Resea ch in Science Educa ion 31: 499–523, 2001.
© 2001 Kluwe Academic Publishe s. P in ed in he Ne he lands.
Images o Science Linked o Labwo k: A Su ey o Seconda y School and
Uni e si y S uden s
Ma ie-Gene iè e Sé é1, Manuel Fe nandez-Gonzalez2, Jose A. Gallegos2,
F ancisco Gonzalez-Ga cia2, Es eban De Manuel2, F. Ja ie Pe ales2
and John Leach3
1Uni e si é Pa is XI (F ance)
2Uni e sidad de G anada (Spain)
3The Uni e si y o Leeds (U.K.)
Abs ac
This pape p esen s indings abou he images o science d awn upon in labo a o y wo k, by uppe
seconda y and uni e si y s uden s, in academic s eams wi h a science ocus. Da a we e collec ed
h ough ou w i en ques ions, adminis e ed o a o al o 368 s uden s. The ques ions all equi ed
s uden s o commen on labo a o y in es iga ions ca ied ou by esea ch scien is s o by science
s uden s. We show ha s uden s’ easoning has an epis emological and an on ological dimension,
and ha i o en di e s signi ican ly om accep ed pe spec i es on he na u e o science. The issue
o eaching appea s o be showing s uden s wha coun s (and wha does no coun ) as app op ia e
easoning in ac ual si ua ions. In o he wo ds, explici eaching abou he a ious ela ionships ha
can exis be ween heo y and da a would ans o m labwo k owa ds a mo e c i ical p ocess ha
in ol es making and jus i ying decisions.
Du ing hei schooling, s uden s acqui e images o science and o scien i ic wo k.
In ecen yea s he e ha e been many s udies ocused on cha ac e ising hese images.
Se e al s udies ha e shed ligh on he images o science ac ually d awn upon by s u-
den s, no ma e how hose images o science we e de eloped. D i e , Leach, Milla
and Sco (1996), and Désau els and La ochelle (1998), ha e made comp ehensi e
e iews o his li e a u e. The indings o s udies ypically po ay s uden s as naï e
ealis s and naï e empi icis s. Fu he mo e, he e is some e idence o sugges ha
many eache s also make naï e s a emen s abou he na u e o science (e.g., Led-
e man, 1992), and ha eache s’ images o science a e communica ed o s uden s
du ing eaching (e.g., B ickhouse, 1990; Hodson, 1993).
Howe e , he p ocess o d awing ou implica ions o p ac ice om his li e a-
u e is no s aigh o wa d. The e is some e idence o sugges ha s uden s (e.g.,
Rowell & Dawson, 1983) and p o essional scien is s (e.g., Sama apunga an, 1992)
who make naï e e bal s a emen s abou science, demons a e mo e sophis ica ed
aci knowledge abou science in ac ion se ings. Fu he mo e, s uden s’ easoning
abou science is in ima ely connec ed o con ex (e.g., Mo ime , 1995; Leach, Milla ,
Ryde , & Sé é, 2000). Qui e o en, he diagnos ic ques ions used in pape and pencil
su eys o elici s uden s’ and eache s’ images o science do no e e o any speci ic
500 M.-G. S ´
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con ex . We e e o such ques ions as decon ex ualised ques ions. Fo example, Po -
lan A iza, Ri e o Ga cia and Ma in del Pozo (1998) used decon ex ualised ques ions
o discuss possible ela ionships be ween eache s’ epis emological op ions on one
hand, and hei eaching op ions on he o he . Koulaidis and Ogbo n (1989) p esen ed
eache s wi h a se ies o gene al s a emen s, exp essing di e en philosophical iews.
In bo h s udies, a p ede ined epis emological posi ion is a ibu ed o each indi-
idual s uden o eache . This app oach elici s he s uden ’s o eache ’s espoused
images o science. Howe e , he ela ionship be ween hese espoused posi ions, and
he knowledge d awn upon by s uden s and eache s o in o m ac ions, is open o
ques ion.
In his esea ch, we we e in e es ed in elici ing he kind o knowledge ha science
s uden s migh d aw upon o in o m hei ac ions in he se ing o a pa icula class-
oom ac i i y, namely labwo k. Wi hin he Eu opean p ojec ‘Labwo k in Science
Educa ion’1(LSE) (Sé é, 1998), we de eloped some hypo heses conce ning he
ela ionship be ween science s uden s’ images o science and hei ac ions du ing
labwo k a he le el o uppe seconda y school, and he beginning o uni e si y
educa ion (Leach, in p ess). In o de o in es iga e hese hypo heses, we designed
ques ions which equi e s uden s o make judgemen s and commen s on speci ic
labo a o y si ua ions. The design o hese ques ions ecognises ha he images o
science ha s uden s de elop and use a e in ima ely connec ed o he scien i ic ac-
i i ies engaged in h ough labo a o y wo k: di e en labo a o y ac i i ies in ol e
s uden s in making di e en links be ween concep ual knowledge and images o
scien i ic ac i i y. The knowledge a s ake du ing labwo k is no only concep ual:
knowledge abou aspec s o he si ua ion such as he ela ionship be ween ideas and
da a, he p ocess o measu emen and so on is also in ol ed. We we e in e es ed in he
knowledge s uden s use in making decisions abou how much da a o collec , which
o he da a o use, and wha can be concluded om he da a a ailable. In he physical
sciences, i is o en necessa y o s uden s o make decisions abou he alidi y o
knowledge claims om expe imen al wo k, gi en he accu acy and p ecision o mea-
su emen s. In he li e sciences, s uden s o en ha e o make decisions abou design
and sampling in o de o collec use ul da a. Da a analysis ypically in ol es dealing
wi h la ge da a se s exhibi ing a high deg ee o a iabili y. We we e in e es ed in he
ep esen a ions o he unc ioning o science ha unde pinned s uden s’ decisions
du ing labwo k.
In he philosophy o science, ques ions abou he na u e and s a us o scien i ic
knowledge a e con en ionally discussed a ound wo dimensions:
1. an on ological dimension, which add esses he ela ionship be ween scien i ic
models and hei empi ical e e en s; and
2. an epis emological dimension, which add esses he wa an ing o knowledge
claims as eliable.
These dimensions ha e been used in he li e a u e o desc ibe concep ual lea ning
(e.g., Chi, 1992; Tyson, Ven ille, Ha ison, & T eagus , 1997; Vosniadou, 1994). In
he s udy epo ed in his pape , howe e , we do no add ess concep ual lea ning.
Ra he , we d aw upon on ological and epis emological dimensions o desc ibe he
IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 501
knowledge ha s uden s appea o d aw upon when dealing wi h decisions encoun-
e ed du ing lea ning h ough labwo k.
Ou ini ial assump ion is ha s uden s’ easoning du ing labo a o y wo k has on-
ological and epis emological dimensions, because du ing labwo k s uden s ha e o
d aw upon implici knowledge abou he na u e o scien i ic esea ch, he analysis o
empi ical da a and he alidi y and eliabili y o knowledge claims.
The pu pose o his pape is o demons a e, h ough he analysis o a ques ion-
nai e, he epis emological and on ological dimensions ha cha ac e ises uppe sec-
onda y and beginning uni e si y s uden s’ easoning abou labwo k. We show ha
indi idual s uden s’ easoning exhibi s di e en cha ac e is ics in esponse o di e -
en ques ions. We go on o conside he implica ions o ou indings abou s uden s’
easoning o he p ac ice o eaching science h ough labwo k.
The Su ey and he Samples
In o de o cha ac e ise on ological and epis emological aspec s o s uden s’ ea-
soning abou labwo k, i was necessa y o design diagnos ic ques ions which p o-
ided s uden s wi h he oppo uni y o discuss he p ac ice o labwo k. Following
pilo ing, ou ques ions (con aining bo h open and closed- esponse sec ions) we e
adminis e ed o a sample o s uden s in uppe seconda y schools, and a he beginning
o hei science s udies a uni e si y.
The su ey was adminis e ed in F ance and Spain, no ably due o he linguis ic
compe ence o he esea ch eam. I was adminis e ed in ei he F ench o Spanish e-
spec i ely. The e we e some di e ences be ween he o ms o ques ions in he F ench
and Spanish ques ionnai es; hese will be commen ed upon as ele an o he epo -
ing o indings. In Spain, he ques ionnai e was gi en o 89 seconda y school s uden s
and o 37 uni e si y s uden s (mainly in Physics o Chemis y, less in Biology). In
F ance i was gi en o 76 seconda y school s uden s and 166 uni e si y s uden s, 60
o whom s udy Biology o Geology and 106, Physics o Chemis y. This gi es a o al
sample o 368 s uden s (40% emale and 60% male). This sample in ol ed andomly
selec ed s uden s in academic s eams, in se e al owns, whose s udies ocused on
science. We do no claim ha he sample is na ionally ep esen a i e, hough we
do no see any speci ic easons why he sample di e s om he na ional posi ion
in ei he coun y. Fu he mo e, gi en he simila i y o ou indings o s udies using
simila me hods and in ol ing a wide ange o coun ies (including an anglophone
coun y) (Leach, Milla , Ryde , & Sé é, 2000), we suspec ha indings om his
s udy migh well be o in e es in coun ies o he han F ance and Spain.
A eas o Focus wi hin he Ques ions
In his sec ion, we explain he ocus o each diagnos ic ques ion. The ull ex o
each ques ion, ansla ed in o English, can be ound in he Appendix.
502 M.-G. S ´
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The Theo y Ques ion
This is a decon ex ualised ques ion, asking whe he o no i is necessa y o ha e
a heo y in mind in o de o in e p e da a. This ells us i s uden s belie e ha he
possession o su icien da a allows people o a i e a a heo y, o al e na i ely, ha
ha ing a heo y in mind is necessa y o o ien he collec ion o da a. To balance
he absence o con ex , i asks s uden s o desc ibe a si ua ion ha exempli ies hei
answe . This ques ion is ele an o he na u e o empi ical enqui y.
The Cu es Ques ion
This ques ion in ol es wo scien is s who in e p e he same da a (a se o poin s)
in adically di e en ways. One o he scien is s ep esen s he ela ionship be ween
da a poin s by means o a s aigh line, while he o he in e p e s he ela ionship as a
cu e. The open- esponse ques ions ask s uden s whe he i is legi ima e o ha e wo
in e p e a ions, and how scien is s migh jus i y hei espec i e iewpoin s. A sec-
onda y objec i e o his ques ion is o disco e he ex en o which s uden s belie e
ha compu e s a e capable o sol ing such p oblems. Since his ques ion in ol es
modelling, i is in o ma i e abou s uden s’ iews o he na u e o empi ical enqui y
as well as he analysis o da a.
The Su p ise Ques ion
This ques ion desc ibes a con ex in which he esul s o an expe imen in a class-
oom si ua ion do no ma ch canonical knowledge. The eache , who is awa e o he
heo e ical concep s o be augh , p oposes a labo a o y expe imen ha is expec ed
o e i y hem in some way. The example chosen is a es o s a ch in plan lea es,
which should come ou posi i e o lea es le in he ligh and nega i e o lea es
kep in he da k. Howe e , when he expe imen is ca ied ou , some o he s uden s
do no ob ain he desi ed esul .
In he F ench ques ionnai e, his ques ion is in an open- esponse o ma and simply
asks wha should be done i some hing like his happens in class. In he Spanish
ques ionnai e, he ques ion is o mula ed as mul iple-choice.
The ques ion elici s in o ma ion abou he links ha s uden s make be ween heo y
and expe imen al design. I also conce ns he analysis o expe imen al da a.
The Se ies Ques ion
To disco e he s uden s’ iews abou handling measu ed da a, we asked ques ions
abou se s o sp ead measu emen s. P e ious s udies (Allie, Bu le , Kaunda, Camp-
bell, & Lubben, 1998; Jou neaux & Sé é, 1994; Lubben & Milla , 1996) sugges
IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 503
ha he way ha s uden s ea epea measu emen s can be used o cha ac e ise hei
implici assump ions abou he na u e o da a. Di e en se s o i e measu emen s (o
mass) we e p esen ed, oge he wi h he mean o each se . The se s had he ollowing
cha ac e is ics, selec ed on he basis o indings epo ed in he li e a u e ci ed abo e:
1. The mean may o may no appea as one o he alues o he se ies;
2. Ce ain alues appea up o h ee imes in he same se ies;
3. The ange be ween he smalles and la ges alue a ies in size.
The ques ion conce ns wo g oups o nu i ionis s who mus measu e he mass o
one decili e o oil i e imes. S uden s we e asked abou di e en si ua ions:
1. he same kind o oil is measu ed by each g oup, and each g oup’s se s o mea-
su emen s ha e he same mean;
2. he g oups ha e he same oil bu hei se s o measu emen s ha e di e en means;
3. he g oups ha e di e en oils and hei se s o measu emen s ha e di e en means.
The ex o he ques ion sugges s ha a di ec measu emen o mass was made. In
ac , he alues ob ained depend on he olume, one decili e, o he sample aken.
S ic ly speaking, his signi ies ha he measu emen is no di ec , and he design o
he expe imen hus in luences he esul .
This ques ion p o ides in o ma ion p incipally abou s uden s’ iews o he analy-
sis o expe imen al da a, bu also abou hei iews o he na u e o empi ical enqui y.
Ca ego ies o Analysis
The ca ego ies o analysis2o he esponses we e elabo a ed by d awing upon
ou hypo heses, ou di ec obse a ions o s uden s in ol ed in labwo k, and ou
knowledge o he exis ing li e a u e on s uden s’ images o science.
A: Ca ego ies Re lec ing On ological and Epis emological Posi ions
i) Each Measu emen should be conside ed in i sel
This idea ha he only alues o a quan i y ha a e conside ed alid a e hose
ac ually ob ained as measu ed alues, has been ca ego ised as Values. Simila ly, in
ce ain cases when s uden s ha e o gi e a unique esul om wo se ies o measu e-
men s, hey keep he alue ha appea s in bo h se ies. The same ype o easoning
is ound o se ies o measu emen s and o pai s o alues (poin s o be in e p e ed
as a cu e). I places undue p ominence on he ac ual measu ed alue, gi ing no
conside a ion o issues o p obabili y. This a i ude, i sys ema ic, con as s wi h he
iew ha conside s all measu es as bea ing in o ma ion o which s a is ical analysis
can be applied. I has an in luence on he choice o a esul .

504 M.-G. S ´
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ii) Accu acy o unce ain y should be conside ed o each measu emen , in o de
o judge each o hem
This idea has been ca ego ised ei he as Unce ain y,o asDe ia ion: Unce ain y
when quan i a i e alues a e in play; o De ia ion which co esponds o he same
epis emological-on ological posi ion, bu gene ally exp essed o non-quan i a i e
esul s. The la e means, o ins ance, ha he e is always a di e ence be ween wha
is eally ob ained om obse a ion, and he e en o alue deduced om he heo y.
Typically, he decision ollowing his a i ude, is equen ly o selec which mea-
su emen ough o be kep and which should be disca ded. This a i ude con as s
wi h a s a is ical iew o he ea men o di e en measu ed alues.
iii) The di e ence be ween he bigges and he smalles measu emen s de e mines
he quali y o he da a
This ca ego y is called Range.
i ) I is necessa y o ake se e al measu emen s (o a leas mo e han he numbe
gi en in he ques ion) in o de o a i e a alid esul s
This idea has been ca ego ised as NMeasu emen s (in case o quan i a i e e-
sul s) and S a Again (in he case o quali a i e esul s: i is necessa y o epea an
expe imen because one single expe imen can ne e be enough).
) S a is ical analysis is necessa y in he p ocessing o da a
This a i ude is ca ego ised as S a is ics. I is he exac opposi e o Values.
i) The e exis s one ue alue, which is knowable and mus be known be o e
judgemen s can be made
This idea is ca ego ised ei he as T u h (belie in he exis ence o an ideal o
heo e ical alue) o O icial Value ( he idea o an o icially ecognised alue is used,
wi h no e e ence o how ha alue migh be wa an ed).
All hese ca ego ies ha e on ological/epis emological dimensions, as illus a ed in
Figu e 1. The axes in Figu e 1 ep esen an on ological dimension (iden i y o he
eal wo ld wi h i s scien i ic modelling/dis ance o he eal wo ld om i s scien i ic
modelling) and an epis emological dimension (p imacy o da a/p imacy o heo y).
On he ex emi ies o he axis p imacy o heo y/p imacy o da a, wo ca ego ies o
he decon ex ualised closed ques ion appea : heo y i s /da a i s .
IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 505
Figu e 1: A wo-dimensional ep esen a ion o he ca ego ies o analysis o s uden s’
answe s o ques ions conce ning labwo k.
B: Ca ego ies Compa ible wi h Any On ological/Epis emological Posi ions
i) Exis ence/ine i abili y o human e o
This is classi ied in he ca ego y E o . The e ms used a e ha measu emen s a e
impe ec , possibly e en ‘ne e pe ec ,’ o ‘always wi h a ma gin o e o .’
ii) The esul s ob ained a e explained in e ms o he expe imen al p o ocol used
This is ca ego ised as P o ocol.
C: Ca ego y o Rela i ism
Some answe s exp ess Rela i ism. All esponses s a ing ha no hing can be de-
cided, ha subjec i i y is in play, o ha any conclusion/decision could be equally
alid we e ea ed as ela i is . Examples o such esponses we e ound on each
ques ion in he su ey.
506 M.-G. S ´
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Resul s
We now p esen he esul s o he su ey, using he ca ego ies desc ibed in he las
sec ion. This means ha he majo i y o esponses o each ques ion can be si ua ed
in a gi en quad an o Figu e 1. As will be seen, he answe s o he i s ques ion
we analyse can be in e p e ed only in e ms o unde lying epis emology. They a e
si ua ed on he epis emological axis o Figu e 1.
The Theo y Ques ion (Focus: he Na u e o Resea ch)
The i s pa o he ques ion is no con ex ualised. As shown in he appendix, he
s uden s a e asked o ag ee o disag ee wi h he ‘ heo y i s ’ s a emen o he ‘da a
i s ’ s a emen . They a e also asked o gi e he example hey ha e in mind when
making hei choice.
In o he wo ds, s uden s a e asked di ec ly o si ua e hemsel es wi hin he plane
ep esen ed in Figu e 1, mo e p ecisely on he ho izon al axis. The ques ion o e s
s uden s he choice be ween wo answe s ha a i s seem con adic o y. This is
due o ou assump ion ha scien is s ca y ou hei wo k in di e en ways, and
he di e se app oaches used canno adequa ely be desc ibed by ei he o he wo
s a emen s.
Quan i a i e esul s o he whole sample a e shown in Table 1:
Table 1
F equencies o Choices (%) Be ween Gene al Sen ences Desc ibing he
De elopmen o Science.
Ag ee wi h Disag ee wi h No su e (%)
s a emen (%) s a emen (%)
Uppe Uni e si y Uppe Uni e si y Uppe Uni e si y
seconda y seconda y seconda y
Theo y i s 49 39 30 19 20 19
s a emen
Da a i s 22 11 59 72 12 13
s a emen
The mos equen esponse is Ag ee wi h he heo y i s s a emen and Disag ee
wi h he da a i s s a emen . This mos equen esponse co esponds o he igh -
hand side o Figu e 1. A signi ican numbe o s uden s, pa icula ly a he uni e si y
le el, made no esponse o he ques ion.
IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 507
By and la ge, he examples o e ed by s uden s pe ain o physics (almos hal o
he examples) o biology (app oxima ely a hi d o he examples). They gene ally
conce n his o ical disco e ies o a e de i ed om class oom si ua ions. The ollow-
ing examples we e commonly used o jus i y he Theo y i s posi ion: Biologis s
who s udy gene ics ha e been guided by he heo y o Mendel and he disco e y
o DNA; and, a scien is should possess in ui ion, Plu o ( he plane ) was disco e ed
heo e ically.
Scien is s such as New on, Huygens, Eins ein, Da win, Cha pak, and Michelson
a e also ci ed as examples o jus i y his iew.
An example ci ed o jus i y he Da a i s s a emen was: “I scien is s only s a ed
om heo e ical knowledge, hey would s ill hink ha he wo ld was la .”
S uden s ci ed Eins ein, Le Ve ie , Desca es and Be gson o jus i y s a emen 2.
Abou 15% o he s uden s ag eed wi h bo h s a emen s. The mos equen expla-
na ion gi en is ha bo h a e possible because one s a emen is no su icien in i sel
o co e all scien i ic p ac ice, o example: “The disco e y o he bacillus o Koch,
as well as he gene ic enginee ing, which sea ches o one gene o ano he , show ha
bo h me hods (i.e. Theo y i s and Da a i s ) a e complemen a y.”
Boh , Planck, Eins ein, Koch, Galileo, Ma ie Cu ie, and La oisie a e ci ed as ex-
amples ha p o e ha bo h s a emen s a e possible, while Planck and La oisie we e
also gi en as e idence o he con a y. This sugges s ha a signi ican p opo ion o
he esponses we e loca ed on bo h sides o he ho izon al axis o Figu e 1, depending
on he si ua ion.
In summa y, s uden s’ esponses we e sp ead along he ho izon al axis o Figu e 1,
wi h a p edominance o he igh -hand side.
F om a me hodological poin o iew, hese esul s mean ha one mus be ca e ul
in he in e p e a ion o decon ex ualised ques ions. The answe s a e hea ily depen-
den on p e iously lea ned and memo ised examples, and i is impossible o sepa a e
he esul s om hei con ex s.
The Cu es Ques ion (Focus: The Na u e o Resea ch and he P ocessing o Da a)
This ques ion asks s uden s wha scien is s should do o esol e he dilemma when
wo di e en in e p e a ions o he same da a a e a ailable. The ques ion is no
con ex ualised o a speci ic discipline o si ua ion, and simply o e s a se o da a
poin s.
App oxima ely 16% o he s uden s (and as many as 31% o he Spanish seconda y
school s uden s) s a ed ha he di e ence is basically due o subjec i i y on he pa
o scien is s. Those ela i is answe s canno be posi ioned on Figu e 1.
The esul s o he emaining esponses a e p esen ed in Table 2:
514 M.-G. S ´
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Table 8
Pe cen age o Responses Ag eeing wi h Va ious Conclusions.
F ance (means Spain (means
di e ing by 0.2 g) di e ing by 1.2 g)
Uppe Uni e si y (%) Uppe Uni e si y (%)
seconda y seconda y
school (%) school (%)
I is possible
o a i m ha
he measu ed
oils di e in
densi y.
17 18 55 32
I is possible o
a i m ha he
measu ed oils
do no di e in
densi y.
49 48 18 19
i is impossible o ell.” 2. Unce ain y (8%–22% acco ding o he samples). 3. As
p e iously, he ca ego y P o ocol is a e (0%–8% acco ding o he samples).
In summa y, hese esul s show ha : answe s in e p e able in e ms o on ology
and epis emology a e sp ead all o e he egions o Figu e 1, wi h a p edominance
in he le -hand side; he impo ance o he Values ca ego y, close o he endency
o iden i y eali y and model, depends on he con ex ; and, hough di icul o coun
p ecisely, endencies o Rela i ism a e exp essed occasionally in jus i ica ions.
S uden s a e no quick o c i icise he expe imen al p ocedu e i sel . They p obably
a e no ained o use his app oach.
Syn hesis o Resul s
In he p e ious sec ion, we showed ha s uden s’ esponses o he ques ionnai e
could be cha ac e ised in e ms o epis emological and on ological aspec s o hei
easoning. We used he ou quad an s o Figu e 1 o ep esen hese epis emo-
logical and on ological aspec s. S uden s did no d aw upon a single epis emolog-
ical/on ological aspec in esponding o he ques ionnai e. The mos equen ly gi en
answe s o di e en ques ions we e o en si ua ed in di e en quad an s. Gene ally
speaking, mo e s uden s’ answe s we e loca ed in he quad an s on he igh o he
plane, and he quad an s a he op. This means ha he endency p imacy o heo y
(on he epis emological axis) and dis ance heo y/model (on he on ological axis)

IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 515
we e mo e commonly chosen by s uden s in connec ion wi h labwo k. Howe e ,
some esponses we e o be ound in he quad an cha ac e ised by iden i y eali y-
model and p imacy o da a ( hough he quan i y was gene ally less han 20%). This
leads o posing he ollowing ques ions: I is possible o si ua e answe s in he quad-
an s o Figu e 1 – is i also possible o si ua e indi iduals? In o he wo ds, does
each indi idual, a he ime he/she answe s he ques ionnai e, d aw upon a gi en
posi ion (on ology, epis emology, a endency o ela i ism, o ano he philosophical
posi ion)? Does a esponden gi e answe s which all de i e om he same posi ion?
The me hod used o add ess hese ques ions was o ca y ou a c oss-ques ion s udy5
o he consis ency and inconsis ency o esponses o di e en pa s o ques ions, and
ac oss ques ions.
In ac , examples o inconsis ency a e nume ous. The mos clea -cu ones a e as
ollows:
1. None o he s uden s answe S a is ics consis en ly in he Cu es ques ion and he
h ee pa s o he Se ies ques ion, al hough 49% o e all answe his way on one
occasion om he ou possible occasions.
2. Among six oppo uni ies o answe T u h, e y ew s uden s used his kind o
esponse on h ee o mo e occasions.
3. No co ela ion can be ound be ween he ca ego ies Unce ain y,De ia ion and
Range (each ound on he uppe le quad an o he plane).
4. I is possible o use he Values ca ego y on i e occasions in he ques ionnai e.
36% o he sample used i once, 12% used i wice, e y ew used i h ee imes.
We ied o iden i y i some shi om one ca ego y o ano he could be consid-
e ed as equen o e en sys ema ic. An example is p o ided by he Se ies ques ion.
Among he s uden s who s a wi h Range (“same oil, same mean”), 55% also e-
sponded in his way on he “same oil-di e en means” ques ion. Those who changed
(45%) ended o selec Values. The o he examples o equen ypes o changes ha
we no iced led us o he same conclusion: The mo e complex he si ua ion is, he
mo e equen ly Values is chosen.
Howe e , ce ain consis encies exis in esponses ac oss ques ions. This can be
seen in he h ee pa s o he Se ies ques ion. S uden s emain in he same quad an ,
he uppe - igh one, by answe ing NMeasu emen s and/o S a is ics. As seen be o e,
he consis ency o hese s uden s is limi ed o he Se ies ques ion and ends as soon
as hey answe he Cu es ques ion. Simila ly, when he pe cen ages o he ca ego y
T u h and O icial Value a e added (lowe - igh quad an ) in he h ee pa s o he
Se ies ques ion, he e is conside able consis ency in he esponses o seconda y s u-
den s. Again he consis ency ends when answe ing he Su p ise ques ion. I appea s
ha consis ency is mainly he consequence o a simila i y in he kind o hing being
asked in he ques ion. By con as , he e is no consis ency when s uden s a e dis-
cussing di e en kinds o labwo k (such as ha in ol ing quan i a i e and quali a i e
da a). The same can be said o he ca ego y P o ocol: Uni e si y s uden s choose i
ai ly consis en ly wi hin he h ee pa s o he Se ies ques ion, d awing upon de ails
o he si ua ion. The consis ency is limi ed o he h ee pa s o he Se ies ques ion.
516 M.-G. S ´
ER´
EETAL.
F om his summa y o he c oss-ques ion s udy, i is impossible o conclude ha
s uden s ha e unique philosophical posi ions which accoun o he way hey p ocess
da a, use heo y du ing an expe imen , and conside he espec i e oles o heo y
and da a in he de elopmen o science o pe sonal knowledge. I is impossible o
in e p e a gi en s uden ’s answe s as inspi ed by he use o a obus men al model.
The same pe sons can possibly change hei posi ion on Figu e 1 each ime a di e en
ques ion is answe ed, each ime hey ha e o judge da a o conclude in di e en
si ua ions, o ins ance in case o passing om quali a i e o quan i a i e esul s. I
means ha he shape o he ques ion i sel has an in luence on s uden s’ answe s, and
ha si ua ions hemsel es a e add essed by easoning wi h di e en epis emological
and on ological unde pinnings.
Conclusion and Pe spec i es o Teaching
Ou su ey con ibu es o li e a u e add essing s uden s’ images o science. Ou
pa icula con ibu ion is ha we ha e add essed he images o science used by
s uden s when alking abou he speci ic si ua ion o labwo k. We ha e p oposed a
me hod o classi ying s uden s’ esponses in e ms o hei unde lying epis emology
and on ology, and conside ed whe he indi iduals’ esponses ac oss a ange o ques-
ions can be cha ac e ised by disc e e posi ions abou he espec i e ole o heo y and
da a in expe imen a ion. We p esen e idence o he con a y, and we gi e examples
o ypical ways o hinking conce ning labwo k, as well as examples o consis encies
and inconsis encies.
Some o he consequences a e me hodological. As i is necessa y o ake he cha -
ac e is ics o si ua ions in o accoun in he in e p e a ions o esponses, i is no alid
o cha ac e ise on ological o epis emological aspec s o easoning by he use o
gene al, decon ex ualised ques ions. Such w i en ques ions do ha e some uses i
si ua ions a e desc ibed. We will sugges below how eache s could ui ully ex end
his so o sho ques ions du ing labwo k.
The e a e also pedagogical consequences. Though i is no alid o a ibu e unique
philosophical posi ions o indi iduals, i canno be denied ha indi iduals do indeed
d aw upon philosophical posi ions in di e en si ua ions. The esul s o his su ey
and ou obse a ions in labo a o y classes a he same eaching le el, con e ge on his
poin . These philosophical posi ions a e no s able. Some a e app op ia e and some
a e inapp op ia e. I appea s ha many s uden s do no lea n wha coun s as app o-
p ia e scien i ic easoning as a esul o cu en eaching app oaches. I his is seen as
an impo an cu icula goal o science educa ion, hen explici eaching abou he
a ious ela ionships ha can exis be ween heo y and da a in di e en si ua ions is
equi ed. This migh in ol e, o example, showing s uden s how heo e ical issues
in luence expe imen al design in se e al si ua ions, o showing how he choice o
measu ing ins umen s in luences indings when a quan i y is ob ained by means o
an indi ec measu emen . In e ec , i is necessa y o in oduce s uden s o di e en
me hods and concep s o da a p ocessing.
IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 517
The ela ionships be ween heo y and da a ce ainly a y om one discipline o
ano he , be ween sub-disciplines, and om one si ua ion o ano he ( hough no usu-
ally om one scien is o ano he in a gi en si ua ion). We belie e ha he s udy
o hese ela ionships in ac ual si ua ions would ha e he po en ial o ans o m lab-
wo k in science educa ion away om a p ocess o he ou ine applica ion o algo-
i hms, owa ds a mo e c i ical p ocess ha in ol es making and jus i ying labo a o y
decisions.
The ques ionnai e epo ed in his pape in ol es a limi ed numbe o opics, and
he o mula ion o ques ions is always open o imp o emen . Howe e , we belie e
ha eache s could elabo a e simila ques ions wi h he pedagogical aim o ge ing
s uden s o e lec on he unde lying a ionale o hei labo a o y ac ions. Fu he -
mo e, eache s would become mo e sensi i e o he epis emological and on ological
commi men s ha hei s uden s we e likely o use in speci ic eaching and lea ning
si ua ions. The ques ionnai e discussed in his a icle, as well as he o he s gene a ed
in he LSE p ojec (Leach e al., 1998; Sé é, 1998) can be ega ded as a da abank o
eaching esou ces. They can be adap ed o di e en con ex s so as o con ibu e o
es ablishing he ounda ions o a me hod o science eaching which will in es iga e
and p o ide he means o a ain philosophical objec i es in eal labo a o y con ex s.
Acknowledgemen s
We would like o hank P o esso Rose Pin o o he Au onomous Uni e si y o
Ba celona (Spain), as well as he membe s o he DidaScO g oup o he Uni e si y
o Pa is 11 (O say, F ance) o hei help in ca ying ou he su ey. We a e indeb ed
o he ansla o , P o esso Pamela Fabe , om he depa men o T ansla ion and
In e p e a ion o he Uni e si y o G anada (Spain). The da a se d awn upon in his
pape was collec ed as pa o he p ojec Labwo k in Science Educa ion, suppo ed
by DGXII o he Eu opean Commission.
No es
1. The ull i le o he p ojec was Imp o ing Science Educa ion: Issues and e-
sea ch on inno a i e empi ical and compu e -based app oaches o labwo k in Eu-
ope. I was unded in 1996–1998 by he Eu opean Commission. I in ol ed esea ch
eams om F ance (Co-o dina o ), Denma k, Ge many, G ea B i ain, G eece, I aly,
Spain.
2. This so o ca ego isa ion p o ides esul s ha a e e y di e en om an analy-
sis in e ms o he use o key wo ds by s uden s, since e y di e en posi ions may
be exp essed wi h he same wo ds (unce ain y, accu acy, p ecision, e c.).
3. I mus be no ed ha e y ew esponden s (less han en in all) we e so nai e as
o s a e ha a ma hema ical exp ession should always e lec a law. This simplis ic
iew seems no o be lea n om class oom p ac ice.
518 M.-G. S ´
ER´
EETAL.
4. In F ance, he disciplines o Biology and Geology a e augh as one subjec in
uppe seconda y schools: Sciences de la Vie e de la Te e.
5. To his end, a sample o 250 s uden s has been su icien o d aw conclusions.
Co espondence: Ma ie-Gene iè e Sé é, Uni e si é Pa is XI, DidaScO g oup,
91405 O say, F ance
E-mail: ma ie-gene ie[email p o ec ed]sud.
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B ickhouse, N. W. (1990). Teache s’ belie s abou he na u e o science and hei
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Leach, J., Milla , R., Ryde , J., Sé é, M.-G., Hammele , D., Niedde e , H., &
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520 M.-G. S ´
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EETAL.
Appendix: Full Tex o he Ques ionnai e
The Theo y Ques ion
The ollowing pai o s a emen s is abou how scien is s wo k wi h da a. In each
case, please say whe he you ag ee wi h he s a emen , whe he you disag ee wi h i ,
o whe he you a e no su e whe he you ag ee o disag ee wi h i .
Ag ee wi h Disag ee No
s a emen wi h su e
s a emen
Good scien is s ough o ha e heo e ical
assump ions which in luence hei analysis
o da a.
Good scien is s ough o be neu al and ob-
jec i e: i is no accep able o scien is s’
heo e ical assump ions o in luence hei
analysis o da a.
Please explain you easoning: o ins ance gi e he example in biology, chemis y,
physics e c... ha you ha e in mind when answe ing.
The Cu es Ques ion
Two esea che s, A and B, ha e ob ained a se ies o poin s ep esen ed below in
he i s pic u e. They gi e wo in e p e a ions shown in he second and hi d pic u e.
Measu emen esul s:
IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 521
In e p e a ion o A:
In e p e a ion o B:
In you opinion, wha could be he easons o he wo di e en cu es?
I he wo esea che s would mee and discuss, wha kind o a gumen s you would
expec hem o use?
Which help can be expec ed om a compu e o help hem decide?
Would he compu e be able o make a decision be ween he wo?
The Su p ise Ques ion
A class is ca ying ou a p ac ical ask in he labo a o y. They a e es ing samples
o lea es om plan s which ha e been kep o a ew days in a da k cupboa d, and
522 M.-G. S ´
ER´
EETAL.
o he s which ha e been in he ligh . The es s a e o he p esence o s a ch in he
lea es. The eache knows ha he e should be s a ch in he lea es om plan s kep
in he ligh , bu none in he lea es o plan s kep in he da k. As his is a s anda d esul
in all he ex books, he s uden s will be expec ed o know i in hei examina ions.
Bu he s uden s do no ye know wha he esul s should be.
Some g oups o s uden s in he class ge he esul s he eache expec s. Howe e ,
some g oups o s uden s do no ge a posi i e s a ch es o any o hei lea es. And
some g oups ge a posi i e s a ch es o some o he lea es om plan s kep in he
ligh (bu no o all o hem) and also o some o he lea es om plan s kep in he
da k (bu no o all o hem).
Wha should he eache do in his si ua ion?
Explain why you hink his is he bes hing o do:
The Se ies Ques ion
When he esul is di e en om one measu emen o ano he , how o conclude?
Two g oups o nu i ionis s ha e been asked o measu e he mass o 1decili e o
oli e oil. Each g oup ecei es one decili e and makes i e measu emen s. These a e
hei esul s, a e ha ing classi ied hem in inc easing o de :
G oup Measu emen s (g) Mean (g)
A94.9 96.6 97.1 98.1 98.9 97.12
B91.9 96.5 97.5 97.5 102.2 97.12
Wi h which o he ollowing s a emen s do you mos closely ag ee?
AG oup A’s esul s a e be e , because he ange be ween he
la ges and he smalles measu emen is less.
BG oup B’s esul s a e be e , because he measu emen s co e a
wide ange o alues.
CBo h se s o measu emen s gi e he same esul
DF om his in o ma ion i is no possible o conclude abou he
quali y o measu emen s.
Please explain you easoning:
Ano he wo g oups o nu i ionis s ha e been asked o measu e he mass o 1decil-
i e o nu oil. Each ecei es one decili e and makes i e measu emen s. These a e
hei esul s:
IMAGES OF SCIENCE LINKED TO LABWORK 523
G oup Measu emen s (g) Mean (g)
A92.4 93.3 93.4 94.0 94.4 93.5
B91.9 93.3 94.9 95.0 96.9 94.4
Wi h which o he ollowing s a emen s do you mos closely ag ee?
AG oup A’s esul s a e be e , because he ange be ween he
la ges and he smalles measu emen is less.
BG oup B’s esul s a e be e , because he measu emen s co e a
wide ange o alues.
CF om he wo se s a alue can be chosen
DF om his in o ma ion, i is no possible o conclude and choose
a alue
Please explain you easoning:
I you chose D, please say wha addi ional in o ma ion you would need in o de
o be able o say which g oup’s esul s a e be e :
A g oup o nu i ionis s wan s o compa e he masses o wo di e en ege able
oils. They make i e measu emen s, o each decili e o one so o oil. These a e
hei esul s:
Measu emen s (g) Mean (g)
Oil X 92.2 92.6 93.2 94.1 94.4 93.3
Oil Y (F ance) 92.6 93.2 93.3 94.0 94.4 93.5
Oil Y (Spain) 93.6 94.1 94.3 95.0 95.4 94.5
F om hese esul s, he g oup concludes ha “speci ic mass is g ea e o oli e oil
han o nu oil.” Do you ag ee wi h his conclusion?
Ag ee Disag ee No Su e
Please explain you easons o ag eeing o disag eeing: