Poli ical Science in Con empo a y Spain: An O e iew
Josep M. VALLÈS
Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona
Wo king Pape n.1
Ba celona 1989
I. INTRODUCTION1.
1. The i s a emp a libe al poli ical o ganiza ion in Spain ook place in he
pe iod 1810-1814: con empo a y Spanish poli ics can be said o da e om ha
ime. Since hen, he his o y o Spanish poli ics has been one o up u e and
discon inui y.
The e y ins abili y o he model o poli ical o ganiza ion mean a pe manen
and deep disag eemen abou how his model had o gain i s legi imacy. Bo h he
lack o con inui y in Spain’s poli ical ins i u ions and he on-going con o e sy abou
how o jus i y con lic ing p ojec s had s ong epe cussions on he concep ual
de ini ion o poli ics, on he o icial posi ion o poli ical s udies and, inally, on he
de elopmen o Poli ical Science i sel .
The e o e, we will b ie ly ace he e olu ion o poli ical s udies, iden i ying hei
sociopoli ical con ex , he main subjec s examined and app oaches used, and he
leading au ho s o e e y s age.
Fou majo pe iods o Spanish his o y will be analysed. E en hough he
di iding o his o y in o pe iods is always open o discussion, i is e en mo e
a guable when a emp s a e made o combine e en s and scien i ic and cul u al
mo emen s in speci ic ca ego ies. Al hough his app oach ce ainly aises some
impo an p oblems, i is none heless use ul in a p elimina y app oach o ou subjec
he e.
We ha e delibe a ely limi ed ou scope o a desc ip ion o he si ua ion in
Spain, wi h no a emp o make a heo e ical o compa a i e s udy o he
de elopmen o Poli ical Science in Spain as a discipline. The cu en s a e o
Poli ical Science in Spain and he a ailable bibliog aphy a e such ha i is di icul o
ad ance much beyond his desc ip i e s age, al hough ine i ably he e will be some
explana o y hypo heses o e e ences o a mo e gene al model o he discipline.
A inal ema k: in many occasions, I ha e delibe a ely used he e m «poli ical
s udies» and a oided he e e ence o Poli ical Science. I eel ha he b oade e m
is mo e sui able when a emp ing o ace he his o ical e olu ion o he ield in he
Spanish con ex . I ha e pinpoin ed he momen when one can legi ima ely e e o
Poli ical Science as such, ega dless o —o in spi e o — he o icial denomina ions
gi en o hese s udies a he ime.
2. The ollowing pe iods will be b ie ly examined:
— I) 1810-1898: Poli ical s udies and he s uggle o legi imize he Libe al S a e.
— II) 1898-1939: Poli ical s udies and he c isis o Libe al democ acy.
— III) 1940-1975: Poli ical s udies unde a conse a i e dic a o ship.-F om «poli ical
doc ine» o Poli ical Science.
— IV) 1975-...: Poli ical s udies and he new Democ a ic egime.
Each pe iod is ela i ely long and could easily be di ided in o subpe iods, o
which I will e e when necessa y. I eel, howe e , ha he subjec will be mo e eadily
unde s andable a his poin , i we ake con empo a y his o y as di ided in o longe
and mo e gene al pe iods.
II. 1810-1898: Poli ical s udies and he s uggle o legi imize he Libe al
S a e.
Du ing he 19 h cen u y he Spanish Libe al S a e emains a e y agile
o ganiza ion2. I was s uggling agains he dieha ds o he «Ancien Régime», bu i
was simul aneously unde p essu e om adical democ a s anxious o u n libe alism
in o democ acy. This esul ed in h ee ci il wa s in less han a cen u y.
Poli ical s udies o he ime mi o he Libe al S a e’s p oblems in gaining i s
legi imacy. This ac can explain he ambiguous posi ion o hese s udies, ca ied ou
by Facul ies —G adua e Schools— o Law, bu no e y ju is ic in na u e and
app oach.
Poli ics we e s udied as pa o Legal Philosophy and o Poli ical Law. When
hey we e a subjec in Legal Philosophy, emphasis was pu on poli ical and social
heo y, wi h a s ong e hical accen . When hey we e examined in cou ses o Poli ical
Law, he emphasis was on he his o y o poli ical ins i u ions.
I is impo an o ecall ha un il qui e ecen ly «Poli ical Law» (De echo
Polí ico) has been in Spain he o icial name o wha in mos Wes e n coun ies was
known as Cons i u ional Law3, he eason being he al eady men ioned weak
posi ion o he Spanish Libe al S a e a he 19 h cen u y, and can be in e p e ed as
he esul o a comp omise be ween he pa isans o Absolu ism —who e used o
accep Cons i u ional Law as a ypical Libe al ou come— and he mode a e —o
middle-o - he way— e sion o his e y Libe alism, which inally p e ailed o e mo e
adical posi ions4.
Du ing hese yea s Poli ical Law was gi en a a he «enciclopedic» s a us in
o de o exp ess h ee app oaches —philosophical, his o ical and legal— combined
in any o he au ho s and schools (PORTERO: 1980). Th ee ela i ely di e en
endencies can, howe e , be aced.
The i s one was inspi ed by Ge man —speaking legal his o icism. Wo ks by
SAVIGNY, BLUNTSCHLI and STAHL we e ansla ed and used in Uni e si y
cou ses. I s poli ical o ien a ion was clea ly conse a i e and occasionally down igh
an ilibe al. E. GIL Y ROBLES (d. 1908)5, a ca holic p o esso o Poli ical Law was i s
leading ep esen a i e.
The second school o endency was he so-called «K ausism», which
de eloped an o ganicis social heo y oo ed in Kan ian philosophy6. Some o he
K ausis o ien ed schola s showed a pa ly socioeconomic slan in hei analysis o
poli ical p oblems. C i ical o he exis ing si ua ions, he K ausis poli ical s ance was
basically democ a ic. Among i s ep esen a i es o sympa hize s we can men ion G.
DE AZCÁRATE (1840-1917)7 and J. COSTA (1846-1911)8.
Finally, a hi d o ien a ion —highly eclec ic— paid mo e a en ion o he legal
aspec s o o ganized poli ics, bu wi hou a clea s ance o he Public Law heo y o
posi i is ic o ien a ion, whose heo e ical bases we e being buil up in Eu ope. I s
poli ical o ien a ion i ed wi hin he amewo k o he mode a e libe alism p e alen
a ha ime. M. COLMEIRO (1817-1898)9, as an ea ly and in luen ial p o esso o
Poli ical Law, and, la e , V. SANTAMARÍA DE PAREDES (1853-1924)10, can be
conside ed as he be e known ep esen a i es o his endency.
Thus, poli ical s udies a he Uni e si y le el11 we e ne e comple ely
app opia ed by Cons i u ional o posi i is ic Public Law as hey we e in o he
coun ies, whe e Law was seen as he main g ound upon which he Libe al S a e
es ablished i s legi imacy. Bu nei he did «social posi i ism» lou ish, as a iable
al e na i e. K ausism —whe e social aspec s o poli ics we e emphasized— could
ha e been close o some kind o social posi i ism, i i had no been by de ini ion
openly dependen on an humanis ic mo al philosophy.
Some his o ians conside ha a he end o he 19 h cen u y Spain had only an
«un inished» Libe al S a e in bo h poli ical and economic e ms, unable o shape he
academic and in ellec ual s uc u e ha could legi imize he e y exis ence o i s
poli ical o ganiza ion.
This si ua ion became inc easingly mo e complica ed when —a he u n o he
cen u y— he mos powe ul Eu opean coun ies began e-examining hei libe al
cons i u ionalism in he ligh o he adical changes aking place in hei economies,
poli ics and cul u e.
III. 1898-1939: Poli ical s udies and he c isis o libe al democ acy
1. The his o ical backg ound
Du ing he inal decade o he 19 h cen u y, he beginning o a new pe iod in
Spanish his o y was ma ked by a numbe o mo emen s and e en s. The Spanish-
Ame ican Wa o 1898, —which b ough abou he loss o he las Spanish colonies
(Cuba, Pue o Rico and he Philippines) and mo ed o wa d a deep social and
cul u al c isis— is aken as a con en ional miles one in Spanish con empo a y
his o y.
In his new pe iod, las ing om he beginning o he cen u y un il he 1936-39
Ci il Wa he Spanish poli ical sys em was in a pe manen s a e o c isis, wo sened
by Eu opean doub s abou democ a ic libe alism a e Wo ld Wa I. Poli ical s udies
we e in luenced by his gene al a mosphe e.
2. The de elopmen and o ien a ion o poli ical s udies.
The h ee endencies men ioned abo e —conse a i e his o icism, K ausis
social o ganicism and eclec ic legal posi i ism— we e s ill in e idence in he 1898-
1939 pe iod. Bu hey became less clea ly de ined when exposed o in luences o
in ellec ual ends in o he Eu opean coun ies, which we e hen acing he c isis o
indi idualis ic libe alism.
Fu he mo e, some changes we e in oduced in he academic by-laws
go e ning he cou se o s udies, and a new discipline —Adminis a i e Law—
appea ed as a dis inc discipline sepa a ed om Poli ical Law, a decision ha would
a ec he de elopmen and o ien a ion o poli ical s udies a he ime.
The leading ep esen a i e o his new si ua ion —when di e ences be ween
endencies o schools became less clea — is A. POSADA (1860-1944).12
P o esso o Poli ical Law, p oli ic au ho and he guiding ligh o a numbe o
jou nals and publica ions, Posada wa a and away he mos ac i e and in luen ial
academic o he ime in he social and poli ical s udies a ea. Though Posada had his
oo s in K ausism, his app oach o poli ical s udies —unde he adi ional label o
Poli ical Law— was in luenced by con empo a y cons i u ionalis s, sociologis s and
e en by some o he ea ly au ho s o US Poli ical Science.13

POSADA a i med ha i was impossible o analyze Cons i u ional Law wi hou
applying a Theo y o he S a e which had a de ini e sociological slan . «Theo y o he
S a e», he w o e, «can be conside ed o be a Poli ical Sociology» (1915: I, 55). As a
consequence, Poli ical Law was o POSADA a combina ion o Theo y o he S a e
and Cons i u ional Law, backed by Poli ical Sociology.
La e day obse e s disag ee abou he alue o POSADA’s app oach wi h i s
b oad ocus and i s somewha eclec ic e usal o gi e a mo e p ecise de ini ion o
wha in o he coun ies we e al eady becoming au onomous disciplines. Some eel
ha alue because i sac i ices none o he ace s which a e p esen when poli ics
a e mani es ed in socie y (OLLERO 1955). Howe e , o he s eel ha his b oad
app oach is a he oo s o he scien i ic weakness o an academic denomina ion —
”Poli ical Law”— which hey eel is a jux aposi ion o disciplines which has made i
impossible o de elop Cons i u ional Law and Poli ical Science as clea ly de ined
independen disciplines (RUBIO LLORENTE 1973).
POSADA’s a emp s o ede ine he con en s o Poli ical Law came jus as
Spain began ecei ing he impac o he ends e lec ed in he legal-poli ical s udies
o a Eu ope whe e he ins i u ions and he legi imacy basis o he Libe al S a e we e
in c isis.
Fu he mo e, his also was a ime o cul u al e men in Spain when, a e
cen u ies o isola ion, he coun y was wide open o he in luence o scien i ic and
cul u al ends om ab oad.14
And so G. JELLINEK’s e ision o legal posi i ism15, M. HAURIOU’s neo-
Thomis ic inspi ed ins i u ionism16, H. KELSEN’s no ma i ism17 and also H.
LASKI’s18 social —and socialdemoc a ic— app oach o poli ics made hei way in o
Spanish uni e si y ci cles.
Ne e heless, none o hese ends had a p edominan o decisi e in luence.
They se ed in some way o inc ease he scien i ic pe plexi y o Spanish schola s,
ully awa e ha he Libe al sys em —which had ne e been solidly implan ed in hei
coun y— was now in a s a e o gene al c isis. This was d ama ically unde sco ed by
he mili a y up ising in 1936 agains he Republic and he subsequen Ci il Wa in
1936-1939, which led o a leng hy conse a i e dic a o ship.
3. Conclusion.
Du ing he 1898-1939 pe iod, he e we e no majo al e a ions in he ins i u ional
posi ion o poli ical s udies, which con inued o be a ached o he Facul ies —
G adua e Schools— o Law. Emphasis on he «non-ju idical» app oach inc eased o
a ce ain poin . And his ac unde sco ed a pa adoxical s a e o a ai s: he
ins i u ional ela ionship wi h he Facul ies o Law coexis ed wi h an inc easing
eluc ance o he so-called «Poli ical Law» o accep a s ic ly legal app oach o he
issues i en ailed.
The c isis o he Libe al S a e and he openly decla ed loss o con idence in he
abili y o law o se le social con lic s in he in e wa pe iod in Eu ope p obably
exe ed a decisi e in luence, when Spanish schola s o Poli ical Law gene ally
e used o assimila e hei discipline o a s ic ly ju is ic one.
Bu his eluc ance did no p oduce any clea -cu al e na i e, as no o he global
p oposal was s ong enough —pe haps o ins i u ional easons, pe haps o lack o
his o ical oppo uni y o o an ou s anding pe sonali y— o eloca e poli ical s udies
in a di e en ins i u ional s age o o iew hem unde a new app oach.
IV. 1940-1975: Poli ical s udies unde a conse a i e dic a o ship: om
«Poli ical Doc ine» o Poli ical Science.
1. The his o ical backg ound.
The mili a y ic o y o he conse a i e alliance led by Gene al F anco had long
and impo an e ec s on he Spanish poli ical and social o ganiza ion. A new
poli ical cycle which las ed nea ly o y yea s began in 1939.
Howe e , i we ollow he coun y’s social and economic e olu ion, we pe cei e
ha his poli ical cycle con ains he succession o wo g ea pe iods. A he beginning
o he six ies, Spanish socie y unde wen deep mu a ions: gene al indus ializa ion,
u ban expansion, cul u al secula iza ion and mass educa ion. We could say ha
he e lies a g ea e dis ance be ween he Spain o 1950 and he Spain o 1970 han
be ween he Spain o 1850 and he Spain o 1950.
I is no easy o summa ize and ead in o he e olu ion o his pe iod, as we s ill
lack some his o ical pe spec i e. Bu i can be admi ed ha such changes had a
clea impac on scien i ic and cul u al ields, including social and poli ical s udies.
2. The o ien a ion and de elopmen o poli ical s udies.
In which way did Ci il Wa and a dic a o ial sys em o go e nmen a ec
poli ical s udies? We mus di e en ia e he wo g ea pe iods which we ha e jus
e e ed o.
A) In he i s s age o he pe iod —which con inues ill he end o he 50’s—, he
di ec impac o he new poli ical si ua ion on poli ical s udies is e y ob ious.
—a) F om an ins i u ional pe spec i e, one mus i s poin ou he igid con ol
exe cised by he F ancois egime o e scien i ic and academic ins i u ions,
especially hose which a ec ed he mechanisms o social and poli ical legi ima ion.
—Fi s o all and as a di ec ou come o his con ol, many o he au ho s and
p o esso s ac i e in he p e ious pe iod disappea ed physically o
p o essionally, ei he obliged o lea e he coun y in exile o condemned o
in ellec ual exile in hei own coun y, as hey su e ed imp isonmen , expulsion
om he Uni e si y o we e elega ed o seconda y pos s.
—Second, we obse e an a emp o sys ema ize and di use an o icial
«poli ical doc ine», in he s yle o he Nazi o Fascis ideology. Wi h ha aim in
mind, «nacionalsindicalismo» o «doc ina del Mo imien o Nacional» was
in oduced as an academic subjec in he syllabuses o Uni e si y Facul ies
and o he educa ion cen es.
—This a emp did no al oge he succeed, because o he a ied ideological
suppo —conse a i e ca holicism, he «Falange» local e sion o Fascism,
adi ional mona chism, e c.— o Gene al F anco’s dic a o ship and also
because o he p agma ism o he dic a o himsel , who was no eage o
adhe e o any heo e ical cons uc ion which ended o be oo complex.
—Bu his a he elemen a y ideological p ojec was impo an in ano he
aspec : he c ea ion o new ins i u ions p ima ily de o ed o he elabo a ion and
di usion o he o icial «doc ine», namely he Ins i u o de Es udios Polí icos
(1941) y la Facul ad de Ciencias Polí icas y Económicas in he Uni e si y o
Mad id (1943).
—Ou side he Uni e si y sys em, he Ins i u o de Es udios Polí icos was
ega ded as an o ganism de o ed o each and esea ch on poli ical s udies.
The Ins i u o was di ec ly a ached o he only au ho ized pa y —Falange
Española— and i s mino associa ed g oups. The unc ion o he Ins i u o was
o b ing abou doc inal suppo o he new egime as a con ibu ion o i s
in ellec ual legi ima ion. As I will poin ou u he on, he Ins i u o had an
impo an ole in he la e e olu ion o poli ical s udies in Spain.
—The Facul ad de Ciencias Polí icas y Económicas in Mad id was he i s
Uni e si y cen e which had, as a di ec objec i e, he o ma ion o g adua es
in Poli ics and Economics, who would ac as a u u e eli e o «S a e
se an s», ei he h ough Public Adminis a ion o h ough he poli ical
appa a us o he egime.
F om his momen on, s udies on poli ical subjec s de eloped simul aneously
in he Law Facul ies and in his new Facul y o Mad id, which o almos 40 yea s
s ood as he only Uni e si y cen e de o ed o poli ical disciplines.19
E en so, he naming o he Chai s and cou ses ela ed o poli ical s udies s ill
lacked explici e e ence o Poli ical Science. In he Facul ies o Law, he adi ional
De echo Polí ico —o Poli ical Law— wen on being used, In he new Facul y o
Poli ical Sciences, di e en labels we e successi ely employed. When special
Facul ies o Economics we e c ea ed in he la e 50’s, Teo ía del Es ado —S a e
Theo y— was o be he o icial name o a cou se on poli ics. Only as la e as in 1973
—a e a s udies e o m— a cou se i led «In oduc ion o Poli ical Science»
appea ed in he Mad id Facul y o Poli ical Sciences.
—b) Focussing on con en s, poli ical s udies a e he Ci il Wa we e cen e ed
a ound he c isis o he Libe al-Democ a ic S a e, mo eo e o he S a e as poli ical
o ganisa ion, bo h a a na ional le el —F ancoism spoke as well abou he need o
a Nue o Es ado— and a an in e na ional one. Bu his con i ma ion o up u e did
no lead o new pa hs. I led o he eadop ion o wo al eady well-known app oaches:
— a c i ical a i ude in on o legal posi i ism, ollowing he wo k o wo
Ge man schola s, who — o di e en easons— had been known in Spain in
he immedia e yea s p io o he Ci il Wa : C. SCHMITT’s decisionism20 and
H. HELLER’s sociological app oach21. In spi e o hei di e en poli ical
s ances, bo h au ho s helped o s ess he iew o poli ical s udies as a
«Theo y o he S a e» —o , be e — o i s c isis.
— he ein o cemen o he axiological emphasis on conse a i e ca holicism,
inspi ed in he mo al and poli ical philosophy o Thomas Aquinas and he
Spanish au ho s o he 17 h cen u y —VITORIA, SOTO, BÁÑEZ, SUÁREZ,
MOLINA—, whose in luence was emphasized by he highly na ionalis ic h us
o he F ancois egime.
by an expansi e Cons i u ional Law. Thus, he e is a isk ha he ins i u ional
locus o Poli ical Science migh be limi ed o he speci ic Facul ies o Poli ical
Sciences and Sociology. Gi en he mino i y si ua ion o hese Facul ies wi h
ega d o he la ge numbe o Facul ies o Law, wha can be gained in scien i ic
cohe ence may mean a loss in ins i u ional and pe sonal esou ces.
— b) Wi h ega d o he eaching p o ession, we should also e e o some ecen
de elopmen s:
— In 1978, an associa ion was c ea ed ga he ing all Poli ical Law, Poli ical
Science and Theo y o S a e p o esso s and associa e p o esso s o he
Spanish Uni e si ies. The name o he associa ion —a membe o IPSA— is
Asociación Española de Ciencia Polí ica y De echo Cons i ucional, as an
exp ession o a s ill undecided bo de line inside he p o ession. The
associa ion’s goal is scien i ic discussion, limi ed o an annual con e ence and
some special wo kshops. The e a e no p o essional o mal aims, as Uni e si y
eache s a e S a e ci il se an s, wi h a gene al and igid ec ui ing sys em and
s a us.
— Ne e heless, one o he p o isions o he al eady men ioned Uni e si y
Re o m Ac (1983) es ablishes he o ganiza ion o Uni e si y eache s by
scien i ic a eas, whose names ha e been imposed by he Educa ion
au ho i ies. In ou ield, old labels such as De echo Polí ico o Teo ía del
Es ado ha e been eplaced by wo new «scien i ic a eas»: De echo
Cons i ucional and Ciencia Polí ica y de la Adminis ación.
Educa ion au ho i ies ha e aken he esponsibili y o sol ing —wi h an
adminis a i e decision— he old scien i ic deba e abou he na u e o
«Poli ical Law». P o esso s assigned o his adi ional discipline ha e
he e o e been o ced o choose be ween he wo new a eas. The esul o his
choice has been ha hose choosing he op ion o De echo Cons i ucional
ou numbe hose who op ed o Ciencia Polí ica y de la Adminis ación in a
p opo ion o abou 4 o 1.42
Bu , as a ma e o ac , a la ge po ion o he acul y membe s who op ed o
«Cons i u ional Law» had mainly wo ked in he ields o poli ical heo y,
compa a i e go e nmen o poli ical beha iou . Thei pe sonal decision came
abou , in many cases, as a ac ical answe o needs ela ed o he ec ui ing
p ocesses o new eache s. Thus, he esul o he dynamics opened up by his
e en is s ill o be seen.

— Ano he impo an ac has been he g ea e connec ion o Spanish poli ical
scien is s wi h he in e na ional academic communi y, by means o hei
scien i ic coope a ion in join esea ch p ojec s wi h o eign schola s in e es ed
in Spanish poli ics o by means o hei mo e ac i e pa icipa ion in
in e na ional bodies such as IPSA o ECPR. This can help he Spanish
p o ession o ein o ce i s sel -iden i y.
— c) Re e ing o publishing ac i i y, he appea ance o some new jou nals de o ed
o poli ical s udies mus be men ioned, as well as he appea ance o new book
collec ions, which ga he o iginal wo ks by Spanish au ho s and ansla ions o bo h
classical and ecen o eign wo ks.43
B) Conce ning con en s, some ac s and ends ela ed o poli ical s udies mus be
poin ed ou .
— a) The i s one is he g ea impulse gi en o he legal app oach o poli ics, due o
he impo ance which he in e p e a ion and implemen a ion o he new Cons i u ion
o 1978 ha e ecei ed.
A e nea ly hal a cen u y wi hou a o mal objec o analysis, he legi ima ion o
poli ical p ocesses g ounded on legal no ms acqui es an ou s anding impo ance.
As a side esul , labou ma ke has conside ably inc eased i s o e o specialis s in
Cons i u ional Law. This is a pa ial explana ion o he p e iously quo ed
cons i u ionalis ic «con e sion» o some poli ical scien is s o he p e ious yea s.44
In he con ex o he his o ic de elopmen o poli ical s udies, i could be said
ha he e is now a be e de ini ion o wo di e en o ms o poli ical analysis. In his
sense, I would a i m ha he eappea ance o Cons i u ional Law as a s ong
scien i ic discipline a ou s a be e delimi a ion o he Poli ical Science ield,
elie ing i o he complica ed exe cises on sel -de ini ion o which I e e ed be o e.
— b) The second impo an ac is he in ellec ual and poli ical cu iosi y s i ed —in
Spain and ab oad— by he wo king o he new democ a ic ins i u ions and he issue
o con inui y and change in he coun y’s poli ical cul u e and i s agen s and
exp essions: poli ical pa ies, unions and in e es g oups, elec ions, local
go e nmen , poli ical a i udes, e c. And, as an impo an elemen o he Spanish
poli ical science, he phenomenon o na ionalism, —i s o igins, o ms and
pe o mance— also gains special ele ance.
F om a «scien i ic di ision o labou » poin o iew, hese subjec s a e being
wo ked on, no only by poli ical scien is s coming om he old Poli ical Law Chai s
and Depa men s, bu also by a sec o o sociologis s which now ega d poli ical
ac s as an objec o analysis wi hou he isks o limi a ions su e ed in he p e ious
pe iod.
In his way, sha ing —o igh ing o — he new poli ical eali y as a scien i ic
subjec can e i e in Spain he old deba e abou he espec i e iden i ies o Poli ical
Science and Poli ical Sociology.
— c) The s ongly «e hnocen e ed» ocus o oday’s Spanish Poli ical Science
s ands ou a a i s glance. The a en ion gi en o he coun y’s poli ical e olu ion in
ecen yea s has elega ed o he ields and subjec s o a mino posi ion.
As a esul , esea ch has been mainly ocused on opics such as he p ocess o
poli ical ansi ion, elec o al sys em and elec o al beha iou , poli ical pa ies, poli ical
a i udes and opinions and na ionalism, among o he s.45
— d) The heo e ical amewo k on which hese analyses a e based is o en
uns able. The c i ical heo y end —inspi ed on a neoma xis app oach— which
de eloped spec acula ly in he yea s immedia ely be o e he democ a ic ansi ion,
has los i s momen um, le apa he wo k o some ma ginal sec o s o indi iduals.
In he analysis o he ansi ion p ocess, s udies on poli ical cul u e and public
opinion lean upon a schema ic unc ionalism, wi h g ea e o lesse accumula ion o
his o ical explana ions.
Conce ning da a selec ion and esea ch echniques, he de elopmen o
quan i a i e echniques applied o he analysis o elec o al o opinion da a is
imp essi e46. Con ibu ing o his apid de elopmen , we can ind he as
assimila ion ha he new democ a ic egime has made o poli ical mass-
communica ion, based mo e on poli ical ad e ising and audio isual media han on
poli ical pa ies o social o ganisa ions.
E en so, his abundance o opinion s udies and polls no always gi e way o
in e es ing in e p e a ions, because o he equen absence o weakness o a
p e ious heo e ical amewo k o a sound enough la e exploi a ion. This is due o
he ac ha such esea ch o en esponds mo e o well- imed easons o he poli ical
ma ke —p e o pos elec o al polls demanded by pa ies o media— han o
esea ch p og ammes. Thus, a « ulga posi i ism» p e ails, and also he isk o
iden i ying poli ical science wi h he unhappy —and some imes jou nalis ic—
ea men o a speci ic ield such as he analysis o opinion and beha iou .
— e) The abo e men ioned «e hnocen ism» o o-day’s Spanish Poli ical Science
and he limi ed esou ces —human and ins i u ional— o he p o ession ha e an
immedia e and nega i e e ec : Spanish Poli ical Science has neglec ed o he
impo an sub ields, such as o mal heo y, local and mesogo e nmen s,
compa a i e poli ics o policy s udies.
3. Conclusion.
The e olu ion o Spanish Poli ical Science since 1975 hinde s an easy
cha ac e iza ion: he p o isional balance has, he e o e, an inde ini e sign.
Speaking in global e ms, we can poin ou as posi i e aspec s:
— i s , he imp o ed poli ical condi ions conce ning he en i onmen o i s
de elopmen , once a poli ical sys em based on public eedom and poli ical
plu alism seems o be consolida ed;
— and, secondly, some ins i u ional ac s such as he c ea ion o new Uni e si y
Facul ies and Depa men s, he eo ganisa ion o a be e de ined Poli ical Science
«p o ession» o he s onge ela ionship o Spanish poli ical scien is s wi h hei
o eign colleagues and he in e na ional scien i ic communi y.
Bu Poli ical Science in Spain also aces some nega i e ac o s:
— i s , a less a ou able gene al a i ude —coming om public opinion and decision
cen es— owa ds social sciences, hus la gely di e ing om he si ua ion in he 50’s
and 60’s, when Poli ical Science was ins i u ionalized in o he Wes e n Eu opean
coun ies;
— second, he absence o widely accep ed pa adigms which, in o he imes, had a
«secu izing» e ec on he discipline and i s ollowe s; and,
— inally, wi h ega d o Poli ical Science i sel , a weak legi ima ion in a a he
limi ed labou ma ke , whe e i has o compe e wi h s onge co po a ions such as
lawye s, sociologis s and e en jou nalis s.
VI. A «Besieged Poli ical Science»? A p o isional ema k based on a
compa a i e app oach
The posi ion o Poli ical Science in con empo a y Spain mus be seen in
con as o he posi ion kep by he discipline in o he Wes e n socie ies, whe e
Poli ical Science e ol ed acco ding o a ela i ely common pa e n. This pa e n may
be summa ized as ollows.
1. The eme gence o Poli ical Science as an au onomous discipline can be
explained as an e ec o wo p ocesses, which esul s ha e di e en ly combined
unde speci ic social and poli ical condi ions.
A) The i s p ocess has o do wi h he cons i u ion o poli ics as a subjec o
in ellec ual discou se. When he «social cons uc ion o poli ics» g adually ook place
in he wo k o his o ians, mo al philosophe s o lawye s. Poli ical ac i i y began o be
in ellec ually dis inguished om socioeconomic ac ion, and he wo ld o powe
s a ed o be shown as dis inc om he wo ld o p oduc ion.
Since hen, a «science o poli ics» was mo e o less clea ly-a i med, a science
ha did no necessa ily p e end o be he immedia e knowledge demanded by he
equi emen s o p ac ical ac ion. So, his in ellec ual ac i i y, which had «poli ics» as
i s subjec , in ended o app oach i , ei he wi h a p esc ip i e aim o wi h a
desc ip i e one.
The «science o poli ics» —mainly de eloped in Wes e n Eu ope— had no
speci ic ins i u ional se ing: adi ional and well es ablished disciplines such as
his o y, law o mo al and legal philosophy ga e o i , o many yea s, a mo e o less
pe manen shel e . I s impo ance was based —mo e han on ins i u ional g ounds—
upon he in ellec ual in luence o some indi iduals wo k, which was pa o a mo e
gene al social knowledge. When one o hose in luen ial au ho s did become a
«classical e e ence», hen he «science o poli ics» acqui ed a s onge
legi ima ion.
B) The second p ocess o sequence o e en s s a s wi h a p agma ic poli ical
pu pose, when some indi iduals o g oups ela ed o academic ci cles y o
in luence he poli ical condi ions o a gi en socie y. Thei poli ical p ojec is based on
he belie ha he «science o poli ics» — ha scien i ic discou se abou poli ics— is
an essen ial ool o he implemen a ion o hei p ac ical p ojec . As a pa o i , he
o ganisa ion o speci ic poli ical s udies is seen as an ins umen o he
ad ancemen and di usion o poli ical knowledge and, consequen ly, o he success
o hei poli ical p ojec .
Academic ins i u ionalisa ion o poli ical s udies ac ually ook place in I aly,
F ance and he USA —in he las qua e o he XIX cen u y— and G ea B i ain —a
he beginning o he XX h cen u y—, when some g oups and indi iduals saw hei
poli ical socie ies as lacking a scien i ic basis o poli ical and adminis a i e ac ion.
In his sense, CESARE ALFIERI, EMILE BOUTMY, JOHN BURGESS o he
WEBBS appea o be he p omo e s o poli ical science ins i u ionalisa ion in hei
espec i e coun ies, as a poli ical answe o a gi en social and poli ical si ua ion.
Would his be an e ec i e answe o hese speci ic si ua ions o no , he ac is
ha Poli ical Science —o Poli ical Sciences— g adually became an es ablished
academic e e ence and he iden i ica ion label o a p o essional g oup.
The mos success ul p ocess o his kind ook place in he Uni ed S a es, om
whe e i was pa ially expo ed —a e Wo ld Wa II— o some Wes e n Eu opean
coun ies. IPSA and he pa icipa ion o young Eu opean schola s in g adua e
p og ams o US Depa men s o Poli ical Science— did wo k as he main ehicles
o his in luence, which combined wi h local adi ions and ga e way o ela i ely
di e en si ua ions in each coun y.
2. Looking now a he Spanish expe ience, i is no di icul o see how bo h
p ocesses ha e his o ically gi en e y sca ce esul s.
Wi h ega d o he i s p ocess, Spain has occupied — om he 17 h cen u y
on— a e y pe iphe al posi ion in he social and cul u al de elopmen o Wes e n
Eu ope. The social and economic condi ions ha in o he coun ies p oduced he
cons uc ion o poli ics as an objec o scien i ic discou se we e ha dly p esen in
Spain, whe e a s ong heological and legal adi ion did hinde a speci ic
conside a ion o he economic and poli ical new phenomena.
Spain was hen educed o he ole o a la e ecipien o o he socie ies
in ellec ual p oduc ion. No Spanish name can be ound among he classical
«poli ical hinke s» appea ing in adi ional lis s, whe e no only «cen al» coun ies
—such as F ance, Ge many o G ea B i ain—, bu also o he s like I aly, ha e some
ou s anding ep esen a i es.
Re e ing o he second p ocess —ins i u ionalisa ion o poli ical s udies based
on he impulsi e o a poli ical pu pose—, he uns able poli ical his o y o
con empo a y Spain shows no o he o mal and las ing a emp s47 ha he Facul ad
de Ciencias Polí icas a he Uni e si y o Mad id and he Ins i u o de Es udios
Polí icos, which we e c ea ed by gene al F anco’s au ho i a ian egime. Because o
i s o igin and his o ical iming, bo h ins i u ions we e — o a long pe iod— unable o
gi e a clea and ull suppo o he kind o analysis ca ied ou by «s anda d» Poli ical
Science in o he coun ies.

Thus, he las ing monopolis ic posi ion exe ed by hose wo academic
o ganisa ions made mo e di icul he de elopmen o he discipline, blu ed i s
iden i y among social sciences and limi ed he social impac o he p o ession.
The e o e, i can be a i med ha in bo h espec s Spain has been a la ecome
o he «science o poli ics». And when Poli ical Science has go a chance o de elop
unde condi ions o ee poli ical ac i i y and less adi ional academic o ganisa ion,
some o he ac o s ha did impulse Poli ical Science in o he coun ies seem o
ha e los pa o i s h us .
I is ce ainly ue ha in he las i een yea s, Poli ical Science has g adually
gained a be e posi ion in Spain. S ill, he discipline and he p o ession show some
impo an weaknesses ha we men ioned ea lie .
We could he eby —exagge a ing somewha and making a pa ody o a well
known a icle48— e e o a «besieged Poli ical Science»: Spanish Poli ical Science
o he 80’s has pain ully succeeded in conque ing a e i o y o i s own, bu a numbe
o ci cums ances —his o ical, ins i u ional and scien i ic— s ill appea o be educing
i s chances o an easy and immedia e expansion.
NOTES
(1) Re ised e sion o he pape p epa ed o deli e y a he Con e ence on he Compa a i e S udy o
he De elopmen o Poli ical Science (IPSA-Fondazione Fel inelli), Co ona, I aly, Sep embe 21-
26, 1987. I ha e o hank pa icipan s in he lec u es and colleagues o my Depa men , a he
Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona, o hei c i ical commen s.
(2) In 1810, he adi ional "Co es" -o Ancien Regime Pa liamen . we e called oge he a e
cen u ies o poli ical "hibe na ion". A la ge pa o he coun y was unde he con ol o Bonapa e's
A my. He ob ained an abdica ion om he Spanish King -Fe nando VII-, who enounced his igh s in
a ou o Napoleon. Bu he Spanish "Co es" conside ed his abdica ion oid and wi hou legal
e ec s, decla ed wa agains Bonapa e and assumed all poli ical powe s as a ep esen a ion o he
ee will o he coun y. The "Co es" also decided o w i e and app o e a libe al Cons i u ion o 1812
- ha was in o ce o a sho pe iod- is none heless conside ed o be he s a ing poin o Spain's
Libe al S a e.
(3) MONTESQUIEU (De l'espe i des Lois, Li e I, chap. III, 1748), BURLAMAQUI (P incipes de D oi
Poli ique, 1751) and ROUSSEAU (Le Con a Social. P incipes de D oi Poli ique, 1762), had used
he exp ession, bu no always wi h he same meaning. They seemed o sha e he "enligh ened"
posi ion ha poli ics can be sumi ed o law, agains Ancien Régime poli ical ideas.
(4) This label -al eady used by J. DONOSO CORTES (Lecciones de De echo Polí ico, Mad id 1836-
37) was s ill unce ain in he middle ou ies, as we can see in he i le o he ex books o wo
in luen ial p o esso s o he ime: A. ALCALA GALIANO (Mad id, 1845), Vein e lecciones de
De echo Polí ico Cons i ucional, o J.F. PACHECO (MADRID, 1845), Lecciones de De echo
Polí ico Cons i ucional.
(5) T a ado de De echo Polí ico según los P incipios de la Filoso ía y el De echo c is iano.
(Salamanca, 1899-1902, 3 ed.).
(6) K.H. KRAUSE (1781-1832) and his disciple H. AHRENS (1808-1874) we e ansla ed and
in oduced by J. SANZ DEL RIO (1814-1869), Philosophy P o esso a he Uni e si y o Mad id. His
in e p e a ion o KRAUSE's Kan ism s essed an e hical app oach, p oducing a loose in ellec ual
sys em ha inspi ed an ac i e g oup o schola s and scien is o poli ically adical and socially
e o mis o ien a ion. La "Ins i ución Lib e de Enseñanza" - ounded in 1876 by F. GINER DE LOS
RIOS (1839 - 1915)- Wo ked as hei ins i u ional basis and had a s ong in luence -academic and
poli ical- un il he Ci il Wa o 1936-39.
(7) Among AZCARATE's wo ks, see El sel go e nmen y la Mona quía doc ina ia (Mad id, 1877); El
pode del Je e del Es ado en F ancia, Ingla e a y los Es ados Unidos (Mad id, 1878); El égimen
pa lamen a io en la p ác ica (Mad id, 1885); Relaciones de la polí ica con los p oblemas
económicos (Mad id, 1890); T a ado de Polí ica (Mad id, 1897). Abou AZCARATE's posi ion, see
GIL CREMADES, V- (1967) and TORREGROSA, J.R. (1964): El pensamien o polí ico de don
GUMERSINDO DE AZCARATE. in Re is a de Es udios Polí icos, nn. 135-136 pp. 121-134.
(8) Among JOAQUIN COSTA's wo ks, see Colec i ismo ag a io en España (Mad id, 1898); C isis
polí ica de España (Mad id, 1901); Oliga quía y Caciquismo como la ac ual o ma de go ie no de
España (Mad id 1901-1902).
(9) Elemen os de De echo Polí ico y Adminis a i o (Mad id, 1857); De echo Polí ico según la
His o ia de León y Cas illa (Mad id, 1873).
(10) Cu so de De echo polí ico según la Filoso ía Polí ica Mode na, la His ó ia Gene al de España y
la legislación igen e. (Valencia, 1880-81), This long i le is a clea exp ession o his au ho 's highly
eclec ic app oach, whe e Poli ical Philosophy, His o y and Posi i e Law a e join ly conside ed.
(11) Ou side he Uni e si y, poli ical analysis was also ca ied ou by membe s o scien i ic and
deba ing socie ies -Academias and A eneos- o in he p ess. In he wo k published by some
poli ical w i es o he day, we o en ind an app oach o poli ical phenomena ha akes accoun o
social an economic elemen s. We should men ion, among o he s, Jaime BALMES, (1810-1848),
And és BORREGO (1802-1891), F ancisco PI Y MARAGALL (1824-1901) o Valen í ALMIRALL
(1841-1904).
(12) As his mos ep esen a i e wo k, see T a ado de De echo Polí ico (Mad id, 1915, 2 ed.). See
also: P incipios de Sociología (Mad id, 1908); E olución legisla i a del égimen local de España
(Mad id, 1910); España en c isis. La polí ica (Mad id 1923); El égimen cons i ucional (Mad id
1930); La idea pu a del Es ado (Mad id 1933); La c isis del Es ado y el De echo polí ico (Mad id
1934).
(13) Among he au ho s ci ed by Posada in some o his ecommended bibliog aphies a e SPENCER,
MARX, DURKHEIM, GUMPLOWICZ, GIDDINS, BURGESS, WILSON, BRYCE OR DICEY.
(14) J.ORTEGA Y GASSET (1883-1955), p o esso o Me aphysics a he Uni e si y o Mad id, is a
well-known and ep esen a i e in ellec ual igu e o his ime. His app oach o social and poli ical
subjec s was in luenced by con empo a y au ho s such as PARETO, SIMMEL o SPENGLER. His
La ebelión de las masas (1930) was la gely ansla ed end di used in he in e na ional academic
communi y.
(15) Teo ía Gene al del Es ado (Mad id, 1914). This ansla ion o he Allgemeine S aa slehe e is due
o F. DE LOS RIOS, a p o esso o Poli ical Law, b ed in he K ausis adi ion and e ol ed owa ds
a nonma xis socialism. He was an ac i e membe o he Socialis Pa y (PSOE) and one o he
w i e s o he Republican Cons i u ion o 1931.
(16) P incipios de De echo Público y Cons i ucional (Mad id, 1927), ansla ed by C. RUIZ DEL
CASTILLO, a conse a i e p o esso o Poli ical Law.
(17) Compendio de Teo ía Gene al del Es ado (Ba celona, 1934); Teo ií Gene al del Es ado (Mad id,
1934). KELSEN's wo k was in oduced was, howe e , a c i ical in oduc o who opposed a
sociological and e hical app oach o he kelsenian pu e heo y o law and i s poli ical
consequences.
(18) El Es ado Mode no. Sus ins i uciones polí icas y económicas (Ba celona, 1932). This is he
Spanish ansla ion o he o iginal LASKI's A G amma o Poli ics. The ansla o is T. GONZALEZ,
p o esso o Poli ical Law.
(19) Only in 1985 a second Facul ad de Ciencias Polí icas was opened a he Uni e sidad Au ónoma
de Ba celona.
(20) La de ensa de la Cons i ución (Mad id, 1931); Teo ía de la Cons i ución (Mad id, 1934); Esc i os
polí icos (T ansla ed by J. CONDE, Mad id 1941).
(21) Teo ía del Es ado (México, 1941) is he ansla ion o his S aa slehe e o 1934.
(22) In oducción al De echo Polí ico ac ual (Mad id 1942); Rep esen ación Polí ica y Régimen
español (Mad id 1945). Ja ie CONDE became Di ec o o he Ins i u o de Es udios Polí icos (1948-
1956). Du ing he i ies, CONDE and GOMEZ ARBOLEYA in oduced a he Ins i u o some
elemen s o an empi ical app oach o social and poli ical s udies ha would pa ially de elop in la e
i ies and ea ly six ies.
(23) Régimen polí ico del Es ado español (Ba celona, 1942).
(24) GOMEZ ARBOLEYA, a p o esso o Legal Philosophy, is he au ho o a His o ia de la es uc u a
y del pensamien o social (Mad id, 1959). See also his Es udios de Teo ía de la Sociedad y del
Es ado (Mad id, 1962). a collec ion o essays published be ween 1940 an 1956, dealing-among
o he subjec s- wi h Helle 's S aa sleh e, he Spanish Poli ical Philosophe s o he XVII h cen u y
and posi i is ic sociology in Eu ope.
(25) Lecciones de De echo Polí ico. Teo ía de la Polí ica y del Es ado (G anada, 1943); P incipios de
Teo ía Polí ica (Mad id 1970).
(26) In oducción al De echo Polí ico (Ba celona, 1948); El De echo Cons i ucional de la pos gue a
(Ba celona, 1949); Es udios de la Ciencia Polí ica (Mad id, 1955).
(27) T. FERNANDEZ MIRANDA, El P oblema polí ico de nues o iempo (Mad id, 1950); N. RAMIRO
RICO, El animal ladino y o os es udios polí icos (Mad id, 1980) is a collec ion o essays w i en
be ween 1949 an 1974.
(28) I should be men ioned he g oup o schola s, led by p o . E. TIERNO GALVAN who, as ea ly as
in 1954, edi ed he Bole ín in o ma i o del Semina io de De echo Polí ico de la Uni e sidad de
Salamanca (1954-1964), opened o a a ied ange o opics and app oaches o poli ical s udies.
(29) In his espec , i mus be men ioned he ole o new academic pe iodicals, which enla ged he
mo e adi ional con en s o he old Re is a de Es udios Polí icos; published by he Ins i u o de
Es udios Polí icos since 1941. See Bole ín In o ma i o de Ciencia Polí ica (Mad id, 1969-1973),
di ec ed by p o esso C. OLLERO, and Re is a Española de la Opinión Pública (Mad id, 1964),
enamed as Re is a Española de In es igaciones Sociológicas (Mad id, 1978).
(30) Some o eign in luences mus be men ioned he e. Fi s , he 1954 F ench e o m o Law s udies,
wi h he inclusion o Ins i u ions Poli iques e D oi cons i uionnel and Sociologie Poli ique, as co e
o elec i e cou ses. The wo ks by F ench p o esso s o discipline - like G. BURDEAU, M.
DUVERGER o A. HAURIOU- we e ansla ed in hose yea s. On he o he hand, he app oach o
ins i u ional analysis made by some Ge man-Ame ican au ho s such as C.J. FRIEDRICH o K.
LOWENSTEIN did also ha e an in luence on his app oach.
(31) GARCIA PELAYO, who le Spain in he ea ly i ies o poli ical easons, has been p o esso o
Poli ical Science in La in Ame ica (Mexico, Pue o Rico, Venezuela). Bu his wo k on poli ical
heo y and compa a i e poli ics -mainly based on he s udy o poli ical ins i u ions and hei
cons i u ional ame, has been highly in luen ial among Spanish schola s: see, o ins ance,
De echo Cons i ucional Compa ado Mad id 1984 (1s . ed. 1950); Mi os y símbolos polí icos, Mad id
1964; Bu oc acia y Tecnoc acia, Mad id 1974; Las ans o maciones de Es ado Con empo áneo
Mad id 1977.