein o ces g oup cohesion (Cunha 2015, 2016). F om
a decolonial poin o iew, popula economies a e also conside ed al e na i e economies
(wi h dis inc i e ways o p oducing, dis ibu ing and consuming). Thus, Ugandan emale
en ep eneu ship is ea ed he e as a sociocul u al ins i u ion embedded in he global ma ke
sys em (Amo ah 2021).
In A ica, he di e en ia ion be ween o mal and in o mal businesses s ems om a dual-
is ic iew o he economy ha dismisses a mul i ude o cul u al and social elemen s
(Anyansi-A chibong 2021). Fo mali y o in o mali y o businesses in Uganda is based on
whe he hey a e egis e ed wi h he au ho i ies, pay axes and ha e social p o ec ion (Chen
and Ca e 2020; Mugoda e al. 2020). In egions such as sub-Saha an A ica, whe e o mal
ins i u ions a e o en weak o dys unc ional (AEO, 2017), women en ep eneu s a e mo e
likely o u n o hei ela i es o suppo han elsewhe e. Examples o o mal ins i u ional
oids a e poo ly de eloped in as uc u e, insu icien capi al and labou ma ke s, o ine -
icien laws and egula ions. In hese con ex s, amily cons i u es a aluable al e na i e
since i o e s he us , solida i y and esou ces ha o mal ins i u ions ail o p o ide (Wol
and F ese 2018).
A ican c ea i i y: socioeconomic dynamism and di e si ying means o li ing
A ican popula economies a e also a e olu iona y and he oic en e p ise, as hey imply a
socioeconomic dynamism o a la ge sec ion o he popula ion who s uggle o ea n a li ing,
o upg ade hei posi ion, o de ine hei iden i ies, and o ind a place in he ci ies (Kinyanjui
2014). A ican economic c ea i i y, a om disappea ing om he u ban landscape, as
THIRD WORLD QUARTERLy 5
p edic ed in he 1970s and 1980s, has ended o g ow and become a hallma k o iden i y
(H acs, Comunian, and England 2022). Indeed, Robinson (2002) p oposes a ocus on he
o dina y aspec s o ci ies in e ms o c ea i i y, di e si y, mode ni y and dis inc i eness.
Kinyanjui (2014), in he same ein, p oposes an analysis o he di e si y and c ea i i y o he
A ican ci y in ela ion o indigenous A ican ma ke s and solida i y en ep eneu ship, con-
side ing collec i e o ganisa ion as a key o m o business in he ci y cen e (c . Anyansi-
A chibong 2021).
A ican economic c ea i i y has o en been seen as a panacea o de elopmen , e en
claiming ha i would place A ican coun ies on he in e na ional map (as i hey had ne e
coun ed be o e) (H acs, Comunian, and England 2022). In he las wo decades i has been
linked o he way A ican people ede ine hemsel es and p ojec a di e en image and
cul u al impac (Comunian, B ian, and England 2021). Fo hei pa , he Uni ed Na ion (UN)
and Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen (UNCTAD) ecognise ha eco-
nomic c ea i i y lies a
he in e ace among c ea i i y, cul u e, economics and echnology, as exp essed in he abili y
o c ea e and ci cula e in ellec ual capi al, has he po en ial o gene a e income, jobs and
expo ea nings while a he same ime p omo ing social inclusion, cul u al di e si y and
human de elopmen . (2008, iiii)
F om his iewpoin , c ea i e economies could be a g ea ca ch-all – ha is, a b oad
spec um o business models in which ac i i ies can ange om comme cial o public and
communi y-based. He e we a gue o he dynamism and c ea i i y o A ican economies, as
well as he agency o Ugandan women en ep eneu s, in e ms o subsis ence and esis ance
o he globalising neolibe al economy (Michaeli 2021; Kinyanjui 2013). These A ican en e-
p eneu s manage o ee hemsel es om o he obliga ions a ising om male (o o he
unwan ed communi y) ela ionships and achie e economic and social independence. Mos
o hese women a e mo he s wi h se e al child en, single o di o ced/sepa a ed. They un
a ious associa ions and businesses such as s ee ood s alls and ex ile o obacco ma ke -
ing, as well as sa ings schemes (Hogdson and McCu dy 2001). Such a c ea i e economy as
ha o Ugandan en ep eneu s gene a es no only economic alue bu also o en cul u al,
social, educa ional and psychological alue h ough pe sonal ul ilmen and sa is ac ion
(Anyansi-A chibong 2021; Comunian, B ian, and England 2021).
Female en ep eneu ship is associa ed wi h sel -employmen and business owne ship;
women hold he majo i y sha e and manage he decision-making p ocess (Ca e and Shaw
2006). Such businesses a e gene ally small and pa o he in o mal o popula sec o o he
economy (Anyansi-A chibong 2021; Vossenbe g 2013). A woman en ep eneu is someone
who s a s a business on he own o wi h one o mo e pa ne s; akes on inancial, admin-
is a i e and social isks and esponsibili ies; and manages day- o-day ope a ions (UNDP
2004). These women ace widesp ead gende bias and s e eo yping ha classi ies hem as
unskilled ‘passi e ic ims’ o (o in ude s in) a male-domina ed sec o (Iwu and E im 2019).
As Boa eng (2018) ecalls, his o ically, A ican emale en ep eneu s ha e played a key ole
in economic de elopmen , whe he ou o su i al/necessi y o oppo uni y (Anyansi-
A chibong 2021; Mo eno-Ga a a and Jiménez-Za co 2019). A ican emale su i al en e-
p eneu s gene a e e enues o hei households based on hei skills and cha isma, while
oppo uni y en ep eneu s ha e become leade s o ele an sec o s ( ex ile, banking and
inance, en e ainmen , oil o gas) (Boa eng 2018).
6S. VIEITEZ-CERDEÑO ETAL.
Me hodology
To analyse women’s en ep eneu ship in Uganda, ieldwo k was ca ied ou be ween
2019 and 2021, using a quali a i e app oach. The ci y o Kampala was selec ed, gi en i s
impo ance as a business hub, and i s his o y and accessibili y. The main ool was he
ield jou nal o collec ing da a on obse a ions o occu ences, heo e ical no es, and
me hodological p oblems; semi-s uc u ed and open in e iews we e also used.
Ins umen s such as obse a ion (expe iencing), in e iewing (enqui ing), and seconda y
ma e ials (examining) (Wolco 1994) allowed us o collec ich da a, consis ing o ‘a wide
and di e se ange o in o ma ion collec ed o e a ela i ely p olonged pe iod o ime’
(Lo land and Lo land 1995, 16). The en ep eneu ial p ocess is a dynamic p ocess; i occu s
o e ime and in ol es mul iple s akeholde s as well as a ious dimensions o he imme-
dia e en i onmen . Thus, whe e e possible, iangula ion o he a ious da a sou ces
was used o check he alidi y o s a emen s ob ained in he in e iews, and o sa egua d
he c edibili y o he indings.
Pu posi e sampling se ed o selec he in o man s (C eswell 2012). A o al o 16 cases
we e analysed in dep h o cha ac e ise a wide a ay o businesses. The en ep eneu ial ac i -
i ies o he in e iewees we e e y di e se: ma ke and s ee businesses, e ail shops, es au-
an s, ege able a me s, g eenhouse a me s, seed endo s, and mobile money p o ide s.
In Kampala, ma ke businesses a e conduc ed in la ge public ma ke s whe e he women sell
esh ood and p oduce such as ui , ege ables, and ma ooke (g een bananas). S ee busi-
nesses a e loca ed on he main s ee s o along he oadside whe e hey sell esh ui and
ood. Re ail shops can also be ound in and a ound ma ke s selling d y goods; g eenhouse
a me s sell hei c ops in ma ke s, as well as endo s who sell seeds o a me s. Finally, mobile
money businesses acili a e inancial ansac ions in he ma ke s and along he main oads,
p o iding se ices such as sending and ecei ing money h ough buye s’ and selle s’ sma -
phones o ini ia e and conclude ansac ions.
In e iewees we e selec ed based on hei willingness o pa icipa e in he in e iews,
and he loca ions o hei businesses in he s udy a ea. In o de o be sensi i e o women’s
en ep eneu s’ hec ic daily li e, and a oid in e e ing wi h hei business ac i i ies, he in e -
iew schedule was decided by he en ep eneu s hemsel es. Snowball sampling was used,
since he i s in e iewees o en helped o ec ui mo e in o man s h ough wo d o mou h.
The con ac s a egy consis ed in app oaching emale en ep eneu s in ma ke s, e ail shops
and s ee s, and explaining o hem he s udy aims and in e es in ha ing hem pa icipa e.
The hi d au ho p esen ed he sel as a g adua e s uden a Make e e Uni e si y and ob ained
in o man s’ consen o hem o ake pa in he esea ch. The in e iewees we e in o med
ha hei con iden iali y and anonymi y we e always ensu ed du ing he p esen a ion o
he esea ch in e e y in e iew being conduc ed. Thus, us was es ablished be ween he
emale en ep eneu s and he in e iewe , he p esence was accep ed, and i was unde s ood
ha he s udy would no only be a long- e m commi men bu would also make hei oices
hea d and hei expe iences highligh ed.
In e iews we e conduc ed in he Luganda language, and a esea ch assis an wi h expe-
ience in quali a i e esea ch was also ec ui ed and ained. Da a analysis was s uc u ed
as ollows: i s , in e iew ansc ip s we e ead se e al imes o collec ecu en hemes and
iden i y eme ging pa e ns; secondly, da a we e o ganised, coded and analysed. A i s ound
o coding p oduced a se o o ganisa ional and heo e ical codes (p ima y coding) (Maxwell
THIRD WORLD QUARTERLy 7
2012). This ound o coding allowed us o link business and cul u e mo e closely – ha is, o
assess whe he he ype o business is in luenced by he socioeconomic en i onmen , social
ne wo ks and amily ies. These codes we e supplemen ed wi h new ones ha eme ged
om he da a (seconda y coding) o iden i y key sub- hemes and ela ed dimensions (Gioia,
Co ley, and Hamil on 2013). Eme ging codes in he second ound we e he ollowing: ela-
ionships be ween en ep eneu s (ie pa ne ships), cus ome loyal y (ca e, ag eemen s, e c.),
gene a ional issues and child en’s educa ion. All o hese, in u n, in o med he subsequen
e o mula ion o he exis ing heo y (Fle che 2017).
The li e a u e e iew was p ima ily pe o med in he a chi es/lib a ies o Make e e
Uni e si y (Uganda) and Uni e sidad de G anada (Spain). The da a we e p ocessed o iden i y
he mos signi ican aspec s o he women’s en ep eneu ial ini ia i es, expec a ions and
cons ain s, wi h special a en ion gi en o key and ecu ing ideas. The links be ween social
ela ions and en ep eneu ship p o ed impo an o unde s anding women’s en ep eneu -
ship in Uganda.
Cul u e and en ep eneu ship
A cha ac e isa ion o emale en ep eneu ship: om small business owne o
ansi ional en ep eneu
The in o mal o popula economy in Uganda accoun s o 97% o all en e p ises in he coun y
(Nangoli e al. 2013). Since i does no equi e a la ge capi al ou lay o launch businesses,
business su i al is a ou ed o e all. Popula economy does no equi e high academic qual-
i ica ions and businesses do no ha e o be o mally egis e ed (Rugasi a 2016), making hem
a sa e ha en o women en ep eneu s. In Uganda, 51.5% o women ages 18 o 65 a e ac i e
in his economy and pu sue an in o mal educa ion as an al e na i e o abandoning o mal
educa ion al oge he (Guloba, Sewanyana, and Bi abwa 2017). Families unable o educa e
hei daugh e s h ough he o mal sys em hus u n o in o mal educa ion o equip hem
wi h he necessa y en ep eneu ial skills (Kayongo, Kawooya, and Mijumbi-De e 2019;) and
is subjec o ewe egula ions han a e businesses in he o mal sec o .
The 2015 Uganda Women En ep eneu ship P og amme (UWEP) sough o imp o e
access o inancial se ices and boos en ep eneu ial economic g ow h (Minis y o Gende ,
Labou , and and Social De elopmen 2019). Howe e , he e ha e been ew long-las ing
ini ia i es wi h a speci ic manda e o p omo e women’s en ep eneu ship, and he numbe
o women who ha e bene i ed om hem annually appea s o be ela i ely modes . In
addi ion, he e a e ew o ganisa ions ha o e suppo o women en ep eneu s (Mugabi
2014; Amo ah 2021). Fu he mo e, local en ep eneu ial e o s a e sidelined in a ou o
la ge mul ina ional co po a ions, hus unde mining ini ia i es aimed a p omo ing local
en ep eneu ial de elopmen . Unde hese condi ions, e en women who ha e ecei ed an
educa ion ind i di icul o access paid employmen o o ob ain c edi (A ekye eza 2001).
Social issues end o mo i a e women o begin businesses, and emale en ep eneu s
o en measu e success by he ex en o which hey help o he s (Boa eng 2018), and many
s a ed hei businesses in he popula economy ou o he necessi y o eed hei child en
and amilies. S ill, da a om he Global En ep eneu ship Moni o 2016/2017 Women’s
Repo show ha 61.8% o A ican women en ep eneu s s a ed ha hey s a ed a busi-
ness d i en by oppo uni y, a he han by su i al o necessi y (GEM 2017), and ou
8S. VIEITEZ-CERDEÑO ETAL.
esea ch da a in Uganda show ha only 31.25% o Ugandan en ep eneu s a e d i en by
necessi y.
This esea ch add esses how emale en ep eneu s’ li es and expe iences help hem o
achie e hei aspi a ions and goals. Inspi ed by Boa eng’s app oach (2018, 36) on ‘in e o-
ga ing en ep eneu ship om he unique pe spec i e o women’s li ed expe iences’, we
discuss he esul s based on he ollowing ypes o Ugandan en ep eneu s: small business
owne , su i al en ep eneu , oppo uni y en ep eneu and ansi ional en ep eneu . These
a e ope a ing businesses, un by Ugandan women, wi hin he ci y o Kampala in and a ound
ma ke s such as Kale we o N inda, and along main s ee s o oadsides whe e hey sell hei
p oduc s (see Table 1). In his con ex , emale en ep eneu ship is a o m o sel -employmen ,
business owne ship and decision-making managemen . These businesses end o be egis-
e ed wi h au ho i ies ( o example, a ma ke o a s ee endo will ha e p e iously applied
o and been g an ed he ma ke s all si e). O e all, emale en ep eneu s pay minimal axes
and a oid paying hem as much as possible. In e iewees epea edly complained abou ax
paymen because i hey pay axes, no eal p o i is made. No social p o ec ion is de i ed
om business egis a ion o ax paymen .
Small business owne s un a e ail shop o a es au an , and/o ha e hei own means o
anspo a ion (eg a uck) o de elop hei business u he . Ugandan emale en ep eneu s
o his ype o en ha e pa ne s o de elop a sa ings scheme. Fo ins ance, In e iewee 29
uns a as ood es au an in he high-income a ea o N inda ma ke ( ou yea s in business).
A ca e ing g adua e and a ma ied woman, she sees he business as a legacy o he child en.
She ecen ly managed o buy a plo o land and has been supplemen ing he husband’s
ea nings o p o ide o he amily and keep hei child en in school. Also, In e iewee 27, a
ma ooke endo in Kale we ma ke , has been in business o wo yea s in his low-income
a ea; she owns a uck o sell ma ooke and seeks expansion h ough he daugh e ’s educa ion
o keep in es ing in he business. In e iewee 27, despi e he p ima y le el o educa ion,
has bodaboda pa ne s, bu also heads a sa ings scheme and hus has become qui e p os-
pe ous. In e iewee 88, a single mo he wi h a uni e si y educa ion, uns a e ail shop in he
N inda new ma ke a ea, and has se en yea s o business expe ience. Loca ed in a
Table 1. Types o en ep eneu ships, cha ac e isa ion and in e iewees.
Type de ini ion in e iewee
Small business owne (25%) owne ship o a small business (eg a e ail
shop o a es au an ) o o means o
anspo a ion (eg a uck) o de elop
business u he . Pa ne ship wi h
o he en ep eneu s.
27
29
88
94
Su i al en ep eneu (31.25%) Sale o p oduc s ha hey p oduce
hemsel es as su plus o hose o
which hey ha e easy access and
dis ibu ion (eg a sack o po a oes).
17
21
22
46
54
oppo uni y en ep eneu (25%) ambi ion o hei business in he medium
o long e m.
6
7
34
44
T ansi ional en ep eneu (18.75%) S a ed hei business d i en by su i al,
bu e en ually ge capi al and/ o
pa ne ship o seek u he
oppo uni ies.
2
8
39
THIRD WORLD QUARTERLy 15
unde s anding and app ecia ing A ican cul u e is no an op ion bu a necessi y (Amponsah,
Omo egie, and Ansah 2018; Kakonge 2017).
Cul u al elemen s such as he sense o communi y and esponsibili y o he amily, he
abili y o p o ide o hei o sp ing and amilies, and he gua an ee o hei well-being a e
cen al o women’s en ep eneu ship (Mon ei h and Cam ield 2019). Small business owne s
a e some imes, al hough no always, educa ed beyond p ima y school le el, wo king in bo h
high and low-income a eas; hey also end o concei e en e p ises as a legacy o hei chil-
d en o gene a ional gende manda e. Su i al en ep eneu s end o be single o sepa a ed
women wi h low-le el educa ion who can a ely make ends mee , due o o ing p oduce
o sho age o cash. Oppo uni y en ep eneu s ha ness a ailable business oppo uni ies,
ha e seconda y educa ion, and a e ambi ious and cha isma ic. They ha e inhe i ed a sense
o business om emale ela i es. Finally, we ha e coined a new ca ego y: ansi ional en e-
p eneu s, women ini ially d i en by necessi y/su i al who seek oppo uni ies, employ peo-
ple, o ge hem s a ed in business h ough men o ing.
By ypi ying dis inc i e emale en ep eneu s in Uganda, we ha e been able o obse e
ha hese women ha e based hei business ac ions on non-mone a y and non-quan i iable
measu es o ul ilmen . Thus, hey c ea e social ne wo ks and a sense o communi y, and
ex end hei bene i s beyond hei social ci cle, he eby also con ibu ing o he Ugandan
economy (Es in, Ko os ele a, and Mickiewicz 2013). The e o e, in Kampala, emale en e-
p eneu s’ business ac i i ies anscend he pu ely economic and indi idual pe sonal gain,
and demons a e social ela ionships, cul u al alues o pa ne ship and loyal y, lack o com-
pe i i eness, and gene a ional and amily conside a ion. Collec i e o ganisa ion and soli-
da i y en ep eneu ship appea ed a key o m o business in he ci y cen e in Uganda
(Anyansi-A chibong 2021).
Al hough his esea ch was limi ed by COVID-19, u he p oposals o imp o e women’s
en ep eneu ship emain o be explo ed in he u u e. This s udy has a ious p ac ical impli-
ca ions: i s ly, hose ela ed o policies aimed a women’s economic empowe men , since
he Ugandan go e nmen has implemen ed p og ammes o p omo e emale en ep eneu -
ship bu women en ep eneu s o Kampala ha e no bene i ed om hem. Secondly, hese
p og ammes a e o en amed by ma e ialis ic conce ns a he han by he s uc u al ans-
o ma ion o inequali y and a ocus on women’s cul u e and hei social o ganisa ion (Co nwall
2018). Policies aimed a suppo ing emale en ep eneu ship mus o e women mo e oppo -
uni ies o business aining adap ed o hei daily li e and business ac i i ies.
Conclusion
A ican de elopmen policies ha e ocussed on sel -employmen and business o he
na ional economic g ow h o coun ies such as Uganda. By add essing Ugandan emale
businesses om a pos colonial A ican pe spec i e, he connec ions be ween cul u e and
en ep eneu ship a e made explici in unde s anding women’s en ep eneu ship. Ou ind-
ings highligh he impo ance o he cul u al meaning in doing business and being an
en ep eneu o women, hus illing a gap in he exis ing li e a u e which has mos ly
ocussed on ei he he in o mal o popula economy as a sa e ha en o ic ims o neolib-
e alism o , mo e ecen ly, on A ican economic c ea i i y as he panacea o he de elop-
men o A ica.
16 S. VIEITEZ-CERDEÑO ETAL.
This esea ch has shown ha whe he d i en by necessi y o oppo uni y, Ugandan wom-
en’s en ep eneu ial ini ia i es a e g ounded in sociocul u al alues ha o e come he
s uc u al cons ain s hey ha e aced his o ically. Ma ke business, s ee business, es au-
an , e ail shop, mobile money, ege able a me o g eenhouse a me businesses ha e
been iden i ied om he unique pe spec i e o women’s li ed expe iences.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho s.
Funding
We would like o hank he unding suppo o his esea ch p o ided by he I+D+I p ojec , “Digi al
ansi ion, social cohesion and gende equali y: mobile banking and digi al emale empowe men in
A ica” (DIGITALFEM), e e ence: TED2021-130586B-I00, unded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033
and by “Eu opean Union Nex Gene a ionEU/PRTR”.
No es on con ibu o s
Soledad Viei ez-Ce deño is P o esso in he Depa men o Social An h opology, and Resea che a he
Ins i u e o Women and Gende S udies (Uni e si y o G anada, Spain). Wi h an MA (1989) and PhD
(2000) in Social An h opology (Uni e si y o Cali o nia, San a Ba ba a), she is a ounding membe o
he esea ch eam AFRICAInEs-Resea ch Applied o De elopmen (SEJ-491). He main a eas o esea ch
a e gende equali y p ojec s and policies; social and women’s mo emen s; gende , cul u e and de el-
opmen ; and eminisms and local al e na i es o de elopmen . Email: soledad@ug .es
Rose Manzane a-Ruiz is P o esso and Resea che in he Depa men o Sociology and he Ins i u e
o Women’s and Gende S udies, bo h a he Uni e si y o G anada, Spain. She cu en ly leads he
mul idisciplina y esea ch eam AFRICAInEs-Resea ch Applied o De elopmen (SEJ-491). He lines o
esea ch a e gende , globalisa ion, de elopmen and social change. She has pa icipa ed in a ious
esea ch and de elopmen coope a ion p ojec s, pa icula ly in Sub-Saha an A ica. Email: ose @ug .es
Olga Ma g e M. M. Namasembe holds a PhD in Women’s and Gende S udies om he Uni e si y o
G anada, Spain. She is a membe o AFRICAInEs-Resea ch Applied o De elopmen (SEJ-491), an
Andalusian mul idisciplina y esea ch eam. He esea ch deals wi h gende , women en ep eneu -
ship, and en ep eneu ial success in Uganda, and she seeks o con ibu e esea ch o he ield o
A ican en ep eneu ship. He esea ch in e es s a e en ep eneu ship, economic de elopmen , and
business managemen . Email: olgali [email protected]
ORCID
Soledad Viei ez-Ce deño h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4801-7552
Rose Manzane a-Ruiz h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9020-8371
Olga Ma g e M. M. Namasembe h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4084-7770
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